Prediction and Measurement of Direct-Normal Solar Irradiance A Closure Experiment

量测提升卡尔曼滤波胡振涛;胡玉梅;刘先省【摘要】Filter design is the signification foundation for system identification and state estimation.Based on the real-ization constructionof state prediction and measurement update,Kalman filter can obtain the optimal estimation of state esti-mated under the linear minimum variance criterion,but the filtering precision is vulnerable to the random characteristics in single sensor condition.A novel realization structure of Kalman filter based on measurement lifting strategy is proposed in the paper.At first,virtual measurement is constructed on the basis of latest measurement and the prior statistical information of measurement noise modeling.Then,virtual measurements are reasonably sampled and fusionto modify the measurement reliability,and the estimation precision is improved.In addition,aiming to the algorithm requirements including real-time, precise and robustness in engineering application,the distributed weight fusion structure and the centralized consistency fu-sion are designed respectively.Finally,the theoretical analysis and experimental results show the feasibility and efficiency of algorithm proposed.%滤波器设计是系统辨识和状态估计的重要基础。

NHTSA’S NCAP ROLLOVER RESISTANCE RATING SYSTEMPatrick L. BoydNational Highway Traffic Safety Administration United StatesPaper Number 05-0450ABSTRACTStarting in the 2004 model year, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) improved the rollover resistance ratings in its New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) consumer information by adding a dynamic maneuver test. NHTSA had provided rollover resistance ratings in the 2001 – 2003 model years based solely on the Static Stability Factor (SSF) measurement of vehicles. The ratings express the risk of a vehicle rolling over in the event of a single vehicle crash, the type of crash in which most rollovers occur. The SSF, which is determined by a vehicle’s center of gravity height and track width, had proved to be a powerful predictor of rollover risk based on a linear regression study of rollover rates of 100 vehicle models in 224,000 single vehicle crashes (R2 = 0.88). The TREAD Act required NHTSA to change its rollover resistance ratings to use a dynamic maneuver test, and the 2004 and later NCAP rollover resistance ratings use both SSF and a dynamic maneuver. This paper describes the development of the risk prediction model used for present rating system. Twenty-five vehicles were tested using two highly objective automated steering maneuvers (J-turn and Fishhook) at two levels of passenger loading. A logistic regression risk model was developed based on the rollover outcomes of 86,000 single-vehicle crashes involving the make/models that were tested. The vehicles were characterized by their SSF measurements and binary variables indicating whether or not they had tipped up during the maneuver tests. It was found that the Fishhook test in the heavy (5 passenger equivalent) load was the most useful maneuver test for predicting rollover risk. The relative predictive powers of the SSF measurement and the Fishhook test were established by a logistic regression model operating on the rollover outcomes of real-world crash data. This model was used to predict the rollover rates of vehicles in the 2004 and 2005 NCAP program based on their SSF measurements and Fishhook maneuver test performance. The information in this paper first appeared in NHTSA’s Federal Register notice [1] that established the NCAP rollover resistance rating system for model year 2004. INTRODUCTIONPrior NCAP Program and the TREAD ActNHTSA’s NCAP program has been publishing comparative consumer information on frontal crashworthiness of new vehicles since 1979, on side crashworthiness since 1997, and on rollover resistance since January 2001.The 2001-2003 NCAP rollover resistance ratings were based on the Static Stability Factor (SSF) of a vehicle, which is the ratio of one half its track width to its center of gravity (C.G.) height. After an evaluation of some driving maneuver tests in 1997 and 1998, NHTSA chose to use SSF instead of any driving maneuvers to characterize rollover resistance. NHTSA chose SSF as the basis of NCAP ratings because it represents the first order factors that determine vehicle rollover resistance in the vast majority of rollovers which are tripped by impacts with curbs, soft soil, pot holes, guard rails, etc. or by wheel rims digging into the pavement. In contrast, untripped rollovers are those in which tire/road interface friction is the only external force acting on a vehicle that rolls over. Driving maneuver tests directly represent on-road untripped rollover crashes, but such crashes represent less than five percent of rollover crashes [2].At the time, NHTSA believed it was necessary to choose between SSF and driving maneuver tests as the basis for rollover resistance ratings. SSF was chosen because it had a number of advantages: it is highly correlated with actual crash statistics; it can be measured accurately and inexpensively and explained to consumers; and changes in vehicle design to improve SSF are unlikely to degrade other safety attributes. NHTSA also considered the fact that an improvement in SSF represents an increase in rollover resistance in both tripped and untripped circumstances while maneuver test performance can be improved by reduced tire traction and certain implementations of electronic stability control that it believes are much less likely than SSF improvements to increase resistance to tripped rollovers.Congress directed the agency to enhance the NCAP rollover resistance rating program. Section 12 of the “Transportation Recall, Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation (TREAD) Act of November 2000" directs the Secretary to “develop a dynamic test on rollovers by motor vehicles for a consumer information program; and carry out a program conducting such tests. As the Secretary develops a [rollover] test, the Secretary shall conduct a rulemaking to determine how best to disseminate test results to the public.” The rulemaking was to be carried out by November 1, 2002.Research and Public Comment on Dynamic Rollover TestsOn July 3, 2001, NHTSA published a Request for Comments notice (66 FR 35179) regarding its research plans to assess a number of possible dynamic rollover tests. The notice discussed the possible advantages and disadvantages of various approaches that had been suggested by manufacturers, consumer groups, and NHTSA’s prior research. The driving maneuver tests to be evaluated fit into two broad categories: closed-loop maneuvers in which all test vehicles attempt to follow the same path, and open-loop maneuvers in which all test vehicles are given equivalent steering inputs. The principal theme of the comments was a sharp division of opinion about whether the dynamic rollover test should be a closed loop maneuver test like the ISO 3888 double lane change that emphasizes the handling properties of vehicles or whether it should be an open loop maneuver like a J-Turn or Fishhook that are limit maneuvers in which vulnerable vehicles would actually tip up. Ford recommended a different type of closed loop lane change maneuver in which a path-following robot or a mathematical correction method would be used to evaluate all vehicles on the same set of paths at the same lateral acceleration. It used a measurement of partial wheel unloading without tip-up at 0.7g lateral acceleration as a performance criterion in contrast to the other closed loop maneuver tests that used maximum speed through the maneuver as the performance criterion. Another unique comment was a recommendation from Suzuki to use a sled test developed by Exponent Inc. to simulate tripped rollovers.The subsequent test program [3] (using four SUVs in various load conditions and with and without electronic stability control enabled on two of the SUVs) showed that open-loop maneuver tests using an automated steering controller could be performed with better repeatability of results than the other maneuver tests. The J-Turn maneuver and the Fishhook maneuver (with steering reversal at maximum vehicle roll angle) were found to be the most objective tests of the susceptibility of vehicles to maneuver-induced on-road rollover. Except for the Ford test, the closed loop tests were found not to measure rollover resistance. Instead, the evaluation criterion of maximum maneuver entrance speed measured just prior to entering a double lane change assessed vehicle agility. None of the test vehicles tipped up during runs in which they maintained the prescribed path even when loaded with roof ballast to experimentally reduce their rollover resistance. The speed scores of the test vehicles in the closed loop maneuvers were found to be unrelated to their resistance to tip-up in the open-loop maneuvers that actually caused tip-up. The test vehicle that was clearly the poorest performer in the maneuvers that caused tip-ups achieved the best score (highest speed) in the ISO 3888 and CU short course double lane change, and one vehicle improved its score in the ISO 3888 test when roof ballast was added to reduce its rollover resistance.Due to the non-limit test conditions and the averaging necessary for stable wheel force measurements, the wheel unloading measured in the Ford test appeared to be more quasi-static (as in driving in a circle at a steady speed or placing the vehicle on a centrifuge) than dynamic. Sled tests were not evaluated because NHTSA believed that SSF already provided a good indicator of resistance to tripped rollover. National Academy of Sciences StudyDuring the time NHTSA was evaluating dynamic maneuver tests in response the TREAD Act, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) was conducting a study of the SSF-based rollover resistance ratings and was directed to make recommendations regarding driving maneuver tests. NHTSA expected the NAS recommendations to have a strong influence on TREAD-mandated changes to NCAP rollover resistance ratings.When NHTSA proposed the prior (SSF only) rollover resistance ratings in June 2000, vehicle manufacturers generally opposed it because they believed that SSF as a measure of rollover resistance is too simple since it does not include the effects of suspension deflections, tire traction and electronic stability control (ESC). In addition, the vehicle manufacturers argued that the influence of vehicle factors on rollover risk is too slight to warrant consumer information ratings for rollover resistance. In the conference report of the FY2001 DOT Appropriations Act, Congress permitted NHTSA tomove forward with its rollover rating program, but directed the agency to fund a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) study on vehicle rollover ratings. The study topics were “whether the static stability factor is a scientifically valid measurement that presents practical, useful information to the public including a comparison of the static stability factor test versus a test with rollover metrics based on dynamic driving conditions that may induce rollover events.” The National Academy’s report was completed and made available at the end of February 2002 [4].The NAS study found that SSF is a scientifically valid measure of rollover resistance for which the underlying physics and real-world crash data are consistent with the conclusion that an increase in SSF reduces the likelihood of rollover. It also found that dynamic tests should complement static measures, such as SSF, rather than replace them in consumer information on rollover resistance. The dynamic tests the NAS recommended would be driving maneuvers used to assess “transient vehicle behavior leading to rollover.”The NAS study also made recommendations concerning the statistical analysis of rollover risk and the representation of ratings. It recommended that NHTSA use logistic regression rather than linear regression for analysis of the relationship between rollover risk and SSF, and it recommended that NHTSA consider a higher-resolution representation of the relationship between rollover risk and SSF than is provided by a five-star rating system. NHTSA published a Federal Register notice on October 7, 2002 (67 FR 62528) that proposed to modify the NCAP rollover resistance ratings to satisfy the requirements of the TREAD Act and to align it with the recommendation of the NAS report. NHTSA chose the J-Turn and Fishhook maneuver (with roll rate feedback) as the dynamic maneuver tests because they were the type of limit maneuver tests that could directly lead to rollover as recommended by the NAS. NHTSA also proposed to use a logistic regression analysis to determine the relationship between vehicle properties and rollover risk, as recommended by the NAS.DYNAMIC MANEUVER TESTS OF 25 VEHICLESThe original NCAP rollover resistance ratings predicted the rate of rollovers per single vehicle crash based on the SSF of vehicles. Stars were used to express rollover risk in rate increments of 10% (i.e., 2 stars for a predicted rollover rate between 30 and 40%, 3 stars for a predicted rollover rate between 20 and 30%, etc.). The relationship between rollover rate and SSF was determined using a linear regression between the logarithm of SSF and the actual rollover rates of 100 vehicle make/models [5]. The rollover rates were determined from 224,000 state crash reports and were corrected for differences between vehicles in demographic and road condition variables reported by the states.The idea for improving the prediction of rollover rate (the risk model) using dynamic maneuver tests was to describe the vehicle by its SSF plus a number of variables resulting from the vehicle’s behavior in the dynamic maneuvers. In that way, the risk model would consider more than just the geometric properties of the vehicle. Four binary variables were anticipated. They would describe whether the vehicle tipped up or did not in the J-turn and in the Fishhook maneuver, each performed with the vehicle in two passenger load configurations. The risk model for predicting rollover rate on the basis of SSF plus dynamic test results would be determined using logistic regression between the rollover outcomes of state crash reports of single vehicle crashes of a number of vehicles and the new set of vehicle attributes (SSF plus dynamic test variables). The expression of rollover risk by stars would continue with the same relationship between the number of stars and the predicted rollover rate.The linear regression, SSF only, risk model used crash data on 100 vehicles, but it was impractical to perform maneuver tests on that many vehicles to develop the present risk model. This section presents an overview of the test maneuvers and the results for the subset of 25 vehicles selected for developing the logistic regression risk model. A more extensive account of the test program is contained in the Phase VI and VII rollover research report [6]. The NHTSA J-Turn and Fishhook (with roll rate feedback) maneuver tests were performed for 25 vehicles representing four vehicle types including passenger cars, vans, pickup trucks and SUVs. NHTSA chose mainly high production vehicles that spanned a wide range of SSF values, using vehicles NHTSA already owned where possible. Except for four 2001 model year vehicles NHTSA purchased new, the vehicle suspensions were rebuilt with new springs and shock absorbers, and other parts as required for all the other vehicles included in the test program.J-Turn ManeuverThe NHTSA J-Turn maneuver represents anavoidance maneuver in which a vehicle is steered away from an obstacle using a single input. The maneuver is similar to the J-Turn used during NHTSA’s 1997-98 rollover research program and is a common maneuver in test programs conducted by vehicle manufacturers and others. Often the J-Turn is conducted with a fixed steering input (handwheel angle) for all test vehicles. In its 1997-98 testing, NHTSA used a fixed handwheel angle of 330 degrees. During the development of the present tests, NHTSA developed an objective method of specifying equivalent handwheel angles for J-Turn tests of various vehicles, taking into account their differences in steering ratio, wheelbase and linear range understeer properties [3]. Under this method, one first measures the handwheel angle that would produce a steady-state lateral acceleration of 0.3 g at 50 mph on a level paved surface for a particular vehicle. In brief, the 0.3 g value was chosen because the steering angle variability associated with this lateral acceleration is quite low and there is no possibility that stability control intervention could confound the test results. Since the magnitude of the handwheel position at 0.3 g is small, it must be multiplied by a scalar to have a high maneuver severity. In the case of the J-Turn, the handwheel angle at 0.3 g was multiplied by eight. When this scalar is multiplied by handwheel angles commonly observed at 0.3 g, the result is approximately 330 degrees. Figure 1 illustrates the J-Turn maneuver in terms of the automated steering inputs commanded by the programmable steering machine. The rate of the handwheel turning is 1000 degrees per second. To begin the maneuver, the vehicle was driven in astraight line at a speed slightly greater than the desired entrance speed. The driver released the throttle, coasted to the target speed, and then triggered the commanded handwheel input. The nominal maneuver entrance speeds used in the J-Turn maneuver ranged from 35 to 60 mph, increased in 5 mph increments until a termination condition was achieved. Termination conditions were simultaneous two inch or greater lift of a vehicle’s inside tires (two-wheel lift) or completion of a test performed at the maximum maneuver entrance speed without two-wheel lift. If two-wheel lift was observed, a downward iteration of vehicle speed was used in 1 mph increments until such lift was no longer detected. Once the lowest speed for which two-wheel lift could be detected was isolated, two additional tests were performed at that speed to monitor two-wheel lift repeatability.Fishhook ManeuverThe Fishhook maneuver uses steering inputs that approximate the steering a driver acting in panic might use in an effort to regain lane position after dropping two wheels off the roadway onto the shoulder. NHTSA has often described it as a road edge recovery maneuver. As pointed out by some commenters, it is performed on a smooth pavement rather than at a road edge drop-off, but its rapid steering input followed by an over-correction is representative of a general loss of control situation. The original version of this test was developed by Toyota, and variations of it were suggested by Nissan and Honda. NHTSA has experimented with several versions since 1997, and the present test includes roll rate feedback in order to time the counter-steer to coincide with the maximum roll angle of each vehicle in response to the first steer.Figure 2 describes the Fishhook maneuver in terms of the automated steering inputs commanded by the programmable steering machine and illustrates the roll rate feedback. The initial steering magnitude and countersteer magnitudes are symmetric, and are calculated by multiplying the handwheel angle that would produce a steady state lateral acceleration of 0.3 g at 50 mph on level pavement by 6.5. When this scalar is multiplied by handwheel angles commonly observed at 0.3 g, the result is approximately 270 degrees. This is equivalent to the 270 degree handwheel angle used in earlier forms of the maneuver but, as in the case of the J-Turn, the procedure above is an objective way of compensating for differences in steering gear ratio, wheelbase and understeer properties between vehicles. The fishhook maneuver dwell times (the time between completion of the initial steering ramp and the initiation of the countersteer) are defined by the roll motion of the vehicle being evaluated, and can vary on a test-to-test basis. This is made possible by having the steeringFigure 1. NHTSA J-turn maneuver description.machine monitor roll rate (roll velocity). If an initial steer is to the left, the steering reversal following completion of the first handwheel ramp occurs when the roll rate of the vehicle first equals or goes below 1.5 degrees per second. If an initial steer is to the right, the steering reversal following completion of the first handwheel ramp occurs when the roll rate of the vehicle first equals or exceeds -1.5 degrees per second. The handwheel rates of the initial steer and countersteer ramps are 720 degrees per second.To begin the maneuver, the vehicle was driven in astraight line at a speed slightly greater than the desired entrance speed. The driver released the throttle, coasted to the target speed, and then triggered the commanded handwheel input described in Figure 2. The nominal maneuver entrance speeds used in the fishhook maneuver ranged from 35 to 50 mph, increased in 5 mph increments until a termination condition was achieved. Termination conditions included simultaneous two inch or greater lift of a vehicle’s inside tires (two-wheel lift) or completion of a test performed at the maximum maneuver entrance speed without two-wheel lift. If two-wheel lift was observed, a downward iteration of vehicle speed was used in 1 mph increments until such lift was no longer detected. Once the lowest speed for which two-wheel lift could be detected was isolated, two additional tests were performed at that speed to check two-wheel lift repeatability.NHTSA observed that during the Fishhook tests, excessive steering caused some vehicles to reach their maximum roll angle response to the initial steering input before it had been fully completed (this is essentially equivalent to a “negative” T1 in Figure 2). Since dwell time duration can have a significant effect on how the Fishhook maneuver’s ability to produce two-wheel lift, excessive steering may stifle the most severe timing of the counter steer for some vehicles. In an attempt to better insure high maneuver severity, a number of vehicles that did not produce two-wheel lift with steering inputs calculated with the 6.5 multiplier were also tested with lesser steering angles by reducing the multiplier to 5.5. This change increased the dwell times observed during the respective maneuvers. Some vehicles tipped up in Fishhook maneuvers conducted at the lower steering angle (5.5 multiplier) but not at the higher steering angle (6.5 multiplier). NHTSA adopted the practice of performing Fishhook maneuvers at both steering angles for NCAP. Loading ConditionsThe vehicles were tested in each maneuver in two load conditions in order to create four levels of stringency in the suite of maneuver tests. The light load was the test driver plus instrumentation in the front passenger seat, which represented two occupants. A heavier load was used to create a higher level of stringency for each test. In our NPRM, NHTSA announced that the heavy load would include 175 lb anthropomorphic forms (water dummies) in all rear seat positions. During the test of the 25 vehicles, it became obvious that heavy load tests were being run at very unequal load conditions especially between vans and other vehicles (two water dummies in some vehicles but six water dummies in others). While very heavy passenger loads can certainly reduce rollover resistance and potentially cause special problems, crashes at those loads are too few to greatly influence the overall rollover rate of vehicles. Over 94% of van rollovers in our 293,000 crash database occurred with five or fewer occupants, and over 99% of rollovers of other vehicles occurred with five or fewer occupants. The average passenger load of vehicles in our crash database was less than two: 1.81 for vans; 1.54 for SUVs; 1.48 for cars; and 1.35 for pickup trucks. In order to use the maneuver tests to predict real-world rollover rates, it seemed inappropriate to test theFigure 2. NHTSA Fishhook maneuver description.vehicles under widely differing loads that did not correspond to the real-world crash statistics. Therefore, the tests used to develop a statistical model of rollover risk were changed to a uniform heavy load condition of three water dummies (representing a 5-occupant loading) for all vehicles capable of carrying at least five occupants. Some vehicles were loaded with only two water dummies because they were designed for four occupants. For pickup trucks, water dummies were loaded in the bed at approximately the same height as a passenger in the front seat.Test ResultsThe test results in Table 1 (presented on the next page) reflect the performance as described for a heavy load condition representing five occupants except for the Ford Explorer 2DR, the Chevrolet Tracker and Metro that were designed for only four occupants, and the Honda CRV, Honda Civic and Chevrolet Cavalier that could not be loaded to the 5-occupant level without exceeding a gross axle weight rating because of the additional weight of the outriggers.Each test vehicle in Table 1 represented a generation of vehicles whose model year range is given. Twenty-four of the vehicles were taken from 100 vehicle groups whose 1994-98 crash statistics in six states were the basis of the present SSF based rollover resistance ratings. The nominal SSFs used to describe the vehicle groups in the prior statistical studies are given. While there were some variations between the SSFs of the individual test vehicles and the nominal vehicle group SSF values, the nominal SSFs were retained for the present statistical analyses because they represent vehicles produced over a wide range of years in many cases and provide a simple comparison between the risk model presented in this notice and that discussed in the previous notices. The X’s under the various test maneuver names indicate which vehicles tipped up during the tests. Eleven of the twenty-five vehicles tipped up in the Fishhook maneuver conducted in the heavy condition. The heavy condition represented a five-occupant load for all vehicles except the six mentioned above that were limited to a four-occupant load by the vehicle seating positions and GVWR. All eleven were among the sixteen test vehicles with SSFs less than 1.20. None of the vehicles with higher SSFs tipped up in any test maneuver. The Fishhook test under the heavy load clearly had the greatest potential to cause tip-up. The groups of vehicles that tipped up in other tests were subsets of the larger group of eleven that tipped up in the Fishhook Heavy test. There were seven vehicles in the group that tipped up in the J-Turn Heavy test, six of which also tipped up in the Fishhook Light test. The J-Turn Light test had the least potential to tip up vehicles. Only three vehicles tipped up, all of which had tipped up in every other test.ROLLOVER RISK MODELIn its study of NHTSA’s rating system for rollover resistance [4], the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) recommended that NHTSA use logistic regression rather than linear regression for analysis of the relationship between rollover risk and SSF. Logistic regression has the advantage that it operates on every crash data point directly rather than requiring that the crash data be aggregated by vehicle and state into a smaller number of data points. For example, NHTSA now has state data reports of about 293,000 single-vehicle crashes of the hundred vehicle make/models (together with their corporate cousins) whose single-vehicle crashes NHTSA have been tracking in six states. The logistic regression analysis of this data would have a sample size of 293,000, producing a narrow confidence interval on the repeatability of the relationship between SSF and rollover rate. In contrast, the linear regression analysis operates on the rollover rate of the hundred vehicle make/models in each of the six states. It produces a maximum sample size of only 600 (100 vehicles times six states) minus the number of samples for which fewer than 25 crashes were available for determining the rollover rate (a data quality control practice). Confidence limits computed for a data sample size of 600 will be much greater than those based on a sample size of 293,000. On average, each sample in the linear regression analysis was computed from over 400 crash report samples. However, ordinary techniques to compute the confidence intervals of linear regression results do not take into account the actual sample size represented by aggregated data. The statistical model created to combine SSF and dynamic test information in the prediction of rollover risk was computed by means of logistic regression as recommended by the NAS. Logistic regression is well suited to the correlation with crash data of vehicle properties that include both continuous variables like SSF and binary variables like tip-up or no tip-up in maneuver tests.NHTSA had previously considered logistic regression during the development of the SSF based rating system [4], but found that it consistently under-predicted the actual rollover rate at the low end of the。

OMCL Network of the Council of Europe QUALITY ASSURANCE DOCUMENTPA/PH/OMCL (06) 86 DEFQUALIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTANNEX 2: QUALIFICATION OF GC EQUIPMENTFull document title and reference Qualification of EquipmentAnnex 2: Qualification of GC Equipment PA/PH/OMCL (06) 86 DEFDocument type GuidelineLegislative basis The present document was also accepted by EA asrecommendation document to be used in the context of QualityManagement System audits of OMCLsDate of first adoption May 2006Date of original entryinto forceJune 2006Date of entry into forceof revised documentOctober 2006Previous titles/other references This document replaces part of document PA/PH/OMCL (06) 46 DEFCustodian Organisation The present document was elaborated by the OMCL Network/EDQM of the Council of EuropeConcerned Network GEONANNEX 2 OF THE OMCL NETWORK GUIDELINE“QUALIFICATION OF EQUIPMENT”QUALIFICATION OF GC EQUIPMENTIntroductionThe present document is the second Annex of the core document “Qualification of Equipment”, and it should be used in combination with it when planning, performing and documenting the GC equipment qualification process.The core document contains the general introduction and the Level I and II of qualification, common to all type of instruments, and the present annex contains GC instrument-related recommendations on parameters to be checked and the corresponding typical acceptance limits, as well as practical examples on the methodology that can be used to carry out these checks.The tests proposed in the Level III and IV of qualification are based on an overall approach, in which several parameters are checked at the same time in a combined test procedure, to obtain information on the overall system performance (e.g. peak area precision, retention time precision, temperature programme reproducibility, etc).Nevertheless, it should be noted that it is also acceptable to check these parameters individually by using other well-defined procedures.TABLE IIILevel III. Periodic and motivated instrument checksExamples of requirements for GC instruments with FIDInstrument moduleParameter to be checkedTypical tolerance limits 1.1 Injector leak testPressure drop ≤ 15 kPa within 5 minutes 1.2. Pressure/flow accuracy and stabilityCovered by overall test 1 1.3. Repeatability of injection (overall test 1) - In split mode- In split less modeRSD ≤ 3.0% RSD ≤ 3.0%1.4. Injector temperature accuracy and stability Covered by overall test 2 1. Inlet system1.5. Carry-over (overall test 3) ≤ 0.2%2. Oven2.1. Repeatability of oven temperaturecharacteristicsCovered by overall test 23.1. Linearity (overall test 3) r 2 ≥ 0.9993.2. Constant detector response Covered by overall test 1 or 2 3.3. Noise See Annex I 3. FID detector3.3. DriftSee Annex ITABLE IV Level IV. In-use instrument checksExamples of requirements for GC instruments with FIDParameter to be checked Typical tolerance limits1. System suitability check for the method According to Ph. Eur. or MAH dossier or validated in-house method2. Peak area precision RSD ≤3.0% unless otherwise prescribed*3. Retention time repeatability RSD ≤ 2.0%4. Sensitivity (where relevant, e.g. for related substances tests) According to Ph. Eur. or MAH dossier or validated in-house methodAll parameters given here should be checked when performing analyses under the working conditions for the actual sample determinations. Normally, the test and reference solutions to be prepared for this purpose are given as a part of the method.ANNEX ILevel III. Periodic and motivated instrument checksPractical examples of tests and their associated tolerance limits for several parameters related to the performance of the different modules of a GC are presented below.These examples can be considered by the OMCLs as possible approaches to perform the Level III of the equipment qualification process: “Periodic and motivated instrument checks”.Several tests are proposed to check various parameters at the same time (overall tests). In order to run the tests in a more economical way, other suitable solutions can be used, as for example, the “Grob Test” mixture, available from different suppliers (e.g. Alltech, Sigma, Thames Restek). This commercial solution should be appropriate to the column material used.It is recommended to run the overall tests by using always the same test column, exclusively dedicated to qualification purposes, to guarantee reproducible conditions.1. INLET SYSTEMThe following tests are proposed for the periodic and motivated check of the GC Inlet System.1.1. INJECTOR LEAK TESTMethod:If not otherwise specified by the instrument manufacturer, the leak test is carried out according to the procedure laid down in the instrument manual or by the built in automatic leak check procedure of the instrument.Otherwise use the test described below:Disconnect the column from the injector and close the injector outlet with a sealed cap. Close the septum purge and the bypass.Adjust the flow and pressure controller to the maximal possible value of the pressure gauge. Adjust the flow controller to zero.Read the pressure after 1 minute and record the value.Record the pressure after 5 minutes.Limits:Pressure drop ≤ 15 kPa within 5 minutes.1.2. INLET PRESSURE/FLOW ACCURACY AND STABILITYA direct measurement of these parameters was not deemed practical or necessary, but the optimal conditions of flow/pressure can be verified by the overall test 1.Limits: refer to overall test 1.1.3. REPEATABILITY OF INJECTIONThe verification of this parameter is covered by the overall test 1.This test is to be performed in both split and split less mode.Limits: refer to overall test 1.1.4. INJECTOR TEMPERATURE ACCURACY AND STABILITYDue to the fact that the temperature cannot be reliably measured without opening and modifying the system and due to the difficulties of introducing a probe inside this module, the verification of this parameter is considered to be covered by the overall test 2.Limits: refer to overall test 2.1.5. INJECTOR CARRY OVERAfter having injected the solutions for the linearity test of the FID detector, in increasing order, inject the blank and measure the peaks that correspond to the major peaks (= analytes) in the linearity solutions.The verification of this parameter is covered by the overall test 3.Limits: refer to overall test 3.2. OVEN2.1. REPEATABILITY OF THE OVEN TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICSDue to the fact that the temperature cannot be reliably measured without opening and modifying the system conditions and that even when introducing a probe inside the oven, its location would not reflect the real temperature conditions at all points, the verification of this parameter is covered by the overall tests 2A and 2B.Limits: refer to overall test 2.3. FID DETECTORThe following tests are proposed for the periodic and motivated check of the GC FID detector.3.1. FID DETECTOR LINEARITYIncreasing amounts of analyte are injected and a linear response should be obtained.The verification of this parameter is covered by the overall test 3.Limits: refer to overall test 3.3.2. CONSTANT FID DETECTOR RESPONSEThe proper and reproducible functioning of the FID can be demonstrated by checking the peak areas obtained from a pre-defined standard solution.The verification of this parameter is covered by the overall test 1 or 2.Limits: refer to overall test 1 or 2.3.3. FID DETECTOR NOISE AND DRIFTIf the instrument has a built-in automatic system for the verification of the noise and drift, follow the manufacturer’s instructions and apply the defined acceptance criteria. Otherwise, use the test described below:Settings:Column installedSuitable flow, depending on column length/diameterNo injectionOven temperature: 40°CDetector on and heated at working temperature (270-300°C)Method:After stabilisation of the system, record the signal for 15 minutes.Noise: evaluate 10 periods of 1 minute and calculate the mean value.Drift: evaluate the slope of the baseline over the 15 minutes.Limits:The acceptance criteria for these parameters have to be chosen in accordance with the instrument vendor’s instructions and the intended use of the instrument. If no instructions are given, the user has to pre-define these acceptance criteria by taking into account the previous experience and the intended use of the instrument.No fixed values can be pre-defined in this guideline due to the high variety of integration systems used and consequently the acceptance criteria may be expressed in different units (voltage, current, arbitrary units per time).OVERALL TEST 1The overall test 1 covers the following parameters:-Pressure/flow accuracy and stability in the inlet system: Retention time repeatability -Repeatability of injection: peak area precision-In split mode-In split less modeThe test may be combined with overall test 3.Split mode:Test solution:1-octanol in n-hexane 1% (v/v).Settings:Column: SPB-1 (30m x 0.32mm ID x 0.25µm film)Carrier gas: HeVelocity: 25cm/secSplit: 1:100Injection: 1µlInjector temperature: 220°COven temperature: 100°C isothermDetector temperature: 300°CRuntime: 8 minRetention time of 1-octanol: about 5 minSplit less mode:Stock solution: 1-octanol in n-hexane 1% (v/v)Test solution: Dilute 10 ml of the stock solution with n-hexane to 100 ml (corresponds to 1µl/ml of 1-octanol in n-hexane)Settings:Column: SPB-1, 30m, 0.32mm ID, 0.25µm filmCarrier: HeVelocity: 30cm/secSplit less injection: purge valve closed during 2 minInjection: 0.2µl of the test solutionInjector Temperature: 220°COven Temperature: Initial 60°C for 4 min, 15°C/min. up to 135°C, final time 1min Detector temperature: 300°CRuntime: 9.5 minRetention time of 1-octanol: about 8 minMethod:Carry out 6 consecutive injections of the test solution and calculate the RSD of the different peak areas and retention times.Limits:Retention time repeatability: the RSD of the retention times should be ≤ 2.0%Peak area precision (split and split less mode): the RSD of the peak areas should be ≤3.0% OVERALL TEST 2The overall test 2 covers the following parameters:-Injector, oven and detector temperature accuracy and stability: retention time repeatabilityTwo alternative tests are proposed:Overall test 2ATest solution:0.035 ml 1-octanol0.035 ml 2-octanone0.035 ml 2,6-dimethylanilin0.035 ml n-tridecane0.035 ml n-tetradecane35 mg n-eicosanedissolved in 50 ml DichloromethaneSettings:Column: SPB-1 (30m x 0.32mm ID x 0.25µm film)Carrier gas: HeliumVelocity: 25 cm/sSplit: 1:100Injection volume: 1 µlInjector temperature: 220°CDetector: FIDDetector temperature: 300°CGradient programme: 60°C (4 min), 5°C/min, 270°C (3 min)Method:Inject the solution twice and calculate the relative retention times in relation to n-eicosane (RRT = 1)The following table shows the approximately expected relative retention times.Analyte 1-octanol 2-octanone 2,6-dimethylaniline n-tridecane n-tetradecane RRT 0.30 0.22 0.37 0.52 0.60 Limits:The RSD of each RRT from two consecutive injections should be ≤1.0%Overall test 2BTest Solution:1.0% (W/W) n-Nonane and Hexadecane in Tetradecane.Settings:Column: Ultra-1 (25m x 0.32mm ID x 0.52µm film)Injection volume: 1 µlSolvent: TetradecaneOven temperature: 110°CGradient programme: 110°C, 20°C/min, 180°C (final time: 3.5 min)Detector temperature: 250°CInjector temperature: 200°CDetector: FIDFlow rates: Carrier gas (Helium): 2 ± 0.2 ml/minHydrogen: 30 ± 1.0 ml/minAir: 400 ± 20.0 ml/minMakeup (Nitrogen): 28 ± 1.0 ml/minSplit ratio: 15Split vent: 30 ± 3.0 ml/minSeptum purge: 3-5 ml/minMethod:Allow the system to equilibrate.Injection sequence:1)blank (Tetradecane)2) 6 replicates of the test solution. Calculate the mean of the retention times and peakareas and the relative standard deviation of n-Nonane and n-Hexadecane.Limits:Retention time repeatability: RSD of the peak retention times of the 6 replicates ≤ 2% Retention time (Rt) accuracy: for this example, the retention time ranges shown in the table below are proposed. Nevertheless, individual ranges should be predefined by the laboratory depending on the column used (e.g. Rt ± 0.2 min).Compound Rt (min)n-Nonane (C9) 1.3 – 1.7Tetradecane (C14) 4.0 – 4.7Hexadecane (C16) 5.1 – 6.0OVERALL TEST 3This test is a modified version of the overall test 1 to be used for the verification of: -Detector linearity: linearity of the areas recorded-Injector carry-over: area recorded in the blank runIt is described for both split and split less mode and may be combined with overall test 1. Split mode:Test solution: 1-octanol in n-hexane 1% (v/v)Prepare further reference solutions by diluting the test solution as described below. Settings: see overall test 1Injection sequence:5.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (2 µl/ml): 2 injections10.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (4 µl/ml): 2 injections15.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (6 µl/ml): 2 injections20.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (8 µl/ml): 2 injectionsi f combined with overall test 1 for repeatability: test solution (10 µl/ml): 6 injectionsn-hexane as blank (carry over)PA/PH/OMCL (06) 86 DEF - OMCL Guideline on Qualification of GC equipment (Annex 2) Split less mode:Stock solution: 1-octanol in n-hexane 1% (v/v)Test solution: Dilute 10 ml of the stock solution with n-hexane to 100 ml (corresponds to 1µl/ml of 1-octanol in n-hexane).Prepare further reference solutions by diluting the test solution with n-hexane.Settings: see overall test 1Injection sequence:5.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (0.2 µl/ml): 2 injections10.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (0.4 µl/ml): 2 injections15.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (0.6 µl/ml): 2 injections20.0 ml of the test solution diluted to 25.0 ml with n-hexane (0.8 µl/ml): 2 injectionsif combined with overall test 1 for repeatability: test solution (1 µl/ml): 6 injectionsn-hexane as blank (carry over)Limits:Linearity: coefficient of correlation of the calibration line obtained with the reference solutions and the test solution: r2≥ 0.999.Carry-over: the percentage of the peak area corresponding to the analyte in the blank solution should be ≤ 0.2% of the peak area of this analyte in the chromatogram obtained with the solution with the highest concentration within the sequence.October 2006Page 11 of 11。

大气科学系微机应用基础Primer of microcomputer applicationFORTRAN77程序设计FORTRAN77 Program Design大气科学概论An Introduction to Atmospheric Science大气探测学基础Atmospheric Sounding流体力学Fluid Dynamics天气学Synoptic Meteorology天气分析预报实验Forecast and Synoptic analysis生产实习Daily weather forecasting现代气候学基础An introduction to modern climatology卫星气象学Satellite meteorologyC语言程序设计 C Programming大气探测实验Experiment on Atmospheric Detective Technique云雾物理学Physics of Clouds and fogs动力气象学Dynamic Meteorology计算方法Calculation Method诊断分析Diagnostic Analysis中尺度气象学Meso-Microscale Synoptic Meteorology边界层气象学Boundary Layer Meteorology雷达气象学Radar Meteorology数值天气预报Numerical Weather Prediction气象统计预报Meteorological Statical Prediction大气科学中的数学方法Mathematical Methods in Atmospheric Sciences专题讲座Seminar专业英语English for Meteorological Field of Study计算机图形基础Basic of computer graphics气象业务自动化Automatic Weather Service空气污染预测与防治Prediction and Control for Air Pollution现代大气探测Advanced Atmospheric Sounding数字电子技术基础Basic of Digital Electronic Techniqul大气遥感Remote Sensing of Atmosphere模拟电子技术基础Analog Electron Technical Base大气化学Atmospheric Chemistry航空气象学Areameteorology计算机程序设计Computer Program Design数值预报模式与数值模拟Numerical Model and Numerical Simulation接口技术在大气科学中的应用Technology of Interface in Atmosphere Sciences Application海洋气象学Oceanic Meteorology现代实时天气预报技术（MICAPS系统）Advanced Short-range Weather Forecasting Technique(MICAPS system)1) atmospheric precipitation大气降水2) atmosphere science大气科学3) atmosphere大气1.The monitoring and study of atmosphere characteristics in near space as an environment forspace weapon equipments and system have been regarded more important for battle support.随着临近空间飞行器的不断发展和运用,作为武器装备和系统环境的临近空间大气特性成为作战保障的重要条件。

万方数据万方数据万方数据万方数据万方数据高敏感心肌肌钙蛋白检测的临床应用作者：鄢盛恺， YAN Sheng-kai作者单位：卫生部中日友好医院检验科,北京,100029刊名：中华检验医学杂志英文刊名：CHINESE JOURNAL OF LABORATORY MEDICINE年，卷(期)：2010,33(9)被引用次数：10次1.鄢盛恺心脏标志物的临床应用与发展[期刊论文]-中国心血管杂志 2009(5)2.潘柏申;杨振华;吴健民冠状动脉疾病和心力衰竭时心脏标志物临床检测应用建议[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志 2006(9)3.鄢盛恺美国临床生化科学院检验医学实践指南:急性冠状动脉综合征和心力衰竭的生物标志物 20094.Morrow DA;Cannon CP;Jesse RL National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory Medicine Practice Guidelines:clinical characteristics and utilization of biochemical markers in acute coronary syndromes 20075.James S;Flodin M;Johnston N The antibody configurations of cardiac troponin I assays may determine their clinical performance[外文期刊] 20066.Christenson RH;Duh SH;Apple FS Toward standardization of cardiac troponin I measurements partⅡ:assessing commutability of candidate reference materials and harmonization of cardiac troponin I assays[外文期刊] 20067.Cobbaert CM;Weykanp CW;Michielsen EC Timedependent instability of cardiac troponins in human plasma spiked with NIST reference material 2921 20088.Panteghini M;Bunk DM;Christenson RH Standardization of troponin I measurements:an update[外文期刊] 2008(11)9.Tate JR;Bunk DM;Christenson RH Standardization of cardiac troponin I measurement:past and present 201010.Alpert JS;Thygesen K;Antman E Myocardial infarction redefined:a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction[外文期刊] 2000(3)11.Thygesen K;Alpert JS;White HD Universal definition ofmyocardial infarction[外文期刊] 200712.Apple FS A new season for cardiac troponin assays:it's time to keep a scorecard[外文期刊] 200913.Bass A;Patterson JH;Adams KF Jr Perspective on the clinical application of troponin in heart failure and states of cardiac injury 201014.Clerico A;Giannoni A;Prontera C High-sensitivity troponin:a new tool for pathophysiological investigation and clinical practice 200915.Panteghini M Assay-related issues in the measurement of cardiac troponins 200916.Morrow DA;Antman EM Evaluation of high-sensitivity assays for cardiac troponin 200917.Reichlin T;Hochholzer W;Bassetti S Early diagnosis of myocardial infarction with sensitive cardiac troponin assays 200918.Keller T;Zeller T;Peetz D Sensitive troponin I assay in early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction 200919.Sabatine MS;Morrow DA;de Lemos JA Detection of acute changes in circulating troponin in the setting of transient stress test-induced myocardial ischaemia using an ultrasensitive assay:results from TIMI 35 200920.Apple FS;Pearce LA;Smith SW Role of monitoring changes in sensitive cardiac troponin I assay results for early diagnosis of myocardial infarction and prediction of risk of adverse events 2009 21.Hjortshφj S;Dethlefsen C;Kristensen SR Improved assay of cardiac troponin I is more sensitive than other assays of necrosis markers 200822.Hollander JE Highly sensitive troponins the answer or just more questions 200923.Morrow DA;Cannon CP;Rifai N Ability of minor elevations of troponin I and T to predict benefit from an early invasive strategy in patients with unstable angina and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction:results from a randomized trial 200124.Apple FS;Smith SW;Pearce LA Use of the centaur TnI-Ultra assay for detection of myocardial infarction and adverse events in patients presenting with symptoms suggestive of acute coronary syndrome[外文期刊] 200825.Wu AH;Lu QA;Todd J Short-and long-term biological variation in cardiac troponin I measured with a high-sensitivity assay:Implications for clinical practice[外文期刊] 2009(1)26.Schultze AE;Konrad RJ;Credille KM Ultrasensitive crossspecies measurement of cardiac troponin I using the erenna immunoassay system 200827.Berridge BR;Pettit S;Walker DB A translational approach to detecting drug-induced cardiac injury with cardiac troponins:consensus and recommendations from the Cardiac Troponins Biomarker Working Group of the Health and Environmental Sciences Institute 200928.Venge P;Johnston N;Lindahl B Normal plasma levels of cardiac troponin I measured by the high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I access prototype assay and the impact on the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia 200929.Eggers KM;Jaffe AS;Lind L Value of cardiac troponin I cutoff concentrations below the 99th percentile for clinical decision-making[外文期刊] 2009(1)30.Apple FS;Quist HE;Doyle PJ Plasma 99th percentile reference limits for cardiac troponin and creatine kinase MB mass for use with European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Consensus Recommendations[外文期刊] 200331.Vasile VC;Saenger AK;Kroning JM Biological and analytical variability of a novel high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T assay 201032.Eriksson S;Ⅱva T;Becker C Comparison of cardiac troponin I immunoassays affected by circulating autoantibodies 200533.Makaryus AN;Makaryus MN;Hassid B Falsely elevated cardiac troponin I levels[外文期刊] 200734.Jaffe A;Apple FS High-sensitivity cardiac troponin:hype,help,and reality 201035.Panteghini M;Hicks JM Biochemical markers in clinical cardiology:perspectives from present tofuture 200836.Plebani M;Zaninotto M Cardiac troponins:what we knew,what we know-where are we now 20091.潘柏申.PAN Bai-shen迎接高敏感方法检测心肌肌钙蛋白时代的到来[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)2.宋凌燕.吴炯.宋斌斌.邵文琦.张春燕.王蓓丽.郭玮.潘柏申.SONG Ling-yan.WU Jiong.SONG Bin-bin.SHAO Wen-qi.ZHANG Chun-yan.WANG Bei-li.GUO Wei.PAN Bai-shen高敏感方法检测心肌肌钙蛋白T的分析性能评价[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)3.吴炯.宋凌燕.张春燕.郭玮.宋斌斌.王蓓丽.唐斌.西雁.潘柏申.WU Jiong.SONG Ling-yan.ZHANG Chun-yan.GUO Wei.SONG Bin-bin.WANG Bei-li.TANG Bin.XI Yan.PAN Bai-shen高敏感心肌肌钙蛋白T检测方法在诊断急性心肌梗死中的价值[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)4.张春燕.宋凌燕.吴炯.宋斌斌.王蓓丽.唐斌.郭玮.潘柏申.ZHANG Chun-yan.SONG Ling-yan.WU Jiong.SONG Bin-bin.WANG Bei-li.TANG Bin.GUO Wei.PAN Bai-shen三种敏感的心肌肌钙蛋白Ⅰ检测方法分析性能评价及临床应用[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)5.刘泽金.郑芳.张真路.范庆坤.王纯.LIU Ze-jin.ZHENG Fang.ZHANG Zhen-lu.FAN Qing-kun.WANG Chun碱性磷酸酶对肌钙蛋白Ⅰ测定干扰的评价[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)6.宋凌燕.吴炯.郭玮高敏感心肌肌钙蛋白检测方法的临床应用[期刊论文]-检验医学2010,25(8)7.张括.王露楠.ZHANG Kuo.WANG Lu-nan定性免疫测定的试剂性能评价方法[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(9)8.门剑龙.任静.MEN Jian-long.REN Jing D-二聚体临床应用及标准化分析进展[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010,33(8)1.张云.刘君.刘敏.高兴.黄敏.李晓燕.赵强元入院即刻cTnI检测"灰区"结果的研究[期刊论文]-现代检验医学杂志 2013(5)2.唐红霞.贾克刚.韩雪晶.何聪.尚子轶.甄利PATHFAST检测系统检测高敏感心肌肌钙蛋白Ⅰ的分析性能评价[期刊论文]-检验医学 2013(7)3.蔡迪娅.邱晓明.苏月梅.王宗泽.常艳敏ADVIA Centaur超敏肌钙蛋白Ⅰ测试法的性能分析及临床应用评价[期刊论文]-天津医药 2011(12)4.刘英丽.张静.于勇.朱静.王秋萍3种便携式仪器测定心肌肌钙蛋白Ⅰ性能的评价[期刊论文]-感染、炎症、修复2011(2)5.张绍武.宁洁.李治国.邹丽娟.张浩充血性心力衰竭患者血清高敏肌钙蛋白T水平变化及其临床意义[期刊论文]-陕西医学杂志 2013(12)6.张东浩.李影生化标志物检测在急性心肌梗死(AMI)诊断中的应用[期刊论文]-中国实用医药 2012(26)7.邱彬.杨云勇心肌损伤标志物联合检测在急性心肌梗死诊断中的应用[期刊论文]-中国初级卫生保健 2011(4)8.曾桂胜.陈肇杰.张保红.冼土生.刘尉.冯广满超敏心肌肌钙蛋白T在急性冠状动脉综合征诊断中的应用[期刊论文]-热带医学杂志 2013(2)9.李萌辉高敏心肌肌钙蛋白的临床研究进展[期刊论文]-国际检验医学杂志 2013(12)10.杨苏萍DVH参数联合血清生化指标预测放射性心脏损伤的研究进展[期刊论文]-中国心血管病研究 2013(12)引用本文格式：鄢盛恺.YAN Sheng-kai高敏感心肌肌钙蛋白检测的临床应用[期刊论文]-中华检验医学杂志2010(9)。

地球物理学的英语Geophysics is the scientific study of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, using the principles of physics to understand the processes that shape our planet. This field encompasses a wide range of topics, from the composition and structure of the Earth's deep interior to the behavior of its atmosphere and oceans.One of the key areas in geophysics is seismology, which focuses on the study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth. By analyzing seismic waves, scientists can learn about the Earth's internal layers, including the crust, mantle, and core. This information is crucial for understanding the tectonic processes that can lead to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.Another important aspect of geophysics is the study of the Earth's magnetic field, which is generated by the motion of molten iron in the planet's core. This field, known as geomagnetism, is essential for navigation and plays a protective role by deflecting solar wind and cosmic rays. Variations in the Earth's magnetic field can also provide insights into past geological events and the dynamics of the Earth's core.Geophysicists also explore the Earth's gravitational field, which can be affected by the distribution of mass within the Earth. Gravimetry, the measurement ofgravitational forces, is used to detect subsurface structures, such as oil reservoirs or mineral deposits, and to study the Earth's crust and mantle.In addition to these core areas, geophysics intersectswith other disciplines, such as meteorology, oceanography,and space physics. For example, the study of the Earth's atmosphere and its interaction with solar radiation is a part of atmospheric physics. Meanwhile, the study of the Earth's ionosphere and magnetosphere falls under the domain of space physics.Technological advancements have greatly enhanced the capabilities of geophysics. Seismic imaging techniques, satellite remote sensing, and computational modeling are just a few of the tools that have expanded our understanding ofthe Earth's complex systems.The applications of geophysics are vast, ranging from natural hazard prediction and mitigation to resource exploration and environmental monitoring. As our knowledge of the Earth's processes deepens, so too does our ability to address the challenges posed by a changing planet.。

001工程测量engineering survey002测量学surveying003普通测量学elementary surveying004地形测量学topography005测量控制网surveying control network006平面控制网（又称“水平控制网”)horizontal control network 007高程控制网vertical control network008平面控制点horizontal control point009高程控制点vertical control point010平面坐标horizontal coordinate011控制测量control survey012地形测量topographic survey013三边网trilateration network014边角网triangulateration network015导线网traverse networt016三边测量trilateration survey017边角测量triangulateration018导线测量traverse survey019水平角horizontal angle020垂直角vertical angle021点之记description of station022测站station023测站归心station centring024照难点归心sighting centring025照准点sighting point026闭合导线closed traverse027附合导线connecting traverse028支导线open traverse029经纬仪导线theodolite traverse030视差导线subtense traverse031视距导线stadia traverse032平板仪导线plane-table traverse033距离测量distance measurement034电磁波测距electro-magnetic distance measurement 035标准检定场standard field of length036光电测距导线EDM traverse037小三角测量minor triangulation038线形锁linear triangulation chain039线形网linear triangulation network040图根控制mapping control041导线边traverse leg042导线折角traverse angle043导线结点junction point of traverses044导线曲折系数meandering coefficient of traverse045导线角度闭合差angle closing error of traverse046导线全长闭合差total length closing error of traverse 047导线相对闭合差relative length closing error of traverse 048导线纵向误差longitudinal error of traverse049导线横向误差lateral error of traverse050控制点control point051导线点traverse point052图根点mapping control point053高程点elevation point054碎部点detail point055图解图根点graphic mapping control point056解析图根点analytic mapping control point057坐标增量increment of coordinate058坐标增量闭合差closing error in coordinate increment059前方交会［forward］intersection060侧方交会side intersection061后方交会resection062边角交会法linear—angular intersection063边交会法linear intersection064贝塞尔法Bessel method065莱曼法Lehmann method066横基尺视差法subtense method with horizontal staff067竖基尺视差法subtense method with vertical staff068复测法repetition method069高程控制测量vertical control survey070水难测量leveling071附合水准路线annexed leveling line072闭合水准路线closed leveling line073支水准路线spur leveling line074水准网leveling network075视线高程elevation of sight076多角高程导线polygonal height traverse077独立交会高程点elevation point by independent intersection 078高程导线height traverse079严密平差rigorous adjustment080近似平差approximate adjustment081典型图形平差adjustment of typical figures082等权代替法method of equal-weight substitution083多边形平差法adjustment by method of polygon084结点平差adjustment by method of junction point085工程控制网engineering control network086施工控制网construction control network087三维网three一dimensional network088变形观测控制网control network for deformation observation 089勘测设计阶段测量survey in teconnaissance and design stage090施工测量construction survey091竣工测量finish construction survey092纵断面测量profile survey093横断面测量cross-section surveyo5。

磨损伤害常数的英语Wear Damage Constant: A Technical Overview.In the realm of engineering and materials science, the wear damage constant is a crucial parameter that quantifies the rate of material loss due to friction, abrasion, or other forms of mechanical action. This constant isessential for predicting the lifespan of components, optimizing their design, and ensuring reliable performance in various applications.1. Definition and Background.The wear damage constant, often denoted as 'K' or 'k', is a mathematical representation of the wear rate. It is typically derived from experimental data that measures the mass loss or volume loss of a material over time. This constant accounts for various factors such as material properties, applied loads, sliding velocities, and environmental conditions.2. Factors Influencing the Wear Damage Constant.Material Properties: The hardness, toughness, and ductility of a material significantly affect its wear resistance. Softer materials tend to wear more quickly,while harder and tougher materials can withstand greater abrasive forces.Applied Loads: The magnitude and distribution of loads applied to a material significantly influence its wear rate. Higher loads typically lead to faster wear.Sliding Velocities: The speed at which two surfaces slide against each other also affects wear. Highervelocities can generate more heat and friction, leading to accelerated wear.Environmental Conditions: Temperature, humidity, and the presence of corrosive agents can significantly impact the wear rate of materials.3. Types of Wear.The wear damage constant can vary depending on the type of wear mechanism involved. Some common types of wear include:Abrasive Wear: This occurs when hard particles or surfaces scrape against a material, causing its removal. The wear rate is often proportional to the hardness of the abrasive particles and the applied load.Adhesive Wear: This type of wear occurs when two surfaces adhere to each other and then tear apart, leaving material deposits on one or both surfaces. Adhesive wear is often seen in metal-to-metal contacts.Fatigue Wear: This occurs due to repeated cyclic loading, which leads to the formation of cracks and subsequent material removal. Fatigue wear is common in components that experience alternating loads or vibrations.4. Measurement and Prediction of Wear Rate.Measuring the wear rate and predicting its behavior over time is crucial for accurate wear modeling. Various experimental techniques, such as pin-on-disk tests, reciprocating wear tests, and tribometers, are used to determine the wear rate under controlled conditions. These tests allow researchers to quantify the wear damage constant under specific operating conditions.5. Applications and Importance.The wear damage constant finds applications in various industries, including automotive, aerospace, mining, and manufacturing. By understanding and predicting the wear rate of materials, engineers can design components that last longer, perform better, and require fewer maintenance interventions. This knowledge also helps in optimizing the operation of equipment and systems to minimize wear and maximize efficiency.6. Conclusion.The wear damage constant is a fundamental parameter in materials science and engineering that helps in quantifying and predicting the wear rate of materials. Understanding the factors that influence this constant and the various types of wear mechanisms is crucial for developing durable and reliable components in various applications. With the advancement of materials science and tribology research, the prediction and management of wear-related failures are becoming increasingly sophisticated, paving the way for more efficient and sustainable systems.。

1.目标旨在实现能源效率，安全与电磁兼容，建立起LED灯泡必须满足的要求1.1.适用范围1.1.1这项法规适用于控制装置内置于灯体或灯头内，并形成一个单一、不可拆卸的LED灯泡，这项法规是为那些在60赫兹的交流配电下运行， 额定电压127 V和/或220 V或电压范围覆盖相同区域范围或直流（DC或CC），有浪涌保护，馈电电压为250伏，适用于家用和类似用途而制定的，具有以下要求：--额定功率小于等于60瓦;- -额定电压大于50V，小于250V(AC)，使用ABNT NBR IEC 62560:2013 标准灯头 (B15d, B22d, E11, E12, E14, E17, E27, G5, G9, G13, GU10, GZ10)- -额定电压小于50V(AC/DC)使用G4, GU4, GY4, GX5.3, GU5.3, G6.35, GY6.35, G53, GU7, G5, G5.3, G13灯头的灯泡-LED灯管，内置控制装置，灯头为G5，G13或R17DC，并且用于替换NBR IEC60081标准尺寸荧光灯管的LED灯管。

注意：当灯泡在灯具中进行实际操作时，性能数据可能偏离本法规制定的规定值。

1.1.2以下含有元器件集成和灯头的不可拆卸的LED灯泡不适用于本标准：-- 有彩色透镜，发出彩光的LED灯泡，-- 拥有装饰外壳，并发出彩色光的RGB灯;-- 内置有控制装置并控制产生彩光的LED灯泡;-- OLED（有机发光二极管）。

-2.缩写ABNT 巴西技术标准协会（英：巴西技术标准协会）国际标准化组织3，引用标准ABNT IEC TS 62504:2013LED和LED模块普通照明的术语和定义ABNT NBR IEC 60061­1:2011 Bases of bulbs, bulb holders, as well as matrix for the control ofinterchangeability and safety Part 1: Bulb Bases第1部分：灯的基础部分，灯泡，灯座，以及控制互换性和安全性的模型的基础内容ABNT NBR IEC 60360:1996 Standard method to determine the temperature rise of the bulb base 确定灯泡底座的温度上升的标准方法ABNT NBR IEC 60529:2005 Degrees of protection for Electrical equipment enclosures (IP code)电气设备外壳的保护等级（IP代码）ABNT NBR IEC 60598­1:2010 Lamps - Part 1: General requirements and tests灯具 - 第1部分：一般要求与试验ABNT NBR IEC 60695-2­10:2006 F ire ha z ard testing - Part 2-10: Test methods of incandescent/heated wire - equipment and general test method火灾危害性试验 - 第2-10部分：白炽灯/加热丝试验方法 - 设备和通用试验方法ABNT NBR IEC 60695-2­11:2006 F ire ha z ard testing - Part 2-11: Test methods of incandescent/heated wire – flammability test method for finished products火灾危害性试验- 第2-11部分：白炽灯/加热丝试验方法 –针对成品的可燃性试验方法ABNT NBR IEC 60695-2­12:2013 F ire ha z ard tests Part 2-12: Test methods of incandescent/heated wire - Test M ethod for material flammability火灾危害性试验2-12部分：白炽灯/加热丝试验方法 - 对物质可燃性测试方法ABNT NBR IEC 60695-2­13:2013 F ire ha z ards tests Part 2-13: Test methods of incandescent/heated wire - Test method for flammability temperature to incandescent wire (G W IT) for materials火灾危险性测试第2-13部分：白炽灯/加热丝试验方法 - 燃点白炽灯丝（G W IT）的材料可燃性的实验方法ABNT NBR IEC 62031:2013 LED modules for general lighting - Safety specifications LED普通照明组件 - 安全规范ABNT NBR IEC 62560:2013 LED lamps with control de v ice incorporated for general lighting ser v icesfor a v oltage > 50 V - Safety specifications 为普通照明纳入控制装置的LED灯具的电压要大于50V - 安全规范ANSI/IEEE C.62.41-1991IEEE Recommended Practice on Characterization of Surges inLow-Voltage (1000 V and Less) AC Power Circuits 针对低压（1000 V及以下）AC电源电路的浪涌特性的IEEE推荐规程AN SI-NE M A-AN SLGC78 - 09377-2011 Specification of the chromaticity of solid state lighting products固态照明产品的色度规范CIE 13.3: Method of Measuring and Specifying Color Rendering of Light Sources光源显色的测量和说明方法CIE 13.3: Measurement of Luminous Flow光通量的测量CISPR 15:2013 Limits and Methods of Measurements of Radio DisturbanceCharacteristics of Electrical Lighting and Similar Equipments电气照明和类似设备的无线电骚扰特性的测量方法和限定ENERGY STAR Eligibility Criteria - Program Requirements for Integral LED Bulbs资格标准– 对整体LED灯泡的计划要求IEC 60439-845:1987 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, Lighting国际电工词汇，照明IEC 60439-3:2005 Bulb caps and holders together with gauges for the control ofinterchangeability and safety - Part 3: Gauges灯泡帽和灯座及其互换性和安全性控制测量仪 - 第3部分：测量仪IEC 60081:1997 Bulbs Double-capped fluorescent - Performance specifications灯泡双端荧光灯 - 性能规格IEC 60432-1:1996 Incandescent bulbs - Safety specifications - Part 1: Tungsten filamentbulbs for domestic and similar general lighting purposes白炽灯 - 安全规范 - 第1部分：钨灯丝灯泡家用和类似场合普通照明用IEC 6030:2005 Maximum bulb outlines for incandescent bulbs白炽灯泡的最大外廓注1：为避免ABNT 标准的某一个版本和IEC 标准的大多数现行版本类似，应该用NBR 来替换IEC 标准。

NTF技术在车辆NVH性能开发中的应用霍俊焱1，邓江华1，王海洋1（1中国汽车技术研究中心）[摘要]系统介绍了NTF分析在设计开发阶段和试验验证阶段的应用，重点包括NTF目标值设定方法、NTF仿真模型搭建方法、提高NTF模型精度、NTF仿真优化步骤、NTF试验测量方法。

提出了优化仿真NTF曲线峰值的PSA方法，运用此方法可以快速定位导致NTF曲线峰值的问题板件及变形模式，对其针对性的优化设计，给出PSA法在设计阶段和试验验证阶段使用案例，验证其有效性。

关键词：汽车性能，NVH仿真，NTF分析，目标值设定，模型精度，PSA，NVH调教Application of NTF in the development of vehicle NVH performanceHuojunyan1，Dengjianghua1，Wanghaiyang1（1China Automotive Technology&Research Center）[Abstract]The application of NTF in the design and test stage is introduced, including NTF target setting, NTF model building, model precision, steps of simulation and test, NTF test methods. The PSA method is proposed for simulation and optimization of the peak of NTF curve, using this method can quickly locate problematic plate and deformation mode, the cases of the PSA method application are showed and its effectiveness are proved.Keywords：Vehicle performance, NVH simulation, NTF analysis, Target setting, Precision, PSA1.引言随着车辆的普及，乘用车NVH（Noise Vibration and Harshness）性能越来越受到关注。

美国电力标准(ANSI electric standards)中文名称英文名称ANSI A TIS0600311-2007 直流电力系统.电信环境保护DC Power Systems - Telecommunications Environment ProtectionANSI A TIS0600328-2007 从物理应力和放射影响及直流电力系统相关要求中对远程通信线路进行保护Protection of Telecommunications Links from Physical Stress and Radiation Effects andAssociated Requirements for DC Power SystemsANSI C29.1-1988 电力绝缘子.试验方法Electrical Power Insulators, Test Methods forANSI C37.16-2000 低压电力断路器和交流电力电路保护器的优选额定值、相关要求和应用建议Low-V oltage Power Circuit Breakers and AC Power Circuit Protectors, Preferred Ratings,Related Requirements and Application Recommendations forANSI C37.17-1997 交流和通用直流低压电力断路器的断开装置Trip Devices for AC and General Purpose DC Low-V oltage Power Circuit BreakersANSI C37.46-2000 电力熔断器和熔丝切断开关规范Power Fuses and Fuse Disconnecting Switches, Specifications forANSI C37.50-1989 开关设备.封装式低压交流电力线路断路器.试验程序Switchgear – Low-V oltage AC Power Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures – Test ProceduresANSI C37.51-2003 金属封装低压交流电力断路器开关设备组件.合格试验规程Metal-Enclosed Low-V oltage AC Power-Circuit-Breaker Switchgear Assemblies -Conformance Test ProceduresANSI C37.85-2002 电力开关用交流高压电力真空断路器的X射线辐射极限Interrupters Used in Power Switchgear, X-Radiation Limits for AC High-V oltage PowerV acuumANSI C57.12.51-1981 三相，高压601至34500伏,低压208Y/120至4160伏容量不小于501千伏安,通风干式电力变压器的要求Dry-Type Power Transformers 501 kV A and Larger, Three-Phase with High-V oltage 601 to 34500 V olts, Low-V oltage 208Y/120 to 4160 V olts, Requirements for V entilatedANSI C57.12.52-1981 三相，高压:601至34500伏，低压:208Y/120至4160伏,容量不小于501千伏安,密封干式电力变压器的要求Dry-Type Power Transformers, 501 kV A and Larger, Three-Phase with High-V oltage 601 to 34500 V olts, Low-V oltage 208Y/120 to 4160 V olts, Requirements for SealedANSI C84.1-2006 电力系统和设备的美国国家标准.电压额定值(60Hz) American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and Equipment - V oltage Ratings (60 Hertz)ANSI C93.3-1995 电力线载波线路陷波器的要求Requirements for Power-Line Carrier Line Traps ANSI CC1-2005 变电站的电力连接Electric Power Connection for SubstationsANSI T1.337-2004 网络电力传输系统的最大电压、电流和功率级的要求Requirements for Maximum V oltage, Current, and Power Levels in Network-Powered Transport SystemANSI/ASABE/ISO 拖拉机、农林机械、电力草坪机和园艺设备.操作者控Tractors, machinery for agriculture and forestry, powered lawn and garden equipment -3767-2,AMD 1-3-2006 制和其他显示符号.第2部分:农业拖拉机和机械符号Symbols for operator controls and other displays - Part 2: Symbols for agricultural tractors andmachineryANSI/ASAE S323.2-1989 草坪与花坛电力设施的规定Definitions of Powered Lawn and Garden EquipmentANSI/ASHRAE 118.1-2008 燃气、电力和燃油热水器额定值的测试方法Method of Testing for Rating Commercial Gas, Electric, and Oil Service Water Heating EquipmentANSI/A TIS 0632000-2005 电信.防高空电磁脉冲(HEMP)的指定电信中心局和类似机构的高空基线电力保护Telecommunications –Above-Baseline Electrical Protection for DesignatedTelecommunications Central Offices and Similar-Type Facilities against High-AltitudeElectromagnetic Pulse (HEMP)ANSI/CEA 600.31-1997 电力线物理层和介质规范Power Line Physical Layer and Medium SpecificationANSI/CEA 600.38-1997 电力线/RF符号编码子层Power Line/RF Symbol Encoding SublayerANSI/CEA 633.31-2000 电力线物理层一致性Power Line Physical Layer ConformancceANSI/CEA 709.2-A-2000 控制网络电力线(PL)信道规范Control Network Powerline (PL) Channel SpecificationANSI/ICEA S-108-720-2004 额定电压46至345KV的挤压绝缘电力电缆的标准Standard for Extruded Insulation Power Cables Rated Above 46 through 345 KVANSI/ICEA S-76-474-2005 中性线支撑的额定值600伏特的抗风化挤制绝缘电力电缆组件Neutral-Supported Power Cable Assemblies with Weather-Resistant Extruded Insulation Rated600 V oltsANSI/ICEA S-97-682-2007 多用途屏蔽的电力电缆额定电压5～46kV用标准Standard For Utility Shielded Power Cables Rated 5 Through 46 kVANSI/IEEE 1015-2006 工业和商业电力系统用低压断路器的推荐实施规程(蓝皮书)Recommended Practice for Applying Low-V oltage Circuit Breakers Used in Industrial andCommercial Power Systems (Blue Book)ANSI/IEEE 1015/Cor1-2007 工业和商业电力系统用低压电路断路器应用的推荐实施规程.技术勘误1Recommended Practice for Applying Low V oltage Circuit Breakers Used in Industrial andCommercial Power Systems - Corrigendum 1ANSI/IEEE 1048-2003 电力线保护接地用指南Guide for Protective Grounding of Power LinesANSI/IEEE 1070-2006 电力传输模块恢复结构元件设计和试验指南Guide for the Design and Testing of Transmission Modular Restoration Structure ComponentsANSI/IEEE 1120-2004 海底电力和通信电缆的规划、设计和安装中所考虑因素的指南Guide to the Factors to Be Considered in Planning, Design, and Installation of SubmarinePower and Communication CableANSI/IEEE 1138-1994 电气公用设施电力线用复合光纤接地线(OPGW)的标准结构Standard Construction of Composite Fiber Optic Groundwire (OPGW) for use on ElectricUtility Power LinesANSI/IEEE 1159-1995 检测电力质量的推荐实施规范Recommended Practice on Monitoring Electric Power QualityANSI/IEEE 1234-2007 屏蔽电力电缆系统故障定位技术指南Guide for Fault Locating Techniques on Shielded Power Cable SystemsANSI/IEEE 1235-2000 地下电力电缆和管道用可识别护套的特性指南Guide for the Properties of Identifiable Jackets for Underground Power Cables and DuctsANSI/IEEE 1260-2007 用电力导线预报、测量和分析AM广播再辐射的指南Guide on the Prediction, Measurement, and Analysis of AM Broadcast Reradiation by Power LinesANSI/IEEE 1276-2006 液浸式电力变压器的高温安装材料的使用指南Guide for the Application of High-Temperature Insulation Materials in Liquid-Immersed Power TransformersANSI/IEEE 1291-1993 电力开关设备局部放电测量指南Guide for Partial Discharge Measurements in Power SwitchgearANSI/IEEE1299/C62.22.1-1996 保护绝缘屏蔽电力电缆系统的电涌放电器的连接指南Guide for the Connection of Surge Arresters to Protect Insulated, Shielded Electric PowerCable SystemsANSI/IEEE 1312-1993 电力系统.标称工作电压在230千伏以上的交流电力系统和设备用优选电压额定值Standard Preferred V oltage Ratings for Alternating-Current Electrical Systems and EquipmentOperating at V oltages Above 230 kV NominalANSI/IEEE 1346-1998 评估电力系统和电子处理设备兼容性的推荐实施规程Recommended Practice for Evaluating Electrical Power System Compatibility with ElectronicProcess EquipmentANSI/IEEE 1407-2007 使用水罐装容器进行中等电压(5kV-35kV)挤压电力电缆加速老化试验的指南Guide for Accelerated Aging Tests for Medium-V oltage (5 kV-35 kV) Extruded Electric PowerCables Using Water-Filled TanksANSI/IEEE 1410-2004 电力架空配电线的避雷性能提高的指南Guide for Improving the Lightning Performance of Electric Power Overhead Distribution LinesANSI/IEEE 142-2007 工业和商业电力系统接地的推荐实施规程Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power SystemsANSI/IEEE 1427-2006 空气绝缘电力变电站适宜电间隙和绝缘水平指南Guide for Recommended Electrical Clearances and Insulation Levels in Air Insulated Electrical Power SubstationsANSI/IEEE 1453-2004 交流电力系统的电压闪变测量和限值推荐规程Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of V oltage Flicker on AC Power Systems ANSI/IEEE 1476-2000 火车客车辅助电力系统接口标准Standard for Passenger Train Auxiliary Power Systems InterfacesANSI/IEEE 1481-1999 延迟和电力计算系统标准Standard for Delay and Power Calculation SystemANSI/IEEE 1511-2004 额定电压为5kV至46 kV的系统上电力电缆、接头和终端故障的调查和分析指南Guide for Investigating and Analyzing Power Cable, Joint, and Termination Failures onSystems Rated 5kV Through 46 kVANSI/IEEE 1542-2007 位于附近或电力线下面的灌溉设备的安装、维修和操作指南Guide for Installation, Maintenance, and Operation of Irrigation Equipment Located Near orUnder Power LinesANSI/IEEE 1547-2003 带电力系统的互连分配资源标准Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power SystemsANSI/IEEE 1547.3-2007 分配资源与电力系统互连的监控、信息交流和控制导则Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of Distributed ResourcesInterconnected with Electric Power SystemsANSI/IEEE 1560-2005 100赫兹到10千兆赫范围内射频电力线路抗干扰滤波Standard for Methods of Measurement of Radio Frequency Power Line Interference Filter in器的测量方法标准the Range of 100 Hz to 10 GHzANSI/IEEE 1561-2007 远程混合电力系统中酸性铅蓄电池的性能和寿命的优化用指南Guide for Optimizing the Performance and Life of Lead-Acid Batteries in Remote HybridPower SystemsANSI/IEEE 1613-2003 电力变电站的通信网络装置的标准环境和试验要求Standard Environmental and Testing Requirements for Communications Networking Devices in Electric Power SubstationsANSI/IEEE 1621-2004 办公室/用户环境中使用的电子装置的电力控制中的用户接口元件标准Standard for User Interface Elements in Power Control of Electronic Devices Employed inOffice/Consumer EnvironmentsANSI/IEEE 1646-2004 电力变电所自动化用标准通讯传输时间性能要求Standard Communication Delivery Time Performance Requirements for Electric Power Substation AutomationANSI/IEEE 18-2002 并联电力电容器Shunt Power CapacitorsANSI/IEEE 242-2001 工业和商业电力系统的保护和协调的推荐实施规程Protection and Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, Recommended Practice forANSI/IEEE 295-1969 电子设备电力变压器Electronics Power TransformersANSI/IEEE 308-2001 核电站1E级电力系统标准Standard Criteria for Class 1E Power Systems for Nuclear Power Generating StationsANSI/IEEE 336-2005 核装置的1E级电力、仪表和控制设备的安装、检验及试验指南Guide for Installation, Inspection, and Testing for Class 1E Power, Instrumentation, andControl Equipment at Nuclear FacilitiesANSI/IEEE 367-1996 电力故障导致的发电站地电位升高和感应电压测定的推荐操作规程Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power Station Ground Potential Rise andInduced V oltage from a Power FaultANSI/IEEE 400-2002 电力电缆系统现场进行直流高压试验的指南Direct V oltage Tests on Power Cables in the Field, Guide for MakingANSI/IEEE 400.1-2007 额定电压5kV和更高直流电压的层压介质护套电力电缆系统的现场测试指南Guide for Field Testing of Laminated Dielectric, Shielded Power Cable Systems Rated 5 kVand Above with High Direct Current V oltageANSI/IEEE 400.2-2004 使用超低频(VLF)的屏蔽电力电缆系统的现场试验指南Guide for Field Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems Using V ery Low Frequency (VLF)ANSI/IEEE 400.3-2006 野外环境中屏蔽电力电缆系统局部放电测试用指南Guide for Partial Discharge Testing of Shielded Power Cable Systems in a Field Environment ANSI/IEEE 446-1995 工业和商业用途的应急和备用电力系统Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial ApplicationsANSI/IEEE 493-2007 可靠的工业及商业电力系统设计用推荐实施规程Recommended Practice for the Design of Reliable Industrial and Commercial Power Systems ANSI/IEEE 505-1977 发电站电力系统用名词Nomenclature for Generating Station Electric Power SystemsANSI/IEEE 516-2003 带电电力线路的维护方法指南Guide for Maintenance Methods on Energized Power LinesANSI/IEEE 532-2007 电力仪器和控制电缆护套的选择和试验用指南Guide for Selecting and Testing Jackets for Power, Instrumentation and Control CablesANSI/IEEE 539-2005 与架空电力线路电晕和磁场效应有关术语的标准定义Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Corona and Field Effects of Overhead Power LinesANSI/IEEE 551-2006 工业和商用电力系统计算交流短路电流的推荐方法Recommended Methods for Calculating AC Short-Circuit Currents in Industrial and Commercial Power SystemsANSI/IEEE 576-2000 工业和商业用绝缘电力电缆的安装、端接和检测的推荐实施规程Recommended Practice for Installation, Termination, and Testing of Insulated Power Cable asUsed in Industrial and Commercial ApplicationsANSI/IEEE 62-1995 电力设备的诊断现场试验指南.第1部分:充油电力变压器、调节器和电抗器Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Electric Power Apparatus –Part 1: Oil Filled PowerTransformers, Regulators, and ReactorsANSI/IEEE 635-2003 电力电缆铝护套的选择和设计指南Guide for Selection and Design of Aluminum Sheaths for Power Cables ANSI/IEEE 643-2004 电力线路载波器指南Guide for Power-Line Carrier ApplicationsANSI/IEEE 644-1994 交流电力线工频电场和磁场的测量程序Procedures for Measurement of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields from AC Power LinesANSI/IEEE 741-2007 核电站1E级电力系统和设备保护的标准准则Standard Criteria for the Protection of Class 1E Power Systems and Equipment in Nuclear Power Generating StationsANSI/IEEE 835-1994 标准电力电缆的载流容量表Standard Power Cable Ampacity TablesANSI/IEEE C37.10-1996 电力断路器的诊断和故障调查指南Guide for Diagnostic and Failure Investigation of Power Circuit BreakersANSI/IEEE C37.111-1999 电力系统用瞬态数据交换(COMTRADE)通用格式Common Format for Transient Data Exchange (COMTRADE) for Power Systems ANSI/IEEE C37.118-2005 电力系统同步矢量度标准Standard for Synchrophasors for Power SystemsANSI/IEEE C37.119-2005 电力线路断路器的断路器故障保护指南Guide for Breaker Failure Protection of Power Circuit BreakersANSI/IEEE C37.13.1-2006 金属封装低电压功率电力断路器专用开关设备标准Standard for Definite Purpose Switching Devices for Use in Metal-Enclosed Low-V oltage Power Circuit Breaker SwitchgearANSI/IEEE C37.14-2002 外壳用低压直流电力断路器Low-V oltage DC Power Circuit Breakers Used in EnclosuresANSI/IEEE C37.2-2008 标准电力系统装置功能编号、首字母缩略词和连接标记Standard Electrical Power System Device Function Numbers, Acronyms and ContactDesignationsANSI/IEEE C37.20.1-2002 带金属包壳的低压电力断路开关设备Metal-Enclosed Low-V oltage Power Circuit Breaker SwitchgearANSI/IEEE C37.20.1a-2005 金属壳密封的低压电力线路断路器开关设备标准.修改1:短时间和短路可耐电流测试;多电缆连接的最小区域Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-V oltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear - Amendment 1:Short-Time and Short-Circuit Withstand Current Tests; Minimum Areas for Multiple CableConnectionsANSI/IEEE C37.20.1b-2006 金属密封的低压电力断路器开关设备标准.修改件2:Standard for Metal-Enclosed Low-V oltage Power Circuit Breaker Switchgear - Amendment 2:直流电(DC)牵引电力开关控制和辅助电力布线的附加要求Additional Requirements for Control and Auxiliary Power Wiring in DC Traction Power SwitchgearANSI/IEEE C37.91-2008 电力变压器防护用指南Guide for Protecting Power TransformersANSI/IEEE C57.113-2002 充液电力变压器和并联电抗器的局部放电测量指南Guide for Partial Discharge Measurement in Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt ReactorsANSI/IEEE C57.117-1986 公用电力系统的电力变压器和并联电抗器失效数据报告指南Guide for Reporting Failure Data for Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors on ElectricUtility Power SystemsANSI/IEEE C57.119-2002 超出铭牌额定值的负荷下进行油浸电力变压器升温试验的推荐惯例Recommended Practice for Performing Temperature Rise Tests on Oil Immersed PowerTransformers at Loads Beyond Nameplate RatingsANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-2005 包括固体浇铸和/或树脂密封绕组的干式配电和电力变压器的标准.一般要求Standard General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers IncludingThose with Solid-Cast and/or Resin Encapsulated WindingsANSI/IEEE C57.12.56-1994 通风干燥型电力和配电变压器绝缘系统热评价的试验程序Test Procedure for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for V entilated Dry-Type Powerand Distribution Transformers (reinstatement of administratively withdrawn standard)ANSI/IEEE C57.12.60-1998 固体浇铸和树脂密封的电力和配电变压器绝缘系统热评定试验程序指南Guide for Test Procedures for Thermal Evaluation of Insulation Systems for Solid Cast andResin-Encapsulated Power and Distribution TransformersANSI/IEEE C57.12.70-2000 输电及电力变压器用终端标志和连接标准Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution and Power Transformers ANSI/IEEE C57.12.80-2002 电力分配变压器术语Terminology for Power and Distribution TransformersANSI/IEEE C57.120-1992 电力变压器和电抗器的损耗评价指南Loss Evaluation Guide for Power Transformers and ReactorsANSI/IEEE C57.125-2005 电力变压器和分流扼流器故障研究、记录和分析指南Guide for Failure Investigation, Documentation, and Analysis for Power Transformers and Shunt ReactorsANSI/IEEE C57.127-2007 油浸电力变压器和电抗器中局部放电声排放的探测和定位的指南Guide for the Detection and Location of Acoustic Emissions from Partial Discharges inOil-Immersed Power Transformers and ReactorsANSI/IEEE C57.136-2000 额定功率大于500kV A的油浸式电力变压器和并联电抗器的声级抑制和测定指南Guide for Sound Level Abatement and Determination for Liquid-Immersed PowerTransformers and Shunt Reactors Rated Over 500 kV AANSI/IEEE C57.18.10-1998 半导体电力整流变压器要求和标准实施规程Standard Practices and Requirements for Semiconductor Power Rectifier Transformers ANSI/IEEE C57.19.00-2004 电力装置套管的标准一般要求和试验程序Standard General Requirements and Test Procedure for Power Apparatus Bushings ANSI/IEEEC57.19.100-1995电力设备套管应用指南Guide for Application of Power Apparatus BushingsANSI/IEEE C57.93-2007 液浸式电力变压器的安装和维护用指南Guide for Installation and Maintenance of Liquid-Immersed Power TransformersANSI/IEEE C57.94-2000 干式通用配电及电力变压器的安装、应用、操作和维护的推荐规程Recommended Practice for Installation, Application, Operation, and Maintenance of Dry-TypeGeneral-Purpose Distribution and Power TransformersANSI/IEEE C62.41.1-2002 低压(1000V及1000V以下)交流电力电路的电涌环境指南Guide on the Surge Environment in Low-V oltage (1000 V and Less) AC Power CircuitsANSI/IEEE C62.48-2005 电力系统干扰和过压保护装置之间相互作用的指南Guide on Interactions Between Power System Disturbances and Surge Protective DevicesANSI/IEEE C62.72-2007 低压(1000V或1000V以下)交流电力电路用过电压保护装置的应用指南Guide for the Application of Surge Protective Devices for Low V oltage (1000 V olts or Less)AC Power CircuitsANSI/IEEE C62.92.1-2000 电力设施系统中线接地应用指南.第1部分:说明Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part 1 - IntroductionANSI/IEEE C62.92.2-1989 公用电力系统中线接地应用指南.第2部分:同步发电机系统电涌保护器件的接地Guide for the Application of Neutral Grounding in Electrical Utility Systems, Part II -Grounding of Synchronous Generator SystemsANSI/ISA61010-1(82.02.01)-2004 电力和电子试验、测量、控制和相关设备:一般要求Electric and Electronic Test, Measuring, Controlling, and Related Equipment: GeneralRequirementsANSI/ISA 96.02.01-2008 阀门电力传动装置的规范指南Guidelines for the Specification of Electric V alve ActuatorsANSI/NEMAICEAS-93-639/WC 74-2006用于电能输电和配电的5～46kV铠装电力电缆5-46kV Shielded Power Cable for Use in the Transmission and Distribution of Electric EnergyANSI/NSF 4(i11)-2006 商业烹饪.可再加热和电力加热食品架和传输设备Commercial Cooking, Rethermalization and Powered Hot Food Holding and Transport EquipmentANSI/UL 1047-2003 绝缘电力系统设备标准Standard for Isolated Power Systems EquipmentANSI/UL 1072-2007 中压电力电缆的安全标准Standard for Safety for Medium-V oltage Power Cables (Proposal dated February 24, 2006)ANSI/UL 1277-2005 任选光纤构件的电力电缆和控制盘电缆的安全标准(第4版)Standard for Safety for Electrical Power and Control Tray Cables with Optional Optical-FiberMembers (4th edition)ANSI/UL 1561-2005 干式通用和电力变压器Dry-Type General Purpose and Power Transformers ANSI/UL 583-2007 工业用蓄电池电力货车标准Standard for Electric-Battery-Powered Industrial Trucks ANSI/UL 705-2006 电力通风机Power V entilatorsANSI/UL 844a-2006 电力照明固定设备在(分级)危险场所应用的安全性标准Standard for Safety for Electric Lighting Fixtures for Use in Hazardous (Classified) LocationsANSI/UL 977-2003 熔断的电力线路装置Fused Power-Circuit Devices ASME B 31.1a 电力管线.补充件(Power piping; Addenda)Addenda-2002ASME B31.1-2001 电力管线(Power piping)ASME BPVC Section 1-2001 ASME锅炉和压力容器规程.第1节:电力锅炉建造规则(ASME Boiler & Pressure V essel Code - Section 1: Rules for Construction of Power Boilers)ASME BPVC Section 7-2001 ASME锅炉和压力容器规程.第7节:电力锅炉维护的推荐指南(ASME Boiler & Pressure V essel Code - Section 7: Recommended Guidelines for the Care ofPower Boilers)ASNI C92.2-1987 标称工作电压大于230kV的交流电气系统和设备用电力系统.首选电压额定值for power systems- alternating-current electrical systems and equipment operating at voltagesabove 230 kV nominal - preferred voltage ratingsASTM A1009-2005 高频(10kHz-1MHz)电力变压器和滤波感应器用软磁性MnZn铁芯材料标准规范Standard Specification for Soft Magnetic MnZn Ferrite Core Materials for High Frequency (10kHz-1 MHz) Power Transformer and Filter Inductor ApplicationsASTM F855-2004 断开的电力线及设备上使用的临时保护性接地装置的标准规范Standard Specifications for Temporary Protective Grounds to Be Used on De-energizedElectric Power Lines and EquipmentHD 543.2 S1-1995 电力系统远方保护设备的性能和试验第2部分：模拟比较系统Performance and testing of teleprotection equipment of power systems - Part 2: Analoguecomparison systems (IEC 60834-2:1993, modified)HD 632 S1-1998 额定电压36 kV 至150 kV的挤压绝缘电力电缆及其附件Power cables with extruded insulation and their accessories for rated voltages above 36 kV(Um = 42 kV) up to 150 kV (Um = 170 kV)IEEE 1015-1997 工业和商业电力系统用低压断路器的推荐规程. (Recommended practice for applying low-voltage circuit breakers used in industrial and commercial power systems)IEEE 1046-1991 电力设备分布式数字控制及监视的应用指南(Application guide for distributed digital control and monitoring for power plants) IEEE 1048-2003 电力线的保护接地(Protective grounding of power lines)IEEE 1120-1990 规划,设计和安装海底电力电缆和通讯电缆时考虑因素指南(Guide to the factors to be considered in the planning, design, and installation of submarinepower and communications cables)IEEE 1159-1995 监测电力特性用推荐规程(Recommended practice for monitoring electric power quality)IEEE 1235-2000 地下电力电缆和管道用可识别护套的性能指南(Guide for the properties of identifiable jackets for underground power cables and ducts) IEEE 1248-1998 水力发电站的电力系统使用指南(Guide for the commissioning of electrical systems in hydroelectric power plants) IEEE 1249-1996 水力电力发电厂自动化用计算机控制指南(Guide for computer-based control for hydroelectric power plant automation)IEEE 1260-1996 用电力线对AM 广播再放射进行预测、测量和分析(Guide on the prediction, measurement, and analysis of AM broadcast reradiation by power lines)IEEE 1276-1997 油冷电力变压器中高温绝缘材料使用的试用指南(Trial-use guide for the application of high-temperature insulation materials in liquid-immersedpower transformers)IEEE 1325-1996 电力断路器的野外故障演习报告(Reporting field failur practice for power circuit breakers) IEEE 1344-1995 电力系统用同步移相器(Synchrophasors for power systems)IEEE 1346-1998 评估电力系统和电子处理设备兼容性的推荐规程(Recommended practice for evaluating electric power system compatibility with electronic process equipment)IEEE 1366-1998 电力分配可靠性指数试验用指南(Trial-use guide for electric power distribution reliability indices)IEEE 1406-1998 电力电缆系统用液体中气体分析的使用指南(Guide to the use of gas-in-fluid analysis for electric power cable systems)IEEE 1407-1998 使用充水罐进行中压挤制电力电缆加速老化试验的试验指南(Trial-use guide for accelerated aging tests for medium-voltage extruded electric power cablesusing water-filled tanks)IEEE 141-1993 工厂电力分配的推荐规程(Recommended practice for electric power distribution for industrial plants)IEEE 1410-1997 提高电力架空配电线路避雷性能指南(Guide for improving the lightning performance of electric power overhead distribution lines) IEEE 142-1991 工商业电力系统的接地推荐规程(Recommended practice for grounding of industrial and commercial power systems)IEEE 1459-2000 试验用标准定义. 在正弦曲线,非正弦曲线,平衡和非平衡条件下电力数量测量的试验用标准定义(Trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quantities undersinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions)IEEE 1476-2000 客车辅助电力系统接口(Passenger train auxiliary power systems interfaces)IEEE 1547-2003 有电力系统的互连配电资源(Interconnecting distributed resources with electric power systems)IEEE 1613-2003 电力分站中通信网络设备的环境及测试要求(Environmental and testing requirements for communications networking devices in electric power substations)IEEE 18-2002 并联电力电容器(Shunt power capacitors)IEEE 241-1990 商业建筑物电力系统推荐规程(Recommended practice for electric power systems in commercial buildings)IEEE 242-2001 工业及商业电力系统保护及配合用推荐规程(Recommended practice for protection and coordination of industrial and commercial power systems)IEEE 277-1994 水泥厂电力分配的推荐规程(Recommended practice for cement plant power distribution)IEEE 295-1969 电子设备用电力变压器(Electronics power transformers)IEEE 308-1991 核电站1E级电力系统的标准(Criteria for class 1E power systems for nuclear power generating stations)IEEE 336-1985 核装置的电力、仪表和控制设备的安装、检验及试验要求(Installation, inspection, and testing requirements for power, instrumentation, and controlequipment at nuclear facilities)IEEE 399-1997 工业及商业电力系统分析用推荐规程(Recommended practice for industrial and commercial power systems analysis)IEEE 400-2001 铠装电力电缆系统绝缘的现场试验和评定指南(Guide for field testing and evaluation of the insulation of shielded power cable systems)IEEE 493-1997 可靠的工业及商业电力系统设计用推荐规程(Recommended practice for design of reliable industrial and commercial power systems) IEEE 505-1977 发电站电力系统术语命名(Nomenclature for generating station electric power systems)IEEE 516-2003 带电电力线维修方法指南(Guide for maintenance methods on energized power lines)IEEE 539-1990 架空电力线路电晕和无线电噪声用术语的定义(Definitions of terms relating to corona and field effects of overhead power lines)IEEE 576-2000 石化工业用绝缘电力电缆的安装、端接和试验推荐规程(Recommended practice for installation, termination, and testing of insulated power cable asused in industrial and commercial applications)IEEE 62-1995 电力装置鉴别现场试验指南.第1部分:油浸式电力变压器,调节器和电抗器(Guide for diagnostic field testing of electrical power apparatus - Part 1: Oil filled powertransformers, regulators, and reactors)IEEE 635-1989 电力电缆铝护套的选择和设计指南(Guide for selection and design of aluminium sheaths for power cables)IEEE 643-1980 电力线载波应用指南(Guide for power-line carrier applications)IEEE 644-1994 交流电力线路工业频率电场和磁场的测量方法(Measurement of power frequency electric and magnetic fields from AC power lines)IEEE 664-1993 单芯电缆风振阻振器电力分散特性实验室测量指南(Guide for laboratory measurement of the power dissipation characteristics of aeolian vibration dampers for single conductors)IEEE 666-1991 发电站电力服务系统设计指南(Design guide for electric power service systems for generating stations)IEEE 741-1997 核电站1E级电力系统和设备保护标准(Criteria for the protection of class 1E power systems and equipment in nuclear power generating stations)IEEE 824-1994 电力系统中的串联电容器(Series capacitors in power systems)IEEE 835-1994 电力电缆的载流量表(Power cable ampacity tables)IEEE 928-1986 地面光电电力系统性能标准(Recommended criteria for terrestrial photovoltaic power systems)IEEE C 37.10-1995 电力断路器的诊断和故障调查导则(Guide for diagnostic and failure investigation of power circuit breakers)IEEE C 37.111-1999 电力系统瞬态数据交换的通用格式(Common format for transient data exchange (COMTRADE) for power systems) IEEE C 37.2-1996 电力系统设备功能数目及接触名称与符号(Electrical power system device function numbers and contact designations)IEEE C 37.90.1-2002 与电力装置相关的继电器和中继系统的耐电涌性能试验(Surge withstand capability (SWC) tests for relays and relay systems associated with electricpower apparatus)IEEE C 57.113-1991 充液电力变压器和分路扼流器部分放电测量指南(Guide for partial discharge measurement in liquid-filled power transformers and shunt reactors)IEEE C 57.117-1986 电业局电源系统电力变压器和分流扼流器故障数据报告指南(Guide for reporting failure data for power transformers and shunt reactors on electric utilitypower systems)IEEE C 57.12.00-2000 油浸式配电,电力和调压变压器的一般要求(General requirements for liquid-immersed distribution, power, and regulating transformers)IEEE C 57.12.01-1998 包括固体浇铸和/或树脂密封绕组式在内的干式配电和电力变压器的一般技术要求(General requirements for dry-type distribution and power transformers including those withsolid-cast and/or resin-encapsulated windings)IEEE C 57.12.56-1986 通风干式电力和配电变压器绝缘系统热评定的测试程序(Test procedure for thermal evaluation of insulation systems for ventilated dry-type power anddistribution transformers)IEEE C 57.12.60-1998 固体浇铸和树脂密封的电力和配电变压器用绝缘系统的热评定试验程序指南(Guide for test procedures for thermal evaluation of insulation systems for solid-cast andresin-encapsulated power and distribution transformers)IEEE C 57.12.80-2002 电力和配电变压器的术语(Terminology for power and distribution transformers)IEEE C 57.12.90-1999 油浸式配电、电力和调压变压器的试验规程(Test code for liquid-immersed distribution, power, and regulating transformers) IEEE C 57.12.91-2001 干式配电和电力变压器试验规程(Test code for dry-type distribution and power transformers)IEEE C 57.127-2000 油浸电力变压器局部放电所发出声音探测的试用指南(Trial-use guide for the detection of acoustic emissions from partial discharges in oil-immersedpower transformers)IEEE C 57.136-2000 额定功率大于500kV A的液浸式电力变压器和并联电抗器的声级抑制和测定(Sound level abatement and determination for liquid-immersed power transformers and shuntreactors rated over 500 kV A)IEEE C 57.18.10-1998 半导体电力整流器变压器的要求和实施规范(Practices and requirements for semiconductor power rectifier transformers) IEEE C 57.19.100-1995 电力设备套管应用指南(Guide for application of power apparatus bushings)IEEE C 57.93-1995 液体浸入电力变压器的安装指南(Guide for installation of liquid-immersed power transformers)IEEE C 57.94-1982 干式通用配电和电力变压器的安装,使用,操作和维护推荐规程(Recommended practice for installation, application, operation, and maintenance of dry-typegeneral purpose distribution and power transformers)IEEE C 57.96-1999 加载干式配电和电力变压器(Loading dry-type distribution and power transformers)IEEE C 62.22.1-1996 绝缘保护铠装电力电缆电涌放电器的连接指南(Guide for the connection of surge arresters to protect insulated, shielded electric power cable systems)IEEE C 62.41.1-2002 低压(1000V及1000V以下)交流电力电路电涌环境指南(Guide on the surge environment in low-voltage (1000 V and less) ac power ciruits)IEEE C 62.41.2-2002 低压(1000V及1000V以下)交流电力网中电涌特性规程(Practice on characterization of surges in low-voltage (1000 V and less) ac power circuits)IEEE C 62.48-1995 电力系统干扰和过压保护装置之间相互作用的说明(Guide on interactions between power system disturbances and surge-protective devices)IEEE C 62.92-1987 电力事业系统中性接地应用指南.第一部分:引言(Guide for the application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems; part 1: introduction)IEEE C 62.92.1-2000 电力设施系统中线接地的应用.第1部分:说明(Application of neutral grounding in electrical utility systems - Part 1: Introduction)。

第３９卷　第１期 ２０２４年３月 西　南　科　技　大　学　学　报 ＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＳｏｕｔｈｗｅｓｔＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅａｎｄＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ Ｖｏｌ．３９Ｎｏ．１ Ｍａｒ．２０２４ＤＯＩ：１０．２００３６／ｊ．ｃｎｋｉ．１６７１ ８７５５．２０２４．０１．０１０收稿日期：２０２３－０２－２０；修回日期：２０２３－１１－０７基金项目：国家自然科学基金面上项目（５２０７０８２２８４）作者简介：第一作者，王振宇，男，博士研究生；通信作者，刘东，男，博士，副教授，研究方向为传热传质，Ｅ ｍａｉｌ：ｄｔｌｄ１２３＠１２６．ｃｏｍ污泥干燥特性实测及预测模型研究王振宇１　王　强２　刘　东２　王　令２　陈永灿１（１．西南科技大学环境与资源学院　四川绵阳　６２１０１０；２．西南科技大学土木工程与建筑学院　四川绵阳　６２１０１０）摘要：污泥脱水干化是污泥资源化利用的重要环节，目前缺乏通识性的污泥干燥模型。

实验分析了干燥温度、相对湿度、污泥厚度、干燥时间等因素对污泥干燥过程的影响，比较了常用的５种薄层干燥模型对污泥干燥过程的拟合效果，建立了一种ＢＰ神经网络污泥干燥预测模型，并与传统的拟合效果较优的Ｍｉｄｉｌｌｉ模型进行了预测精度比较。

结果表明：当污泥低温干燥时，温度、相对湿度对污泥干燥有显著影响，相对湿度越高、温度越低，污泥干燥速率越慢；Ｍｉｄｉｌｌｉ模型决定系数高、卡方系数和均方根误差均较小，是５种常用薄层干燥模型中拟合效果最好的模型，其与实验结果误差在１５％以内；ＢＰ神经网络污泥干燥预测模型能很好预测污泥的干燥过程，预测结果与实验测试结果误差在５％以内，具有比Ｍｉｄｉｌｌｉ模型更高的预测精度。

ＢＰ神经网络污泥干燥预测模型为污泥干燥过程模拟提供了一种新的方法。

关键词：污泥　薄层干燥模型　ＢＰ神经网络污泥干燥预测模型中图分类号：Ｘ７０３ 文献标志码：Ａ 文章编号：１６７１－８７５５（２０２４）０１－００６６－０９ＳｔｕｄｙｏｎｔｈｅＭｅａｓｕｒｅｍｅｎｔａｎｄＰｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎＭｏｄｅｌｏｆＳｌｕｄｇｅＤｒｙｉｎｇＣｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓＷＡＮＧＺｈｅｎｙｕ１，ＷＡＮＧＱｉａｎｇ２，ＬＩＵＤｏｎｇ２，ＷＡＮＧＬｉｎｇ２，ＣＨＥＮＹｏｎｇｃａｎ１（１．ＳｃｈｏｏｌｏｆＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｎｄＲｅｓｏｕｒｃｅ，ＳｏｕｔｈｗｅｓｔＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅａｎｄＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，Ｍｉａｎｙａｎｇ６２１０１０，Ｓｉｃｈｕａｎ，Ｃｈｉｎａ；２．ＳｃｈｏｏｌｏｆＣｉｖｉｌＥｎｇｉｎｅｅｒｉｎｇａｎｄＡｒｃｈｉｔｅｃｔｕｒｅ，ＳｏｕｔｈｗｅｓｔＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅａｎｄＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，Ｍｉａｎｙａｎｇ６２１０１０，Ｓｉｃｈｕａｎ，Ｃｈｉｎａ）Ａｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｅｗａｔｅｒｉｎｇａｎｄｄｒｙｉｎｇａｒｅｃｒｕｃｉａｌｓｔｅｐｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｕｔｉｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｌｕｄｇｅ．Ｔｈｅｒｅｉｓｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｌｙａｌａｃｋｏｆａｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｌｏｆｓｌｕｄｇｅ．Ｔｈｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｓｏｆｄｒｙｉｎｇｔｅｍｐｅｒａｔｕｒｅ，ｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｈｕｍｉｄｉｔｙ，ｓｌｕｄｇｅｔｈｉｃｋｎｅｓｓ，ａｎｄｄｒｙｉｎｇｔｉｍｅｏｎｄｒｙｉｎｇｓｌｕｄｇｅｗｅｒｅａｎａｌｙｚｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔ．Ｔｈｅｆｉｔｔｉｎｇｅｆｆｅｃｔｓｏｆｆｉｖｅｃｏｍｍｏｎｌｙｕｓｅｄｔｈｉｎ ｌａｙｅｒｄｒｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｌｓｏｎｔｈｅｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｗｅｒｅｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄ．ＡＢＰｎｅｕｒａｌｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｍｏｄｅｌｗａｓｅｓｔａｂｌｉｓｈｅｄｆｏｒｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｎｇｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇ．ＴｈｉｓｗａｓｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｈｅＭｉｄｉｌｌｉｍｏｄｅｌ，ｗｈｉｃｈｈａｓｔｒａｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｌｙｓｈｏｗｎｂｅｔｔｅｒｆｉｔｔｉｎｇｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｆｏｒｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎａｃｃｕｒａｃｙ．Ｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｏｆｓｌｕｄｇｅｉｓｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔｌｙａｆｆｅｃｔｅｄｂｙｔｅｍｐｅｒａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｈｕｍｉｄｉｔｙｗｈｅｎｉｔｉｓｄｒｉｅｄａｔｌｏｗｔｅｍｐｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｈｉｇｈｅｒｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｈｕｍｉｄｉｔｙａｎｄｔｈｅｌｏｗｅｒｔｈｅｔｅｍｐｅｒａｔｕｒｅ，ｔｈｅｓｌｏｗｅｒｔｈｅｒａｔｅａｔｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｉｅｓ．ＴｈｅＭｉｄｉｌｌｉｍｏｄｅｌｈａｓａｈｉｇｈｃｏｅｆｆｉｃｉｅｎｔｏｆｄｅｔｅｒｍｉｎａｔｉｏｎ，ａｎｄｉｔｓｃｈｉ ｓｑｕａｒｅａｎｄＲＭＳＥｖａｌｕｅｓａｒｅｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｌｏｗ．Ｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｂｅｓｔ ｆｉｔｔｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｌａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｆｉｖｅｃｏｍｍｏｎｌｙｕｓｅｄｔｈｉｎ ｌａｙｅｒｄｒｙｉｎｇｍｏｄ ｅｌｓ．Ｔｈｅｅｒｒｏｒｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔａｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｉｓｗｉｔｈｉｎ１５％．ＴｈｅＢＰｎｅｕｒａｌｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎｍｏｄｅｌｃａｎｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｔｈｅｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｖｅｒｙｗｅｌｌ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｈａｖｅｌｅｓｓｔｈａｎ５％ｅｒｒｏｒｓｃｏｍｐａｒｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｍｅｎｔａｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ．ＴｈｅｍｏｄｅｌｈａｓａｈｉｇｈｅｒｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｖｅａｃｃｕｒａｃｙｔｈａｎｔｈａｔｏｆｔｈｅＭｉｄｉｌｌｉｍｏｄｅｌ．ＴｈｅＢＰｎｅｕｒａｌｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｍｏｄｅｌｆｏｒｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓａｎｅｗｍｅｔｈｏｄｔｏｓｉｍｕｌａｔｅｔｈｅｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｏｃｅｓｓ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：Ｓｌｕｄｇｅ；Ｔｈｉｎｌａｙｅｒｄｒｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｌ；ＢＰｎｅｕｒａｌｎｅｔｗｏｒｋｍｏｄｅｌｆｏｒｓｌｕｄｇｅｄｒｙｉｎｇｐｒｅｄｉｃｔｉｏｎ 日常生活和工业生产是城市污水的主要来源。

时滞光电跟踪系统鲁棒内模PID控制器设计赵志诚;刘志远;张井岗【摘要】针对时滞光电跟踪提出了一种内模PID(IMC-PID)控制器设计与参数整定的解析方法.首先建立了系统的一阶时滞积分(FODI)模型,并用二阶加时滞(SOPDT)模型进行逼近,然后利用一阶Taylor表达式代替系统模型中的时滞项,导出了控制器参数的整定规则.特别是为了保证系统的鲁棒性,可以根据最大灵敏度解析计算内模PID控制器的可调参数λ_n.仿真结果表明,与常规方法相比,所提方法不仅提供了较好的设定值跟踪和扰动抑制特性,而且对于系统参数摄动具有更好的鲁棒性.另外,实验结果也证实了该方法能够提高系统跟踪性能和跟踪精度.【期刊名称】《光电工程》【年(卷),期】2010(037)001【总页数】7页(P30-36)【关键词】内模PID;光电跟踪系统;时滞系统【作者】赵志诚;刘志远;张井岗【作者单位】哈尔滨工业大学控制科学与工程系,哈尔滨,150001;太原科技大学自动化系,太原,030024;哈尔滨工业大学控制科学与工程系,哈尔滨,150001;太原科技大学自动化系,太原,030024【正文语种】中文【中图分类】V5560 IntroductionOpto-electronic tracking system is a complex equipment which mainly includes photoelectric detection,signal processing, control systems, precision machinery and other parts. It is widely applied in the filed of civilian and military industry such as NC machine tools, astronomical observation, shooting range measurement, weapons control, and flight simulators etc[1]. For opto-electronic tracking system, a good servo performance, such as high-accuracy, high-speed, non-overshoot and no vibration, is necessary [2]. Furthermore, in order to keep stability for parameter perturbation system, a high robustness is also very important.In other words, it is expected to achieve both performance and robustness in opto-electronic tracking system. However, considering the disturbance and uncertainty in the system, the conventional PID control is difficult to meet the requirement of the control performance effectively.So, based on the PID control, many improved PID type control schemes are researched in [1][3][4],respectively. A multi-mode control algorithm was proposed in [3]. The algorithm is expressed as follows: if the error is large, the saturation control is adopted; if the error is medium, the square root control is adopted; and if the error is small, the PID control is adopted. Paper [4]proposed a fuzzy-PID control approach, which could shorten the transient time, reduce the overshoot and improve the tracking accuracy and robustness of control system. Paper[1]proposed a single neuron fuzzy PID control method. Thus the trackingsystem not only has the capability of learning and self-adaptation, but also has better dynamic performance and steady-state performance than that of PID control. But in the above-mentioned schemes, the measurement time-delay of image tracker is not considered.To deal with the measurement time-delay, various advanced control approaches are presented. Paper [5]proposed an adaptive prediction and compensation method, which applied LMS algorithm and an adaptive filter with transverse structure to delay prediction compensation. The simulation results demonstrated the effectiveness of the method. Paper [6]introduced the method of predictive filtering in opto-electronic tracking system. Paper [7]adopted a state prediction and estimation method based on robust H∞ filter for opto-electronic tracking system.The experimental results show that the proposed method has high accuracy and good robustness. Whereas, the predictive filtering method needs complex calculation, and it easily causes the arithmetic to diverge.To find a simple design method of the PID type controller with a significant performance improvement has become an important research issue for control engineers. Because of the simplicity and improved performance of the IMC-based tuning rules, the analytically derived IMC-PID tuning methods have attracted the attention of industrial users [8]. The IMC-PID tuning rule has only one user-defined tuning parameter, which is directly related to the closed-loop performance and robustness of the system. The PID controller design has been discussed extensively in the literature for first-order plus delay time and second-order plus delay timestable/unstable process[8-10]. But the design of a simple and robust controller with improved performance has not yet been fully achieved. This paper focuses on the design of IMC-PID controller for an opto-electronic tracking system with time-delay. The system can be represented by a first-order delayed integrating (FODI)model. According to the principle of IMC, an analytical design approach of PID controller is proposed. Then, the tuning method of the controller parameter is given. Moreover, the maximum sensitivity can be applied to guarantee the robustness of the system. The simulation and experimental results show that this scheme is easy to be realized and has better performance than the conventional approach.1 Design of IMC-PID Controller for Time-delay SystemThe block diagram of IMC system is shown in Fig.1, where Q(s)is the internal model controller, G(s)is the process, M(s)is the model, and R(s),Y(s), D(s)is the set point, output and external disturbance of the system respectively. According to the design procedure for IMC system, the model is factorized asWhere M-(s) and M+(s)are the portions of the model inverted and not inverted, respectively. M+(s)is usually a non-minimum phase and contains delay time and/or right half plane zeros of M(s), while M-(s)is stable and of minimum phase with no predictors. The IMC controller Q(s)takes the formWhere f(s)is a user specified low-pass filter and usually chosen asWhere r is sufficiently large in order to guarantee that the IMC controller Q(s)is proper. Also, λ is the time constant, determined by the expected system performance. A smaller λ provides faster closed-loop response, while a l arger λ is also less sensitive to model mismatches.Fig.1 Block diagram of IMCFig.2 Equivalent block diagram of IMCIMC structure in Fig.1 can be reduced to the equivalent classic feedback structure shown in Fig.2. Gc(s)is a feedback controller. The relation between the feedback controller Gc(s)and the internal model controller Q(s)can be expressed as follows:System dynamics are often approximated by low order transfer function models for ease in controller design.The dynamics of a large number of industrial controlled objects can be represented by FOPDT and SOPDT transfer function models of the forms:The IMC filter structure exploited here is given asSo, the IMC controller can be obtained, and the corresponding feedback controller isIn order to make the resulting controller in Eq.(9)has a PID controller structure, the time-delay term is approximated by the simple first orderTaylor expansion.Let the forms of the PI and PID controllers beWhere Kp, Ti and Td are the proportional gain, the integral time constant and the derivative time constant,respectively. Table 1 shows the IMC-based PI/PID controller settings for the FOPDT and SOPDT models, where λn = λ/θ.Table 1 Settings of the controller for FOPDT and SOPDT modelsM(s)Kp Ti Td τ τ K s τs 1 e+-θK(λ+θ)=θ(λ+)k τ n 1-θ e s τs+2 22 K s ξτ+1K(λξτ 2ξτ 2+2ξτ θ)=θ(λ+)Kn 1ξ τ22 Design of IMC-PID Controller for Opto-electronic Tracking System2.1 Model of Opto-electronic Tracking SystemUsually, a high accuracy opto-electronic tracking system is a speed-position control system constituted of two closed-loops, which is annexed a position loop on the base of the speed governing system. The configuration of opto-electronic tracking system is shown in Fig.3. TheTV/IR tracker includes cameras and signal processing circuit. The module picks and separates the targets in visible-field according to the standard phase alternating line,and provides the target coordinates of current point. Taking into account the image processing, the measurement time-delay can not be ignored. So the image tracker can be depicted by a proportion plus time-delay model. The speed controller adopts proportion-integral (PI)algorithm, and the speed feedback device is an opto-electronicencoder. In practice the speed control loop can be approximated to a first-order inertia unit due to the high crossover frequency. The reduction ratio of the reducer is i: 1. The transfer function from the angular velocity of the motor to the output of the system can be represented by an integrator, and the integral time is i. So the dynamic structure of opto-electronic tracking system is shown in Fig.4. Namely, the position tracking system can be represented by a first-order delayed integrating (FODI)model:Fig.3 Block diagram of opto-electronic tracking systemFig.4 Dynamic structure of opto-electronic tracking system2.2 Design of IMC-PID controllerConsider the FODIP model of the opto-electronic tracking system as Eq.(13). It can be approximated as SOPDT model, and becomesWhere φ is an arbitrary constant with a sufficiently large value. Thus, the IMC-PID controller is the same as that for the SOPDT. According to the PID tuning rules listed in Table 1, the parameters of the PID are given asWhere λn = λ/θ.3 Tuning of the Parameter of the ControllerGain and phase margins are two well known measures of robustness and simple analytical formulas to tune PI/PID controller for stable/unstable FOPDT and SOPDT models to meet user defined gain and phase margins have been proposed. However, the gain and phase margin specificationsgive poor results for systems with unusual frequency response curve and may fail to give reasonable bounds on the sensitivity functions [11]. The maximum sensitivity (Ms)is the inverse of the shortest distance from the Nyquist curve of the open loop transfer function to the critical point (-1, j0), and is defined asMs measures the closeness of the Nyquist curve from the critical point at all frequencies and not just the two frequencies as associated with gain and phase margins, so it can serve as a better measure of system robustness. A small value of Ms indicates that the stability margin of the control system is large. Typical values of Ms are in the range of 1.2∼2.0.A first order Pade approximation is used to replace the delay term of the loop transfer function, and the sensitivity function can be written. For 1/ Ms to be the minimum distance of the Nyquist curve from the critical point, the Nyquist curve of the loop transfer function should touch the circle with centre (-1, j0)and radius 1/ Ms.According to the repeated roots condition of the sensitivity function, the relation between the adjustable parameter λn of IMC-PID controller and the maximum sensitivity Ms can be get [11]Where, λn = λ/θ. The λn can be obtained by solving (17)f or various values of Ms.4 Simulation and Experiment ResultsTo demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, simulation studies are carried out. Suppose the model for an opto-electronic trackingsystem is represented as the following FODI model, which can be approximated by the SOPDT mode asThe maximum sensitivity Ms = 1.2 is chosen. Hence, the adjustable parameter λn of IMC-PID controller can be calculated via Eq.(17), and the parameters of the controller can be tuned via Eq.(15). In addition, the parameters of a conventional PID controller can be found by using the Z-N method. The system is simulated with a unit step reference at t= 0 and a step output disturbance with value of 0.2 at t = 2.When the model is accurate, the simulation result is shown in Fig.5. For the conventional method, although the response is faster than the proposed method, but the response has a large overshoot. Hence, the proposed method not only provides a better set-point tracking, but also has a steadier disturbance rejection response.Fig.5 Step response with a nominal modelFig.6 Step response with +50%mismatches in gainFig.7 Step response with +50%mismatches in time constantFig.8 Step response with +100%mismatches in delay timeThe robustness of the controller is evaluated by inserting a perturbation uncertainty of +50% in the static gain K, the time constant T and +100% in the delay time θ to yield the model mismatch, respectively. The simulation results for the proposed and conventional tuning rules are shown in Fig.6∼Fig. 8. When all three parameters vary simultaneously, the response shown in Fig.9 exhibits the worst-case model mismatchIn addition, the proposed method was applied to an opto-electronic tracking system to track an air target and the effect was compared with conventional approach. The target flies at an altitude of 1 000 meters with v=150 m/s. The range of azimuth and elevation is from 1 439 mil to 570 mil and from 542 mil to 1 385 mil,respectively. During this process, the maximum angular velocity and acceleration of azimuth tracking is 60 °/s and 80 °/s2, respectively.Correspondingly, the maximum angular velocity and acceleration of elevation tracking is 7.5 °/s and 7 °/s2,respectively. The sampling cycle of the control system is 20 ms. The tracking error curves of the proposed method are shown in Fig.10. Obviously, the error variety is steady and undistinguishable. Fig.11, which is got from conventional method, shows that the error variety is obvious and the tracking error is larger. So the conclusion can be drawn that the proposed method can bring better tracking property and higher accuracy.Fig.9 Step response with mismatches in all parameters simultaneously Fig.10 Tracking error with the proposed methodFig.11 Tracking error with the conventional method5 ConclusionAiming at an opto-electronic tracking system with time-delay, an analytical design method and parameters tuning approach of IMC-PID controller is presented. Firstly, a FODI model for the system is built, and the model can be approximated by the SOPDT mode. On the basis of the simple first-order Taylor approximant for the time-delay term, the tuning rules of the controller parameter are provided. Especially the adjustable parameter λnof IMC-PID controller can be calculated by choosing the maximum sensitivity to guarantee robustness of the system. The simulation results show that the proposed method not only provides a better dynamic performance of both the command tracking and disturbance rejection, but also is more robust against the parameters perturbation.In addition, the experimental result demonstrates the method can bring better tracking property and higher accuracy.References:[1]王婵娟，王强，傅承毓. 单神经元模糊PID控制在光电跟踪系统中的应用 [J]. 光电工程，2006，33(2)：33-36.WANG Chan-juan，WANG Qiang，FU Cheng-yu. Single neuron fuzzy PID control application in photoelectric tracking system[J]Opto-Electronic Engineering，2006，33(2)：33-36.[2]Fujimoto H，Hori Y，Kawamura A. Prefect tracking control based on multirate feedforword control with generalized sampling periods [J]. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics(S0278-0046)，2001，48(3)：636-644.[3]冯培业，董宁，张宇河. 天地景投影伺服系统控制算法的改进 [J]. 北京理工大学学报，2002，22(3)：351-354.FENG Pei-ye，DONG Ning，ZHANG Yu-he. Improvement of the control algorithm of a servo system for background projection system [J]. Transactions of Beijing Institute of Technology，2002，22(3)：351-354.[4]侯宏录，周德云，王伟. 模糊PID 控制在光电跟踪控制系统中的应用 [J]. 光电工程，2006，33(5)：12-16.HOU Hong-lu，ZHOU De-yun，WANG Wei. Application of fuzzy-PID control in system of photo-electric tracking [J].Opto-Electronic Engineering，2006，33(5)：12-16.[5]王连明，葛文奇，李杰. 跟踪系统中跟踪延迟的自适应预测补偿方法 [J]. 光电工程，2002，29(4)：13-16.WANG Lian-ming，GE Wen-qi，LI Jie. Adaptive prediction and compensation method for delay of tracker in tracking system[J]. Opto-Electronic Engineering，2002，29(4)：13-16.[6]杨秀华，吉桐伯，陈娟. 预测滤波技术在光电跟踪系统的应用 [J]. 电光与控制，2003，10(3)：11-15.YANG Xiu-hua，JI Tong-bo，CHEN Juan. Applicationof predicting filter in electro-optical tracking system [J]. Electronics Optics &Control，2003，10(3)：11-15.[7]许波，姬伟. 基于鲁棒H∞滤波的光电跟踪机动目标状态预测估计[J]. 光电工程，2008，35(1)：5-10.XU Bo，JI Wei. State prediction and estimation foropto-electronic tracking maneuvering targets based on robust H∞ Filter [J]Opto-Electronic Engineering，2008，35(1)：5-10.[8]Shamsuzzoha M，Moonyong Lee. Design of advanced PID controller for enhanced disturbance rejection of second-order processes with time delay [J]. American Institute of Chemical Engineers(S0001-1541)，2008，54(6)：1526-1536.[9]Raymond Gorez. New design relations for 2-DOF PID-like control systems [J]. Automatica(S0005-1098)，2003，39(5)：901-908.[10]Rames C Panda，Cheng-Ching Yu，Hsiao-Ping Huang. PID tuning rules for SOPDT systems：review and some new results [J].ISA Transactions(S0019-0578)，2004，43(2)：283-295.[11]Ahmad Ali，Somanath Majhi. PI/PID controller design based on IMC and percentage overshoot specification to controller set-point change [J].ISA Transactions(S0019-0578)，2009，48(1)：10-15.。

大学物理实验中不确定度计算的总结邱春蓉（西南交通大学理学院，四川成都610031）摘要：本文用两种树型形式总结了大学物理实验教学中直接测量量和间接测量量测量结果计算的公式。

关键词：测量结果平均值不确定度Abstract:Thecalculationofmeasurementresultsofdirectmeasurementandindirectmeasurement incollegephysicalexperimentisconcludedandexpressedintwokindsoftree-type.Keywords:measurementresultsaveragevalueuncertainty在大学物理实验课程中计算量较大的部分主要集中在测量结果中多次测量的算术平均值和平均值的不确定度的计算上。

由于计算公式适用条件涉及到测量量的分类，所以学生们常常把公式张冠李戴。

图1按算术平均值和不确定度展开的测量结果的表示为了方便学生理清计算思路和查阅相关公式，我用两种树型形式将测量结果的计算公式归纳总结了一下。

第一种形式是将测量结果的表示按算术平均值和平均值的不确定度进行展开，如图1所示，第二种形式是按直接测量量和间接测量量进行展开，如图2所示。

图2按直接测量量和间接测量量展开的测量结果的表示其中，x和Y分别表示直接测量量和间接测量量，Y=f(x i)，x Y和分别表示直接测量量和间接测量量的算术平均值，u x和u Y分别表示直接测量量和间接测量量的不确定度，u A和u B分别表示直接测量量不确定度的两类分量，A类分量和B类分量，为仪3器误差限，K=，按均匀分布处理，m表示间接测量量中含有直接测量量的个数，n表示某一个直接测量量的测量次数。

通过图1和图2两种形式的表示，学生在计算不确定度时就可以方便而且思路清晰地查找相应公式了。

参考文献温诚忠等编，物理实验教程，西南交通大学出版社，1999年。