2006 Science Publications Towards a Temporal Multilevel Secure Database (TMSDB)

science杂志发表2006年世界十大科技进展1、BREAKTHROUGH OF THE YEAR: The Poincaré Conjencture--ProvedThe solution of a century-old mathematics problem turns out to be a bittersweet prize.To mathematicians, Grigori Perelman's proof of the Poincaré conjecture qualifies at least as the Breakthrough of the Decade. But it has taken them a good part of that decade to convince themselves that it was for real. In 2006, nearly 4 years after the Russian mathematician released the first of three papers outlining the proof, researchers finally reached a consensus that Perelman had solved one of the subject's most venerable problems. But the solution touched off a storm of controversy and drama that threatened to overshadow the brilliant work.2、DIGGING OUT FOSSIL DNAThis year, on the 150th anniversary of the discovery of the Neandertal type specimen, researchers in Europe and the United States transformed the study of this ancient human by sequencing more than 1 million bases of Neandertal DNA. In November, two groups, one decoding 65,000 Neandertal bases and the other a million bases, showed that researchers can now find sequence changes between modern and ancient humans, differences that may reveal key steps in our evolution. The studies concluded that Neandertals diverged from our own ancestors at least 450,000 years ago--approximately the time suggested by fossil and mitochondrial DNA studies. One group's data also suggest that Neandertals and modern humans may have interbred. In the works are a very rough draft of the complete Neandertal genome sequence and, as more fossils become available to sequencers, the development of bacterial libraries containing DNA from several Neandertals.3、SHRINKING ICEGlaciologists nailed down an unsettling observation this year: The world's two great ice sheets--covering Greenland and Antarctica--are indeed losing ice to the oceans, and losing it at an accelerating pace. Researchers don't understand why the massive ice sheets are proving so sensitive to an as-yet-modest warming of air and ocean water. The future of the ice sheets is still rife with uncertainty, but if the unexpectedly rapid shrinkage continues, low-lying coasts around the world--including New Orleans, South Florida, and much of Bangladesh--could face inundation within a couple of centuries rather than millennia.4、NEITHER FISH NOR FOWLPaleontologists made a major splash this year with the debut of a fossil fish that long ago took a deep breath and made some tentative but ultimately far-reaching steps onto land. With its sturdy, jointed fins, the 375-million-year-old specimen fills an evolutionary gap and provides a glimpse of the features that helped later creatures conquer the continents.5、THE ULTIMATE CAMOUFLAGEScience veered toward science fiction this year as physicists cobbled together the first rudimentary invisibility cloak. Although far from perfect--the ring-shaped cloak is invisible only when viewed in microwaves of a certain wavelength traveling parallel to the plane of the ring--the device could usher in a potentially revolutionary approach to manipulating electromagnetic waves.The disappearing act began in May, when two independent analyses predicted that it should be possible to ferry electromagnetic waves around an object to hide it. All that was needed was a properly designed shell of "metamaterial," an assemblage of tiny metallic rods and c-shaped rings. The waves churn the electrons in the rods and rings, and the sloshing affects the propagation of the waves. Both analyses specified how to sculpt the properties of the metamaterial and left it to experimenters to design the materials to meet those specs.6、A RAY OF HOPE FOR MACULAR DEGENERATION PATIENTSThe year brought good news to the many people suffering from the vision-robbing disease known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD).In October, The New England Journal of Medicine published the results of two clinical trials showing that treatment with the drug ranibizumab improves the vision of roughly one-third of patients with the more serious wet form of AMD and stabilizes the condition of most of the others. Other approved treatments can only slow the progression of AMD.7、DOWN THE BIODIVERSITY ROADIt doesn't take much to send an organism down speciation's path. Several studies these past 12 months have uncovered genetic changes that nudge a group of individuals toward becoming a separate species by giving them an edge in a new environment. The year's results speak to the power of genomics in helping evolutionary biologists understand one of biology's most fundamental questions: how biodiversity comes about.For Florida beach mice, a single base difference in the melanocortin-1 receptor gene accounts for up to 36% of the lighter coat color that distinguishes the beach mice, evolutionary biologists reported in July. For cactus finches, the activity of the calmodulin gene is upregulated, causing their relatively long beaks, researchers reported in August.Genes help drive speciation in other ways as well. Since the late 1930s, researchers have realized that as two incipient species diverge, the sequences of two or more interacting genes can evolve along different paths until the proteins they encode no longer work together in any crossbred offspring. Working with Drosophila melanogaster and a sister species, D. simulans, evolutionary geneticists have pinpointed the first such pair of incompatible genes, demonstrating in transgenic flies the genes'killing effects in hybrids of the two species. In October, a separate team found another fast-evolving gene and is homing in on its partner. They both seem to be nuclear pore proteins that are no longer compatible in fruit-fly hybrids.In September, fruit-fly researchers found that hybrids had problems because a particular gene was in a different place in the two species, likely because of duplication and loss of the original copy in one of them.8、PEERING BEYOND THE LIGHT BARRIERBiologists got a clearer view of the fine structure of cells and proteins this year, as microscopy techniques that sidestep a fundamental limit of optics moved beyond proof-of-principle demonstrations to biological applications. The advances could open a new realm of microscopy.An ordinary microscope cannot resolve features smaller than half the wavelength of the light used to illuminate an object--about 200 nanometers for visible light. For years, physicists and engineers have devised schemes to get around the "diffraction limit," and this year, researchers used those techniques to do some real biology.9、THE PERSISTENCE OF MEMORYHow the brain records new memories is a central question in neuroscience. One attractive possibility involves a process called longterm potentiation (LTP) that strengthens connections between neurons. Many neuroscientists suspect that LTP is a memory mechanism, but proving it hasn't been easy. Several findings reported this year strongly bolstered the case.10、MINUTE MANIPULATIONSSmall RNA molecules that shut down gene expression have been hot, hot, hot in recent years, and 2006 was no exception. Researchers reported the discovery of what appears to be a new and still-mysterious addition to this exclusive club: Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs). Abundant in the testes of several animals, including humans, piRNAs are distinctly different from their small RNA cousins, and scientists are racing to learn more about them and see where else in the body they might congregate.PiRNAs made their grand entrance last summer, when four independent groups released a burst of papers describing them. In a sense, their sudden prominence is not surprising. The Piwi genes to which piRNAs bind belong to a gene family called Argonaute, other members of which help control small RNAs known as microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Scientists already believed that the Piwi genes regulate the development and maintenance of sperm cells in many species. With the discovery of piRNAs, they may be close to figuring out how that happens.Particularly intriguing to biologists is the appearance of piRNAs: Many measure about 30 RNA bases in length, compared with about 22 nucleotides for miRNAs and siRNAs. Although that may not sound like much of a difference, it has gripped biologists and convinced them that piRNAs are another class of small RNAs altogether. Also striking is the molecules' abundance and variety. One group of scientists found nearly 62,000 piRNAs in rat testes; nearly 50,000 of thoseappeared just once.个人认为个有好处，自来水可能会硬度高而且还可能含有其他重金属离子但也可能含有微生物生长所需的一些矿物质，蒸馏水硬度不高而且杂质少，但相应的矿物质也坑定没有了，而且在发酵行业蒸馏水使得发酵成本上升不少，无论是试验还是生产，生产成本是首要考虑因数，个人观点。

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2006年考研英语参考答案及详细解答(4) Part B本部分内容请参见Part B（二）答案解析及参考译文Part C篇章导读本文的中心内容为如何改进公众对科学研究的认识。

文章首先提出了虽然不同领域间的相互受益在科学界被广为认同，但公众却不清楚这一事实，之后阐述了改进公众对科学认识的时机已经成熟并讲述了如何提高公众对科学研究的认识，最后作者以农业为例，说明了其它学科领域的研究对生物医学进步所起的作用。

思路解析46.本句的句子主干结构为“……the scientific community could build a more effective case for public support of all science……”，其中“Because……is strong”为because引导的原因状语从句，“by articulating……”为方式状语，在该方式状语中how引导“articulate”的宾语从句。

47.本句的句子主干结构为“……we can work to enhance public appreciation of scientific research……”，其中“by showing……”为方式状语，在该方式状语中how引导“show”的宾语从句。

48.本句为简单句。

句子的主干结构为“……it may appear to have made few significant contributions to biomedicaladvances……”，在该句中“related to human nutrition”为形容词短语作后置定语，修饰前面的“those.”49.本句的主句为“it was……that”的强调句型，其中“at the turn of the century”为时间状语，该时间状语包含一个when引导的非限制性定语从句，修饰前面的“the turn of the century”，该定语从句为连词and连接的并列结构。

sumernetem 指南 P411翻译中嬗变的词汇（1）sumernetem 指南 P411翻译中嬗变的词汇（2）基础导学阶段长难句44训练(01)(10-R-1) We are even farther removed from the unfocused newspaperreviews published in England between the turn of the 20th century and the eve of World War II, at a time when newsprint was dirt-cheap and stylish arts criticism was considered an ornament to thepublications in which it appeared. (49 words)(02) (10-R-1) “So few authors have brains enough or literary gift enough to keep their own end up in journalism,” Newman wrote, “that I am tempted to define ‘journalism’ as ‘a term of c ontempt applied by writers who are not read to writers who are’.” (43 words)(03) (10-R-3) For a social epidemic to occur, however, each person so affected, must then influence his or her own acquaintances, who must in turn influence theirs, and so on; and just how many others pay attentionto each of these people has little to do with the initial influential.(48 words)(04) (09-R-3) Progress in both areas is undoubtedly necessary for the social, political, and intellectual development of these and all other societies; however, the conventional view that education should be one of the very highest priorities for promoting rapid economic development in poor countries is wrong. (46 words)(05) (09-R-4) Sexual confusion, economic frustrations, and religious hope — all came together in a decisive moment when he opened the Bible, told his father that the first line he saw would总第37页settle his fate, and read the magical words: “Come out from among them, touch no unclean thing, and I will be your God and you shall be my people.”(58 words)(06) (0-TR) Religious associations began, for example, in the desire to secure the favor of overruling powers and to ward off evil influences; family life in the desire to gratify appetites and secure family perpetuity; systematic labor, for the most part, because of enslavement to others, etc. (45 words)(07) (09-TR) Even today, in our industrial life, apart from certain values of industriousness and thrift, the intellectual and emotional reaction of the for ms of human association under which the world’s work is carried on receives little attention as compared with physical output. (41 words)(08) (08-R-2) Other models exist that are hybrids of these three, such as delayed open-access, where journals allow only subscribers to read a paper for the first six months, before making it freely available to everyone who wishes to see it. (40 words)(09) (07-R-1) If you were to examine the birth certificates of every soccer player in 2006’s World Cup tournamen t, you would most likely find a noteworthy quirk: elite soccer players are more likely to have been born in the earlier months of the year than in the later months. (47 words)(10) (07-R-3) From the middle-class family perspective, much of this, understandably, looks far less like an opportunity to exercise more financial responsibility, and a good deal more like a frightening acceleration of the wholesale shift of financial risk onto their already overburdened shoulders. (41 words)(11) (07-R-4) Just as bosses and boards have finally sorted out their worst accounting and compliance troubles, and improved their feeble corporation governance, a new problem threatens to earn them —especially in America — the sort of nasty headlines that inevitably lead to heads rolling in the executive suite: data insecurity. (48 words) 总第38页(12) (07-R-4) Left, until now, to odd, low-level IT staff to put right, and seen as a concern only of data-rich industries such as banking, telecoms and air travel, information protection is now high on the boss’s agenda in businesses of every variety. (41 words)(13) (07-R-4) Surely it should be obvious to the dimmest executive that trust, that most valuable of economic assets, is easily destroyed and hugely expensive to restore— and that few things are more likely to destroy trust than a company letting sensitive personal data get into the wrong hands. (47 words)(14) (07-R-4) Meanwhile, the theft of information about some 40 million credit-card accounts in America, disclosed on June 17th, overshadowed a hugely important decision a day e arlier by America’s Federal Trade Commission (FTC) that puts corporate America on notice that regulators will act if firms fail to provide adequate data security. (49 words)(15) (06-R-1) Rodriguez notes that children in remote villages around the world are fans of superstars like Arnold Schwarzenegger and Garth Brooks, yet “some Americans fear that immigrants living within the United States remain somehow immune to the nation’s assimilative power.” (40 words)(16) (05-R-2) Do you remember all those years when scientists argued that smoking would kill us but the doubters insisted that we didn’t know for sure? That the evidence was inconclusive, the science uncertain? That the antismoking lobby was out to destroy our way of life and the government should stay out of the way? (53 words)(17) (05-R-2) A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the disguised shadows of our unconscious desires and fears; by the late 1970s, neurologists had switched to thinking of thema s just “mental noise” — the random byproducts of the neural-repair work that goes on during sleep. (47 words)总第39页(18) (03-R-2) Finally, because the ultimate stakeholders are patients, the health research community should actively recruit to its cause not only well-known personalities such as Stephen Cooper, who has made courageous statements about the value of animal research, but all who receive medical treatment. (42 words)(19) (03-R-3) If railroads charged all customers the same average rate, they argue, shippers who have the option of switching to trucks or other forms of transportation would do so, leaving remaining customers to shoulder the cost of keeping up the line. (40 words)(20) (03-TR) Therefore, it is important to study humans in all their richness and diversity in a calm and systematic manner, with the hope that the knowledge resulting from such studies can lead humans to a more harmonious way of living with themselves and with all other life forms on this planet Earth. (51 words)(21) (02-R-2) But the human mind can glimpse a rapidly changing scene and immediately disregard the 98 percent that is irrelevant, instantaneously focusing on the monkey at the side of a winding forest road or the single suspicious face in a big crowd. (42 words)(22) (02-R-4) Although it ruled that there is no constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide, the Court in effect supported the medical principle of “double effect,” a centuries-old moral principle holding that an action having two effects — a good one that is intended and a harmful one that is foreseen —is permissible if the actor intends only the good effect. (57 words)(23) (02-R-4) Nancy Dubler, director of Montefiore Medical Center, contends that the principle will shield d octors who “until now have very, very strongly insisted that they could not give patients sufficient medication to control their pain if that might hasten death.” (40 words)(24) (02-R-4) The profession is taking steps to require young doctors to train in hospices, to test knowledge of aggressive pain management therapies, to develop a Medicare billing code for总第40页hospital-based care, and to develop new standards for assessing and treating pain at the end of life. (45 words)(25) (02-TR) As the interaction between organism and environment has come to be understood, however, effects once assigned to states of mind, feelings, and traits are beginning to be traced to accessible conditions, and a technology of behavior may therefore become available. (40 words)(26) (01-R-1) Thus, in the nineteenth century, local geological studies represented worthwhile research in their own right but, in the twentieth century, local studies have increasingly become acceptable toprofessionals only if they incorporate, and reflect on, the wider geological picture. (40 words)(27) (01-R-4) I believe that the most important forces behind the massive M & A wave are the same that underlie the globalization process: falling transportation and communication cost, lower trade and investment barriers and enlarged markets that require enlarged operations capable of meeting custom ers’ demands. (44 words)(28) (01-R-5) I have discovered, as perhaps Kelsey will after her much-publicized resignation from the editorship of She after a build-up of stress, that abandoning the doctrine of “juggling your life” , and making the alterna tive move into “downshifting” brings with it far greater rewards than financial success and social status. (49 words)(29) (01-R-5) While in America the trend started as a reaction to the economic decline — after the mass redundancies caused by downsizing in the late ’80s —and is still linked to the politics of thrift, in Britain, at least among the middle-class downshifts of my acquaintance, we have different reasons for seeking to simplify our lives. (52 words)(30) (01-R-5) For the women of my generation who were urged to keep juggling through the ’80s, downshifting in the mid-’90s is not so much a search for the mythical good life — growing总第41页your own organic vegetables, and risking turning into one — as a personal recognition of your limitations. (47 words)(31) (00-R-3) When a new movement in art attains a certain fashion, it is advisable to find out what its advocates are aiming at, for, however farfetched and unreasonable their principle may seem today, it is possible that in years to come they may be regarded as normal. (46 words)(32) (00-R-3) But it is a little upsetting to read in the explanatory notes that a certain line describes a fight between a Turkish and a Bulgarian officer on a bridge off which they both fall into the river — and then to find that the line consists of the noise of their falling and the weights of the officers: “Pluff! Pluff! A hundred and eighty-five kilograms.”(64 words)(33) (99-R-4) Declaring that he was opposed to using this unusual animal husbandry technique to clone humans, he ordered that federal funds not be used for such an experiment — although no one had proposed to do so — and asked an independent panel of experts chaired by Princeton President Harold Shapiro to report back to the White House in 90 days with recommendations for a national policy on human cloning. (67 words)(34) (99-R-4) Nor, if regularity and conformity to a standard pattern are as desirable to the scientist as the writing of his papers would appear to reflect, is management to be blamed for discriminating against the “odd balls” among researchers in favor of more conventional thinkers who “work well with the team.” (50 words)(35) (97-R-4) “The test of any democratic society,” he wrote in a Wall Street Jou rnal column, “lies not in how well it can control expression but in whether it gives freedom of thought and expression the widest possible latitude, however disputable or irritating the results may sometimes be. (46 words)总第42页(36) (96-R-3) Such large, impersonal manipulation of capital and industry greatly increased the numbers and importance of shareholders as a class, an element in national life representing irresponsible wealth detached from the land and the duties of the landowners; and almost equally detached from the responsible management of business. (47 words)(37) (96-R-3) Towns like Bournemouth and Eastbourne sprang up to house large “comfortable” classes who had retired on their incomes, and who had no relation to the rest of the community except that of drawing dividends and occasionally attending a shareholders’ meeting to dictate their orders to the management. (47 words)(38) (95-R-3) As families move away from their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships, the informal flow of information is cut off, and with it the confidence that information will be available when needed and will be trustworthy and reliable. (42 words)(39) (94-R-1) Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximizeprofits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, that together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. (44 words)(40) (93-R-2) The oiling is done with higher wages, well-ventilated factories and piped music, and by psychologists and “human-relations” experts; yet all this oiling does not alter the fact that man has become powerless, that he does not wholeheartedly participate in his work and that he is bored with it. (48 words)(41) (93-R-2) I suggest transforming our social system from a bureaucratically managed industrialism in which maximal production and consumption are ends in themselves into a humanist industrialism in which man and full development of his potentialities — those of love and of reason — are the aims of all social arrangements. (47 words)总第43页(42) (93-TR) There is no more difference, but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person, as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher weighing out his goods in common scales, and the operations of a chemist in performing a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graded weights. (73 words)(43) (92-TR) No one is in the least interested in the marks a little child gets on his test; what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than otherchildren of his age at tasks which we think require ‘general intelligence’. (55 words)(44) (92-TR) On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed. (56 words)(01) (10-R-1)【译文】我们甚至感到陌生的是：从20世纪初期到第二次世界大战之前，这一期间的英国报纸评论内容不拘一格。

关于科学的英语作文Title: The Fascination of Science。

Science is not merely a subject in school or a collection of facts; it's a journey of discovery that unveils the mysteries of the universe. From the smallest subatomic particles to the vastness of the cosmos, science encompasses everything around us. In this essay, we will delve into the significance of science, its impact on society, and the endless possibilities it offers for the future.First and foremost, science serves as a beacon of knowledge, illuminating the path towards understanding the world we inhabit. Through observation, experimentation, and analysis, scientists uncover the underlying principles governing natural phenomena. Whether it's unraveling the intricacies of DNA or deciphering the laws of motion, each breakthrough brings us closer to unraveling the secrets of existence.Moreover, science plays a pivotal role in driving progress and innovation across various fields. From technology and medicine to agriculture and environmental conservation, scientific advancements have revolutionized every aspect of human life. Consider the transformative impact of inventions like the internet, antibiotics, and renewable energy sources. These breakthroughs have not only enhanced our quality of life but also reshaped the way we interact with the world around us.Furthermore, science fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills essential for navigating the complexities of the modern era. By encouraging curiosity and inquiry, it empowers individuals to question the status quo, challenge assumptions, and seek evidence-based solutions to global challenges. In a world plagued by pressing issues such as climate change, pandemics, and resource depletion, the scientific method offers a rational framework for addressing these concerns.Additionally, science serves as a universal languagethat transcends cultural and geographical boundaries. It provides a common ground for collaboration and exchange among scientists from diverse backgrounds, fostering international cooperation and mutual understanding. Through initiatives like joint research projects, scientific conferences, and open-access publications, the global scientific community works together to tackle shared problems and advance collective knowledge.Despite its undeniable contributions, science alsoraises ethical and philosophical questions that demand careful consideration. The pursuit of scientific knowledge must be guided by moral principles and a sense of responsibility towards both present and future generations. Issues such as bioethics, genetic engineering, andartificial intelligence raise complex dilemmas regardingthe boundaries of human intervention and the implicationsof scientific progress on society.Looking ahead, the future of science holds immense promise and potential for further exploration and discovery. Breakthroughs in fields like quantum computing, spaceexploration, and biotechnology offer glimpses into a world where the boundaries of what is possible are continually being pushed. However, this journey of discovery must be accompanied by a commitment to ethical conduct, environmental sustainability, and social justice to ensure that the benefits of science are equitably distributed and responsibly managed.In conclusion, science is not just a subject of study; it's a transformative force that shapes our understanding of the world and drives progress and innovation. By fostering curiosity, critical thinking, and collaboration, it empowers us to confront the challenges of today and unlock the possibilities of tomorrow. As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the universe, let us tread carefully, guided by a sense of wonder, humility, and reverence for the wonders of the natural world.。

2006年世界科技发展回顾（四）2006年世界科技发展回顾（四）生命科学：美国：毛黎（本报驻美国记者）2006年，美国在生命科学领域———特别是防控人类传染病方面取得了诸多重大进展：设计出防控流感大暴发的最佳战略；培育出抗登革热病毒的转基因蚊子；发现了艾滋病病毒来源，并开发出日服1片的新药。

另外，科研人员还通过对鸡的试验发现了受损肢体再生的机理。

美国科学家利用超级计算机模拟，设计出针对人类流感大流行的最佳防控战略。

这些防控措施包括：针对可能在人际间传播的现有禽流感病毒，预先生产和储备大量疫苗；提高疫苗生产和分发的效率，以便可在人际间传播的新型流感病毒出现时，有关部门能够快速反应；必要时限制人口流动和交通，关闭学校等公共场所。

加州大学研究人员培育出一种抗登革热病毒的转基因蚊子。

这种转基因蚊子具有繁殖能力和相当稳定的生物模式，存活后，其后代同样具有抗登革热病毒的能力。

这有助于战胜登革热病。

美科学家哈恩博士领导的国际研究小组宣布，他们终于发现艾滋病病毒（HIV）来源于生活在非洲西部国家喀麦隆偏僻角落的野生黑猩猩。

研究人员表示，艾滋病病毒攻击人体免疫细胞T细胞时，人体另一种免疫细胞B细胞通过合成“DC－SIGN”蛋白质，其在病毒攻击T 细胞的过程中扮演了“帮凶”角色。

他们由此确定了HIV病毒的来源及其在人体中的行为，并开发出日服1片的新药。

索尔克研究所的科研人员试验让鸡在胚胎中丧失的翅膀重新长出。

为此，他们切除了鸡胚胎中的部分鸡翅，同时激活了Wnt信号系统。

该研究表明，脊椎动物的再生能力受Wnt信号系统控制，激活它可使没有或受损再生肢体能力“复生”。

美国生物学家揭示了“融合蛋白”的结构及其作用机理。

该蛋白质能帮助病毒在人体内传播，是多种病毒用来袭击人体健康细胞的“敲门砖”。

“融合蛋白”形同蘑菇，具有一个防水顶端。

当遇到人体细胞时，顶端破裂露出的鱼叉结构物将扎进人体细胞膜内。

另外，美国一研究小组还发现地下2800米深处的细菌自行存活的秘密，这些细菌能利用放射性铀元素将水变成需要的能量。

双链RNA引发了基因沉默———评2006年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖金由辛研究员,中国科学院上海生命科学研究院生物化学与细胞生物学研究所分子生物学国家重点实验室主任,上海200031关键词　双链RNA　基因沉默　RNA干扰 2006年诺贝尔生理或医学奖授予美国斯坦福大学医学院的安德鲁・菲尔(Andrew Fire)和麻省理工大学医学院的克雷格・梅洛(Craig Mello),以表彰他们发现了双链RNA引发的基因沉默。

他们的发现为基因治疗提供了新技术———si RNA,为后基因组时代基因功能研究提供了新手段,这一发现也导致天然小分子调控RNA和RNA调控系统的发现,引发人们对生命本质的重新思考。

2006年10月2日,诺贝尔医学奖评选委员会宣布,本年度的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖授予美国斯坦福大学医学院的安德鲁・菲尔(Andrew Fire)和麻省理工大学医学院的克雷格・梅洛(Craig Mello),以表彰他们发现了双链RNA引发的基因沉默。

此前,很多人都相信RNA干扰(RNAi,亦即由双链RNA引发的基因沉默)一定会获得诺贝尔奖。

但悬念有两个:一是何时获得诺贝尔奖,二是谁能获得诺贝尔奖。

关于第一个悬念,在20世纪50年代以前,一个重大发现,几年后(不足10年)即可获得诺贝尔奖。

如Ochoa S于1955年发现多核糖核酸磷酸化酶可以核苷二磷酸(ND P)为底物合成多核苷酸(即长链RNA)。

4年后,即1959,他与Kon2 berg(发现DNA聚合酶催化DNA的生物合成)共同获得诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

诺贝尔奖授予Ochoa,是因为相信他发现了RNA生物合成的途径。

但很快就发现,多核糖核酸磷酸化酶实际是催化RNA降解的酶,产物为ND P。

Ochoa发现的是该酶在特定条件下的逆反应。

同样Konberg发现的DNA聚合酶,是参与DNA 的修复,而不是真正参与DNA复制的酶。

因此,以后诺贝尔奖的授予与科学发现时间的间隔变得较长,通常在10年以上,这样使一个科学新发现能够接受较长时间的检验。

ReviewPreparation and applications of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phases for liquid chromatographyMingliang Zhang a ,b ,Xiaojing Liang a ,Shengxiang Jiang a ,Hongdeng Qiu a ,⇑aKey Laboratory of Chemistry of Northwestern Plant Resources,Key Laboratory for Natural Medicine of Gansu Province,Lanzhou Institute of Chemical Physics,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Lanzhou 730000,China bUniversity of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing 100049,Chinaa r t i c l e i n f o Keywords:HPLCLiquid chromatography Ionic liquidRoom-temperature ionic liquid RTIL SCILSolid-phase microextraction Stationary phaseSurface-confined ionic liquid Synthesisa b s t r a c tIonic liquids (ILs)are a class of substances completely comprised of ions.Due to their unique properties (e.g.,electric conductivity,low volatility,thermostability and tenability),their use has attracted consid-erable interest,including an increasing number of publications on their use in preparing stationary phases (SPs)of high-performance liquid chromatography.We highlight the existing pathways for making IL-based SPs,and we propose potential strategies for synthesis.We also give up-to-date information on their applications in different chromatographic modes.Ó2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Contents 1.Introduction ..........................................................................................................602.Preparations of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phases.................................................................612.1.Monomeric route.................................................................................................612.2.Polymeric route..................................................................................................652.3.Practicable new routes ............................................................................................663.Applications of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phases.................................................................694.Other applications .....................................................................................................705.Conclusions...........................................................................................................70Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................71References ...........................................................................................................711.IntroductionIonic liquids (ILs),namely room-temperature ILs (RTILs),can be defined as a class of ionic,non-molecular ually,the cat-ionic component of an IL is organic,such as imidazolium,pyridini-um,alkylammonium and phosphonium,while the anionic part could be inorganic and organic,such as halide,nitrate,acetate,hexafluorophosphate,tetrafluoroborate and trifluoromethanesulfo-nimide,as shown in Fig.1.It is not until the first introduction of a stable imidazole-based RTIL in 1992that research on the prepa-rations,properties and applications of ILs gained momentum in the chemistry community [1].As solvents,ILs are capable of dissolving a wide range of sub-stances,from inorganic minerals to organic polymeric materials.They are seen as green solvents due to their stability,thermocon-ductivity,mobility,non-combustibility and non-volatility.The big family of ILs is still expanding.Amongst ILs,the alkyl-substituted imidazolium has attracted more attention,because of its availabil-ity and convenient tunability [2–4].0165-9936/$-see front matter Ó2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved./10.1016/j.trac.2013.09.011Corresponding author.Tel.:+869314968877;Fax:+869318277088.E-mail address:hdqiu@ (H.Qiu).The physicochemical properties of an IL are simultaneously influenced by both its cation and anion.For example,the density of IL with a given anion would decrease with increasing length of the alkyl chain,whereas the viscosity would increase.Also,water solubility depends on both cation and anion.For example,highly water-soluble1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride would be-come slightly soluble or insoluble on replacing the butyl group with an octyl one or the chloride with hexafluorophosphate.In view of the remarkable differences resulting from combinations of diverse cations and anions,ILs are deemed‘‘tunable’’materials, which could be purposefully designed and modified to satisfy var-ious needs.The essential applied value of ILs is universally acknowledged. Undeniably,there is much room for the development of ILs for specific tasks.With the advance of research,the utilization of ILs has extended from its cradle(i.e.synthesis chemistry)to many fields,such as material chemistry,catalytic chemistry and spectroscopy,as highlighted in the literature[5–8].Applications of ILs in analytical chemistry have been a research hotspot because of their excellent properties and convenient tunability.[9–12] ILs also play an exceptionally important role in high-perfor-mance liquid chromatography(HPLC),where they have been used as additives to the mobile phase(MP)in place of conventional aliphatic amines.This approach is found to be convenient and effective when separating polar analytes on a C18column,as selectivity,retentivity and efficiency towards originally poorly separated analytes tend to be greatly improved[13–16],so the ILs are believed to surpass organic amines due to their capability of performing multiple interactions with the analytes,plus shield-ing the residual silanol groups on the silica surface.However,the addition of ILs to the mobile phase can cause interference during detection.In particular,when using an evaporative light-scattering detector(ELSD)or a mass spectrometry(MS)detector,ILs are inap-plicable as additives due to their non-volatility.Also,the ultravio-let absorption of ILs used in the mobile phase usually causes fluctuations of the baseline.In order to bypass these disadvantages,an approach involving confinement of ILs to the surface of the stationary phase(SP) seemed a practical choice.The imidazolium-bonded silica SP was first prepared in2004[17].Undoubtedly,this generation of surface-confined IL(SCIL)packing material ushered in a brand new methodology for preparation of SPs and enlarged the scope for utilization of HPLC SPs[18–40].It should be borne in mind that, once bound to a solid support,the cation/anion pair no longer con-stitutes a true IL.However,the ability to modify the properties of the silica-based SP by changing easily the structural make-up of the cation/anion pair draws obvious correlations to the tunability of classic ILs[19].Although the morphology of ILs varies upon immobilization,the intrinsic characteristics,which depend on the structure of cation cores,substituents and anions,can be pre-served,guaranteeing the participation of multiple interactions, such as hydrophobic(hydrophilic),dipole-dipole,p-p and electro-static interactions,plus hydrogen bonding,in LC separation.Also, the tunability of ILs leaves much leeway for intentional modifica-tion of the SPs.In this review,we summarize the development of SCIL SPs.We illustrate the existing routes concerning the preparations of SCIL SPs,and propose viable new procedures.We wish to integrate the techniques of synthesis and hopefully offer useful concepts for more task-specific SPs.2.Preparations of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phasesThe diversity and the multi-functionality of heteroatomic ILs have given HPLC desirable chromatographic performance.Irrefut-ably,the foundation of all chromatographic evaluations is the successful preparation of the SP,so it is necessary to adopt an effective scheme for synthesis.A handling procedure using obtain-able reagents operated in non-harsh conditions is advisable. Another factor to be taken into consideration is that such a proce-dure must achieve relatively high bonding,as bonding has a direct, decisive impact on the chromatographic behavior of the SP.The preparation of SCIL SPs usually involves using silane-coupling agents,which bridge the silica substrate and the IL ligands.As displayed in Fig.2,the agents frequently employed are terminally functionalized propyltrimethoxylsilane(PTMS), such as c-chloro-PTMS(CPTMS)and c-mercapto-PTMS(MPS), with CPTMS being preferred in the synthesis of monomerically IL-bonded SPs,and MPS for IL-polymerized SPs.Accordingly,the following description is divided into two parts,viz monomeric and polymeric.The primary structures of reported SCIL SPs are exhibited in Tables1and2.The abbreviation for each SP is used corresponding to the original paper,except for post-fixing the anion.2.1.Monomeric routeAs the term suggests,ligands are bonded to SPs in the form of monomer via the monomeric route.To achieve successful immobi-lization,the silica must be pre-modified so as to carryactive Fig.1.Structural diagrams of selected cations and anions of common ionic liquids(ILs).groups,which are expected to provide further derivations using the desired precursor.In surface modification of silica,silane-coupling agents are often the best choice,due to their commercial availability,high reactivity and abundant organofunctional groups; also,they can noticeably affect the surface properties,such as hydrophilicity,porosity and tenacity[41–43].One category of those coupling agents contains trialkoxyl groups(TAS)and another contains trichloride(TCS).Both alkoxyl and chlorine are highly reactive towards silanol,whereby they eventually form stable silyl ether.However,due to steric hindrance,not all reactive sites can be consumed.Generally,the TAS is more applied than its chlorine counterparts,since the latter are extremely caustic,incompatible with active hydrogen,and release a great deal of hydrogen chloride during reaction.However,there are hardly any organofunctional groups available for TCS’s alkyl arm,besides haloalkyl and alkyl groups.In the monomeric syntheses of SCIL SPs,c-halopropyltrialkox-ylsilane is an effective linkage between silica substrate and IL li-gands.Among this kind of silane,CPTMS is the most popular,but reaction involving CPTMS tends to need a longer time and a higher temperature on account of the lower reactivity of the chlorine atom.Meanwhile,c-bromopropyltrimethoxysilane(BPTMS)with higher reactivity is also suitable,but its much higher cost precludes wider application.c-iodopropyltrimethoxysilane(IPTMS)with the highest reactivity also suffers lower popularity due to the cost and its relatively lower thermo-and photo-stability.Though it rarely appears in syntheses of SPs,IPTMS has found wide application in other areas[44–46].IPTMS can de facto be synthesized from CPTMS using a simple ion-exchange technique in dry acetone with satis-factory yields.There is one coupling agent having a longer alkyl chain–x-bro-mooctyltrichlorosilane(BOTCS)to be exact–but it is commercially unavailable,as shown in Table1.BOTCS was prepared in house via hydrosilylation using trichlorosilane and8-bromo-1-octene as starting materials,but no information detailing the synthesis pro-cedure was available.According to literature[47],this reaction is catalyzed by a transitional metal complex,bearing much similarity to high-pressure hydrogenation.To date,SCIL SPs with decent chromatographic performance have been successfully obtained using BOTCS[23,30–32],even though relevant comprehensive uti-lization is quite limited[48,49].No matter what the coupling agent may be,it must possess a halo atom at the terminal position in order to quaternize the imid-azole and/or pyridine ring.Normally,there are two different path-ways,as shown in Fig.3.In the monomeric heterogeneous process(mHTP),silica isfirst modified by the coupling agent,then imidazole with or without substituents is attached to the haloalkyl chain to form the IL in situ.In the monomeric homogeneous pro-cess(mHMP),the coupling agent isfirst treated with imidazole to build up the IL,which could be seen as a new coupling agent, then it is immobilized on silica.The mHTP is more convenient,as it only requires an anhydrous environment in thefirst step,and no organic intermediate needs to be isolated or characterized. The mHMP is more complicated,because an intermediate is pro-duced,and isolation and purification may be required;moreover, the solubility of the new coupling agent is unknown,so it would be difficult to choose an appropriate solvent in the second step.In spite of the identical SCILs being formed via mHTP and mHMP,mHMP should be preferred if greater bonding is desired, drawing on organosilicon-related experiences[50,51],demonstrat-ing that bonding can be almost doubled via mHMP rather than mHTP,since the reaction between the effective ligand and linkage in mHTP is hampered much more,whereas,in HMT,the effective ligand has already transformed into a part of the new coupling agent,and the reaction between alkoxyl and silanol occurs much more readily than quaternization.As for the solvent issue,immobi-lization can be performed in polar aprotic media,such as acetoni-trile(ACN),N,N-dimethylformamide(DMF)and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).Once a coupling agent is selected,the following work is bonding imidazole or its functionalized derivatives.As shown in Table1,the functionalized derivatives are chiefly alkylimidazoles with various aliphatic or benzyl groups.1-alkylimidazoles with shorter aliphatic chains,including methyl,ethyl and butyl,and benzyl group,are commercially available.Aliphatic chains of odd numbers are rarely seen,except methyl and propyl.Longer chains,such as octyl and decyl,are scarce commercially,so necessitating the synthesis of a 1-alkylimidazole precursor.There is voluminous literature[52–58]dealing with the syntheses of1-alkylimidazole in laboratory settings(Fig.4).The most widely employed approach is the depro-tonation of imidazole with strong bases,such as sodium hydroxide, sodium hydride and sodium alcoholate,to produce sodium imidaz-olate,then to the alcoholic or tetrahydrofuran(THF)solution a proper alkyl halide is added to generate the1-substituted imidaz-ole derivative.Likewise,the new coupling agent generated in mHMP is the result of1-functionalization of imidazole by CPTMS in toluene(ImPTMS)[29,59],where a bulky tertiary amine(trieth-ylamine or N,N-diisopropylethylamine)instead of sodium acts as acid acceptor.Due to the S n2characteristics of this reaction,chlo-ride-based starting materials,though less reactive than their bro-mide-and iodide-based analogues,are more likely to guarantee a complete reaction;furthermore,from economic andecological mon imidazolium-based stationary phases.Table1Summary of structures of monomeric IL-based stationary phasesSilprIm-NTf2 1.24[25]SiO2OOSi NCl-, Br-HOSilprMIm-ClSilprMIm-BrIR,TGA,XPS,XRD2.4,3.1,1.2,2.30.8[17],[26]a,[24],[25][27]SilprEMIm-Cl XPS0.9,1.3[24],[25]BPIM-modifiedsilicaTGA,solid state13C and29SiNMR0.8[27]SiImPS-Cl TGA,XPS 1.5[28]SilprHIm-Cl- 1.8[29]SilprDIm-Cl- 1.6[29]BIM-Br-0.7,1.8,1.0[30],[31],[32]MIM-Br- 1.0[32]BzIM-Br-0.6[32]nBSIM- 1.7[32]IR:infrared spectra;TGA:thermogravimetric analysis;XPS:X-ray photo-electronic spectroscopy;NMR:nuclear magnetic resonance.a Supports are hybrid ZrO2-SiO2material.M.Zhang et al./Trends in Analytical Chemistry53(2014)60–7263viewpoints,the chloride-based materials are usually much less expensive,and they can minimize the mass of the waste by pro-ducing NaCl rather than heavier NaBr and NaI when yielding equi-molar1-functionalized imidazoles.Thus,the use of chloride-based materials is completely practicable and beneficial.Multiple substituted imidazoles,which possess alkyl chains at 2-and4-instead of1-and3-positions,were employed[24,25]. The synthesis technique for imidazole derivatives with such multiple substituents distinctly differs from that for1-substituted ones.The Radziszewski reaction(Fig.5),which was initially theindustrial synthesis strategy to produce imidazole,generates imi-dazoles with one or more substituents by cyclocondensation of ring fragments,typically the combination of glyoxal,ammonia, aldehyde and a primary amine(chiral or achiral)[60–66].Nev-ertheless,the Radziszewski reaction was notably beset by side reactions and poor yields.With the assistance of a phase-transfer catalyst and microwaves,the result can be improved[67,68].As displayed in Fig.5,if all the R groups are hydrogen,thefinal prod-uct is imidazole.Variation of any R group will lead to the formation of a different imidazole derivative.In addition,any of the R groups could be highly functionalized.Another advantage is that,through this multi-component reaction,incorporation of one or more bulky substituents,such as iso-propyl,anthracene,and phenanthrene, into the imidazole ring becomes feasible,unlike the N-alkylation in Fig.4,which is significantly influenced by steric hindrance.SCIL SPs bearing a sulfonate group are often acquired by sulfoalkylating alkylimidazole with1,3-propane sultone or1,4-bu-tane sultone under homogeneous or heterogeneous conditions [28,32,33,69].These sultones are highly reactive;the sulfoalkyla-tion reaction is nearly quantitative under homogeneous conditions.Most of the SCIL SPs are obtained by imidazole derivatives pre-pared through N-alkylation and not highly functionalized,and highly functionalized imidazole derivatives produced through the Radziszewski reaction have found little application,so we expect a wide variety of functionalized imidazoles would instill new vital-ity into preparation of SCIL SPs.2.2.Polymeric routeIn the polymeric route(Fig.6),SCIL SPs are prepared from having allyl or vinyl groups using MPS as the coupling agent.There is a great similarity between the polymeric route and HMP in theFig.3.General processes for the monomeric synthesis of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phases. Fig.4.Preparation of mono-substituted imidazole.Fig.5.Preparation of multiple-substituted imidazole.monomeric route,which is that IL is not formed in situ on the sur-face of silica.Also,the polymeric and monomeric routes are nota-bly dissimilar;as Table2shows,the extent of bonding by the polymeric route is generally much greater than that by the mono-meric route,because theoretically more than one imidazolium cat-ion is immobilized by each MPS,but each CPTMS only consumes one imidazole molecule.Without exception,the ILs employed in the polymeric route are synthesized from starting materials containing alkenyl groups. Most conveniently,the imidazolium-bearing side arm at3-posi-tion can be built by treating1-vinyl or1-allylimidazole with alkyl halide or sultone.When using alkyl halide,usually an alkyl bro-mide,the reaction can be performed in polar aprotic solvent (ACN,THF)under mild conditions.In the case of sultone,the reac-tion can be run neat[33,34,70,71].If the alkyl chain is sufficiently long,such as1-bromohexadecane,the isolation of the product would be simple;sometimes,it would precipitate from solvent. For the short alkyl chain,the product could be viscous oil;purifica-tion can be achieved by distillation or precipitation in a non-polar aprotic solvent,such as pared to1-allylimidazole,the vinyl analogue has a higher reactivity towards polymerization,so 1-vinylimidazole should be given priority in design of synthesis. Another way to prepare the imidazolium-containing alkenyl group is to treat1-alkylimidazole with a certain reactant having halide and unsaturated group respectively at each end of it,as shown by our previous work[37],in which the alkenyl group was intro-duced by the esterification of acryloyl chloride with11-bromoun-decanol.More polymerizable ILs can be obtained by this treatment, because of its applicability to a similar reactant,as long as it has a hydroxyl group at the a-position and a halide at the x-position, such as10-bromodecanol,12-bromododecanol and16-bromo-hexadecanol.The IL obtained from alkenylimidazole or alkylimi-dazole is subjected to immobilization in large excess to MPS-modified silica(1/1,w.t./w.t.)via the surface-initiated radical chain-transfer reaction initiated by azobisisobutyronitrile(AIBN) (1-3w.t%)[34,37].Normally,the polymerization process is per-formed heterogeneously,also known as‘‘grafting from’’,similar to mHTP.There is no case involving homogeneous polymerization, also known as‘‘grafting to’’,in preparation of polymeric SCIL SPs, possibly due to the unknown solubility,sensitivity to moisture and the difficulty in characterization of the target polymer.But there are two examples involving homogeneous polymerization of1-vinylimidazole and4-allylpyridine,leaving the tertiary amine position vacant[72,73].Regardless of no IL taking shape hereby, useful references could be drawn for the preparation of SCIL SPs in the future.Another approach to modify polymeric SCIL SPs is to substitute the halide anion with other anions.The substitution is realized through a metathesis reaction,which is simple and effective,as long as there are differences between the concentrations and the solubilities of the original anion and the anion desired.The substi-tution can be executed by rinsing not only the IL or IL-immobilized silica,but also on-column with a high concentration of the desired anion solution.The shortcoming of the metathesis reaction is that the new anions tend to run off gradually or be superseded by other anions.To tackle the problem,the co-polymerization technique used in otherfields can be followed[74–77].A prerequisite for co-polymerization use in SCIL SPs is that both the cation and the anion must have an alkenyl group,preferably a vinyl group.To car-ry out co-polymerization,the polymerizable anion has to replace the original anion in advance through the metathesis reaction. After this treatment,the new IL is ready to be co-polymerized via the same procedure in polymerization.The slow drain on the anion is avoided by co-polymerization of the cation and anion pair,as they are entirely connected to silica by the covalent bond,besides the electrostatic attraction.The extent of bonding is sensitive to the shape of the ion pair,as observed[39];the negative effect of a linear anion on the extent of bonding is much less than that of a planar anion,as is that of a less bulky cation.It can be anticipated that if the cation(anion)is bulkier,the extent of bonding would be even less.We can conclude that the polymeric route is advantageous over monomeric route in enhancing the stabilities of SCIL SPs and ele-vating the extent of bonding.In addition,the polymeric route en-ables the modification of SCIL SPs by a polymerizable anion. However,it is hardlyflawless,as the degree of polymerization is not easy to control;moreover,instead of polymerization,simple addition reaction between mercapto and alkenyl groups at stoichiometric ratio could occur at times.2.3.Practicable new routesApart from above-mentioned synthesis methodologies,there are several workable schemes for preparing SCIL SPs,which do not necessarily encompass the use of c-haloalkyltrialkoxysilanes and MPS.These schemes are proposed on the ground of experimental results obtained by authors not specializing in separation science,but the chemical rules involved are universally applicable.As displayed in Table1and Table2,the dominant coupling agents for preparation of SCIL SPs are CPTMS and MPS,whereby materials of commendable chromatographic properties have been produced[24,25,29,34,35,39].Nevertheless,merely two available functional groups,i.e.haloalkyl and mercapto,are definitely insufficient for the development of more multi-functional SCIL SPs.It is well-known that there is a broad variety ofsilane Fig.6.General processes for polymeric synthesis of surface-confined ionic-liquid stationary phases.coupling agents,such as c-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (GPTMS),c-aminopropyltrimethoxy(APTMS),c-(ethylene amino) propyltrimethoxysilane(EAPTMS).Except for one case covering the use of GPTMS in preparation of IL-functionalized b-cyclodex-trin SP[78],their long absence from the synthesis of IL-based materials may have been a great loss to the innovation of SCIL SPs.One of the potentially useful coupling agents is GPTMS,which contains an epoxide(oxirane),which is an extremely versatile group,enabling further derivation by a large range of nucleo-philes,electrophiles and so on under mild conditions.Under solvent-free conditions,epoxides can undergo ring-opening by imidazole,forming imidazolyl alcohols[79].As proposed in Fig.7,imidazole can be treated by GPTMS to produce a new cou-pling agent.Further quaternization by a-haloalkane or x-halo multifunctional alkane on the3-position of imidazole can pro-duce new ILs.Another idea for introducing functional groups is treating deprotonated imidazole with equimolar epichlorohydrin(EPCH), producing1-(oxiran-2-ylmethyl)-1H-imidazole.Herein,modifica-tion can go further in two ways:first is ring-opening of the epoxide group by amine-con-taining APTMS or EAPTMS(Fig.8),but it is uncertainwhether the resulting secondary amine could consumeanother equimolar1-(oxiran-2-ylmethyl)-1H-imidazole orhalo-containing reagent;and,second is quaternization of imidazole by CPTMS,leaving the epoxide group intact for further modification byamines,alcohols and carboxylic acids.Treatment of deprotonated imidazole with excessive EPCH gives an IL,namely1,3-diglycidylimidazolium chloride[80].Be-cause of the identical reactivity of the two epoxide groups,selec-tive ring-opening is difficult.But it is possible to perform the selective ring-opening reaction heterogeneously.The remaining epoxide can be further converted.The superiority of EPCH over a,x-dihaloalkane in preparation of ILs is that the latter has no selectivity towards the two nitrogen atoms of imidazole;instead,the epoxide group is unreactive to-wards tertiary amine,so formation of polyimidazolium salts is pre-vented.Also,even if imidazole or imidazolium-containing haloalkyl groups were obtained,further derivatization would stillFig.7.Functionalization of imidazole by c-glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane(GPTMS).Fig.8.Functionalization of imidazole by epichlorohydrin(EPCH).Table3Summary of applications of SCIL stationary phasesStationary phase Analytes OperationmodeRef.SilprPy-Cl Inorganic anions:chloride,nitrite,bromide,nitrateBenzene,anthracene,benzyl alcohol,benzonitrile and nitronaphthaleneIE,RP[22] SilocPy-Br Mainly aromatic derivatives RP[23] SilprDipy-Cl PAHs,phenolic compounds,hydroxybenzoatesInorganic anionsRP,IE[85]SilprIm-ClSilprIm-BF4SilprIm-NTf2Phenols,aromatic amines,pyridine derivativesInorganic anions and cationsTheobromine,theophylline,caffeine,guanine,thymine,cytosine,xylose and glucoseRP,IE,HILIC[18,24,25]SilprMIm-ClSilprMIm-Br Inorganic ionsTheobromine,theophylline,caffeine,guanine,thymine,cytosine,xylose and glucosePhenols,aromatic amines and aromatic acidsIE,HILIC,RP,NP[17,24–27]SilprEMIm-Cl Theobromine,theophylline,caffeine,guanine,thymine,cytosine,xylose and glucose RP,HILIC[24,25] BPIM-modifiedsilicaAromatic acids RP[27] SiImPS-Cl Inorganic ions and organic cations,vitamin B and nucleic acid bases IE,RP[28]SilprHIm-Cl Inorganic anions,nucleic acid bases,benzenes,aromatic amines and phenols IERP [29]SilprDIm-ClBIM-Br Peptides and aromatic derivatives RP[30–32]polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that are priority pollutants(SRM1647e)with(a)C18-m,(b)C18-p,(c)SIL-BrMobile phase:100%methanol;flow rate:1.0mL minÀ1;UV:254nm;column temperature:30°C.Peaks:naphthalenephenanthrene(5);anthracene(6);fluoranthene(7);pyrene(8);benzo[a]anthracene(9);chrysenebenzo[a]pyrene(13);dibenzo[a,h]anthracene(14);benzo[ghi]perylene(15);indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene(16).(Reprinted68M.Zhang et al./Trends in Analytical Chemistry53(2014)60–72。

诺贝尔2006英语作文Title: Nobel Prize in 2006: A Reflection。

In 2006, the Nobel Prizes were awarded across various categories, recognizing outstanding contributions to humanity in fields ranging from physics and chemistry to literature and peace. Let's delve into the recipients of that year and their remarkable achievements.1. Physics:The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2006 was awarded to John C. Mather and George F. Smoot for their groundbreaking work on the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB). Their research, conducted with the COBE satellite, provided strong evidence supporting the Big Bang theory of theorigin of the universe. This recognition not only highlighted their scientific prowess but also emphasized the importance of cosmology in understanding the fundamental nature of our universe.2. Chemistry:Roger D. Kornberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies on the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription. His work elucidated the process by which genetic information stored in DNA is converted into RNA, a crucial step in gene expression. Kornberg's research significantly advanced our understanding of molecular biology and paved the way for developments in fields such as genetics and medicine.3. Physiology or Medicine:Andrew Z. Fire and Craig C. Mello were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of RNA interference (RNAi). This groundbreaking finding revolutionized molecular biology by uncovering a mechanism through which gene expression is regulated. RNAi has since become a vital tool in biomedical research, with implications for the development of novel therapeutics for various diseases.4. Literature:Orhan Pamuk, the Turkish novelist, was honored with the Nobel Prize in Literature for his outstanding literary work, which, with "new symbols for new feelings, poetic narrative structures, and the quest for the melancholic soul of his native city," according to the Swedish Academy, "has discovered new symbols for new feelings." Pamuk's novels explore themes of identity, memory, and cultural heritage, captivating readers worldwide with his distinctive styleand thought-provoking narratives.5. Peace:The Nobel Peace Prize for 2006 was awarded to Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank for their efforts to create economic and social development from below. Yunus, through the concept of microcredit, pioneered the idea of providing small loans to impoverished individuals, particularly women, to empower them economically and lift them out of poverty. Grameen Bank, founded by Yunus, played a pivotal role inimplementing this innovative approach, which has since been replicated worldwide, transforming countless lives and communities.The Nobel Prizes awarded in 2006 not only celebrated the achievements of exceptional individuals but also underscored the profound impact of their work on science, literature, and peace. From unraveling the mysteries of the universe to advancing molecular biology and promotingsocial justice, the laureates of 2006 have left anindelible mark on humanity, inspiring future generations to pursue knowledge, creativity, and compassion.。

2006年诺贝尔化学奖成果简介摘要简要介绍了2006诺贝尔化学奖的成果，获奖者美国科学家罗杰•科恩伯格在该成果的主要贡献在于对真核转录过程的分子研究，对于人们理解转录过程具有深远的意义。

目前，基因转录的过程广泛应用在基因研究的实验室中。

关键词2006年诺贝尔化学奖转录过程应用瑞典皇家科学院诺贝尔奖评委会将2006年诺贝尔化学奖授予美国科学家罗杰•科恩伯格，以奖励他在“真核转录的分子基础”研究领域作出的贡献。

科恩伯格成为第一个成功地将脱氧核糖核酸（DNA）的复制过程捕捉下来的科学家，评委会称他的获奖真正体现了诺贝尔遗言中所说的“授予一项非常重要的化学发现”。

科恩伯格在分子水平上研究了储存在细胞核基因中的信息如何被复制、转送到细胞的其他地方，用以制造蛋白质，这个过程被称为转录，他首次在真核细胞生物中拍摄到了生命中这个动态过程的真实照片。

基因中遗传信息的转录和复制是地球上所有生物生存和发展必然经过的过程。

科恩伯格是首位在分子水平上揭示真核生物转录过程如何进行的科学家，使了解基因的转录过程成为可能。

这一过程具有医学上的“基础性”作用，因为人类的多种疾病如癌症、心脏病等都与这一过程发生紊乱有关。

理解这一过程有助于人们寻找治疗上述疾病的方法。

目前，基因转录的过程广泛应用在基因研究的实验室中。

此外，理解转录过程也有助于人们理解干细胞如何发展成不同的特定细胞。

干细胞，特别是胚胎干细胞，能分化成不同种类的体细胞。

科学家相信，将来可以利用人类胚胎干细胞修补人体受损的组织和器官，治疗多种疾病。

1基因的复制与转录1.1DNA复制［1］DNA借助于由多酶复合体所组成的复制机构，在每次细胞分裂时，首先要精确地进行复制。

在整个复制过程中有两个基本需要：首先DNA链上的核苷酸必须为自由状态的核苷酸所识别；其次DNA双螺旋必须打开，暴露彼此的氢键进行碱基配对，然后把排列起来的核苷酸在多聚化酶的催化下连接成为一条新的核苷酸链。

联合国教科文组织《开放科学建议书》科普The UNESCO "Open Science Recommendation" is a significant document that outlines the principles and practices for a more open scientific system. It emphasizes the importance of inclusivity, accessibility, and transparency in scientific research and communication. This recommendation serves as a guide for policymakers, researchers, and other stakeholders to promote open science practices worldwide. As we move towards a more digital and interconnected world, open science is becoming increasingly essential for advancing knowledge and innovation.联合国教科文组织的《开放科学建议书》是一份重要文件，概述了更加开放的科学体系的原则和实践。

它强调了科学研究和交流中包容性、可及性和透明度的重要性。

这些建议为决策者、研究人员和其他利益相关者提供了指导，促进全球范围内开展开放科学实践。

随着我们步入一个更加数字化和互联的世界，开放科学对于推动知识和创新变得日益重要。

Open science encompasses various aspects, including open access to research articles, open data sharing, open peer review, and citizen science participation. By making research findings freely available toall, open access ensures that knowledge is not restricted by paywalls or copyrights. Open data sharing allows researchers to access and reuse datasets, promoting collaboration and reproducibility in scientific research. Open peer review transparently evaluates research articles, providing feedback and improving the quality of publications. Citizen science engages the public in scientific activities, enhancing public understanding and participation in research efforts.开放科学涵盖了多个方面，包括科研文章的开放获取、数据共享、公开同行评议以及公民科学参与。

有希望成为科学家英语作文Title: My Aspiration to Become a Scientist。

Introduction:Throughout history, scientists have played a pivotal role in advancing human knowledge and pushing the boundaries of understanding. As a young individual with a passion for science, I aspire to become a scientist and contribute to the ever-expanding realm of scientific discovery. This essay aims to explore my motivations, the steps I plan to take to achieve my goal, and the impact I hope to make in the field of science.Motivations:The desire to become a scientist is deeply rooted in my fascination with the natural world and the curiosity that drives me to explore its mysteries. From a young age, I found myself captivated by the wonders of the universe,from the intricate workings of the human body to the vastness of outer space. Science has always been more than just a subject to me; it is a way of thinking, a method of inquiry that allows us to unravel the secrets of the universe.Furthermore, the potential to make a positive impact on society is another driving force behind my aspiration. Scientists have the power to develop groundbreaking technologies, discover life-saving cures, and findsolutions to pressing global challenges. By becoming a scientist, I hope to contribute to the betterment of humanity and make a meaningful difference in the world.Educational Pathway:To pursue a career in science, a solid educational foundation is crucial. My plan is to complete my high school education with a strong focus on science and mathematics. These subjects will provide me with the necessary knowledge and skills to understand the fundamental principles of scientific inquiry.After high school, I aim to pursue a bachelor's degree in a scientific discipline, such as physics, chemistry, or biology. This will serve as a stepping stone towards acquiring a deeper understanding of my chosen field. During my undergraduate studies, I plan to engage in research projects and internships to gain practical experience and develop essential laboratory skills.Following the completion of my bachelor's degree, I intend to pursue a postgraduate degree, such as a master's or a Ph.D., in a specialized area of science. This advanced level of education will allow me to delve deeper into my chosen field of study, conduct independent research, and contribute to the scientific community through publications and presentations.Research and Innovation:As a scientist, my primary goal will be to engage in research and innovation. I understand that scientific progress often stems from the relentless pursuit ofknowledge and the willingness to challenge established theories. By conducting rigorous research and pushing the boundaries of existing knowledge, I hope to contribute to scientific advancements and make significant discoveries.Collaboration:Scientific progress is rarely achieved in isolation. Collaboration with fellow scientists, researchers, and experts in related fields is essential for the exchange of ideas, the validation of findings, and the generation of new insights. I aspire to actively participate inscientific conferences, workshops, and collaborations, both locally and internationally, to foster interdisciplinary research and contribute to the collective pool ofscientific knowledge.Sharing Knowledge:In addition to conducting research, I believe in the importance of sharing scientific knowledge with others. Through teaching, mentoring, and science communication, Iaim to inspire and educate the next generation of scientists. By effectively communicating complex scientific concepts to a broader audience, I hope to bridge the gap between science and society, fostering a better understanding and appreciation for the scientific method.Impact on Society:As a scientist, I aspire to make a positive impact on society. Whether it is developing sustainable technologies, finding innovative solutions to environmental challenges, or advancing medical research, I hope to contribute to the well-being and progress of humanity. By dedicating myself to scientific inquiry and research, I aim to leave alasting legacy that benefits future generations.Conclusion:Becoming a scientist is not merely a career choice for me; it is a lifelong passion and a commitment to thepursuit of knowledge. Through a solid educational foundation, research endeavors, collaboration, andknowledge sharing, I hope to contribute to the scientific community and make a meaningful impact on society. With determination, perseverance, and an unwavering curiosity, I am confident that I can fulfill my aspirations and become a scientist who contributes to the advancement of scientific understanding.。

我想当科学人员作文英语Title: Pursuing a Career as a Scientist。

Embarking on a journey as a scientist is akin to navigating uncharted territories, driven by curiosity, a thirst for knowledge, and a commitment to understanding the world around us. Aspiring to be a scientist is not merely about donning a lab coat or wielding sophisticated instruments; it's about embracing a mindset of inquiry and discovery, coupled with a dedication to advancing human understanding and addressing pressing global challenges.The path to becoming a scientist is multifaceted, requiring a blend of academic prowess, practical skills, and a passion for exploration. At its core lies a solid foundation in scientific principles, typically acquired through formal education in disciplines such as physics, chemistry, biology, or environmental science. However, education extends beyond the confines of the classroom, encompassing hands-on experience gained through researchprojects, internships, and collaborations with seasoned professionals.One of the defining characteristics of a scientist is the ability to think critically and analytically.Scientists are trained to question conventional wisdom, challenge hypotheses, and rigorously evaluate evidence to arrive at well-founded conclusions. This analytical mindset permeates every aspect of their work, whether they are designing experiments, interpreting data, or formulating theories.Moreover, effective communication skills are indispensable for scientists. The ability to convey complex ideas in a clear and accessible manner is essential for disseminating research findings, fostering collaboration, and engaging with the broader community. Whether through peer-reviewed publications, conference presentations, or public outreach initiatives, scientists serve as ambassadors of knowledge, bridging the gap between the esoteric realm of academia and the general public.In addition to technical proficiency, resilience is a trait that distinguishes successful scientists. The pursuit of scientific inquiry is fraught with setbacks, failures, and moments of uncertainty. Experiment results may notyield the expected outcomes, hypotheses may be disproven, and research projects may encounter unforeseen obstacles. Yet, it is precisely in the face of adversity that scientists demonstrate their resilience, learning from setbacks, adapting their approaches, and persevering in their quest for understanding.Furthermore, the field of science is characterized by its collaborative nature. While individual brilliance certainly plays a role, many groundbreaking discoveries are the result of collective effort, collaboration, and interdisciplinary exchange. Scientists often collaborate across geographical, cultural, and disciplinary boundaries, pooling their diverse expertise and perspectives to tackle complex problems that defy simple solutions.Beyond the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, scientists bear a profound responsibility to society. Thefruits of scientific inquiry have the power to shape our collective future, influencing everything from publicpolicy and healthcare to environmental stewardship and technological innovation. As stewards of knowledge, scientists must navigate ethical considerations, weigh potential risks and benefits, and ensure that their work serves the betterment of humanity.In conclusion, the journey to becoming a scientist is a rewarding yet challenging endeavor, marked by intellectual curiosity, analytical rigor, resilience, and a commitment to societal impact. It is a calling that transcends individual aspirations, encompassing a shared quest for understanding and a collective endeavor to address the pressing challenges facing our world. As aspiring scientists, we stand at the threshold of discovery, ready to embark on a voyage of exploration that promises to illuminate the mysteries of the universe and empower humanity to chart a course towards a brighter future.。

The prominence of English in the scientific community is a subject that has fascinated me for quite some time. As a high school student with a keen interest in both science and languages, I have observed the pivotal role that English plays in the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the international collaboration that is essential for scientific progress.Growing up in a world where the internet and global communication are at our fingertips, I have been able to witness firsthand the extent to which English has become the lingua franca of science. From the latest research papers published in prestigious journals to the discussions that take place at international conferences, English is the common thread that connects scientists from all corners of the globe.One of the most compelling reasons for Englishs dominance in science is its historical roots. The scientific revolution, which took place primarily in Europe, was largely conducted in English and other European languages. This historical precedence set the stage for English to become the default language for scientific discourse. Over time, as scientific knowledge expanded and the need for international collaboration grew, Englishs role only became more entrenched.Moreover, the vast majority of scientific literature is published in English. This includes not only peerreviewed articles but also textbooks, conference proceedings, and even popular science publications. As a result, scientists who wish to stay current in their fields must be proficient in English. This necessity has led to a selfreinforcing cycle, where the importance of English in science drives its further adoption, and its further adoptionreinforces its importance.My own experiences have highlighted the significance of English in science. In my schools science club, we often delve into the latest research to understand new discoveries and theories. The majority of these resources are in English, and our ability to access and understand them is crucial to our learning process. Its not just about reading its also about participating in the global scientific conversation. When we present our projects or discuss our findings, we often do so in English to ensure that our work can be understood by a wider audience.Furthermore, the importance of English in science is not limited to academia. It extends to the practical applications of scientific knowledge as well. For instance, when new medical treatments or technological innovations are developed, the instructions, warnings, and guidelines are often provided in English to ensure that they can be understood by professionals worldwide. This global standardization is crucial for safety and effectiveness.However, the dominance of English in science also brings with it certain challenges. For scientists who are not native English speakers, the need to publish in English can sometimes be a barrier to entry. This can potentially lead to a loss of diverse perspectives and ideas in the scientific community. Additionally, the reliance on English can sometimes overshadow the rich scientific traditions and knowledge that exist in other languages.In conclusion, the status of English in science is multifaceted. It serves as abridge for international collaboration and a repository for the vast body of scientific knowledge. Yet, it also presents challenges that must be acknowledged and addressed. As a high school student looking towards a future in science, I am excited by the opportunities that English offers but also mindful of the need for a balanced and inclusive scientific community. The journey of science is one of exploration and discovery, and the language we use to communicate our findings is a crucial part of that journey.。