Chapter One

8A Chapter1掌握词语ambition n. 雄心；野心；企图 all in 筋疲力尽的 enclose v. 封入；附寄physics n. 物理学 probably adv. 大概；也许 be keen on 喜爱rugby n. 橄榄球 shut v. 关上；闭上 university n. （综合）性大学hockey n. 曲棍球 badminton n. 羽毛球 tennis n. 网球foot n. 英尺；脚认知词语steak n.牛排；大块肉片 punch n. 酒、柠檬、糖等混成的饮料 idle adj. 懒惰的；闲的inaudible adj. 听不见的 inch n. 英寸 European n. 欧洲人actor n. 男演员actress n. 女演员 recently adv.近来的alphabetical adj. 按字母顺序的encyclopaedia n.百科全书 couple n. 夫妇；一对；一双adopt v. 收养（子女） omen n. 预兆；征兆 arrival n. 到达destine v. 注定；命定fortune n.命运；运气embassy n. 大使馆；大使职务housekeeper n. 女管家 chief adj. 主要的；首要的drama n. 戏剧；戏曲；剧本 academy n. 高等学校；专科学校Reading A letter from a pen-friendDear MayHi! I saw your name and address in “pen-friends’magazine, and I would like to be your pen-friend. First, I will tell you some things about myself. My name is Sidney Li Pei-chun. I’m fourteen years old. I’m about five feet tall. I have short black hair and brown eyes.My favourite hobby is playing computer games. I also enjoy playing chess.I live with my parents. They came to England about 30 years ago. They came from HongKong, but I have never been there. Now my parents own a Chinese restaurant in Newcastle. We live in a small house near our restaurant. I was born in Newcastle in 1986. I can speak Chinese, but I cannot write it very well. I have a brother called Edwin. He is 23. He works as an architect, in London.I’m in Form One at Walker School. It is near my house, and so I can walk to school. I like my school because the teachers are very friendly. My school has many sports fields. I am keen on sports. I enjoy playing rugby and badminton in the winter, and tennis in the summer. My best subject at school is physics. My ambition is to be an engineer.I enclose a photo of myself and some school friends. I am in the middle. I hope youwill write to me soon, May, and tell me all about yourself.Best wishesSidney短语大连接1 . get a letter from sb . 收到某人的来信，也可说成hear from sb.如：I have got a letter from her .也可说成：I have heard from her . 我收到了她的来信。

朗文6A Chapter One 学习提要亲爱的同学们，学习了这个章节后，请按照要求检测你的学习结果吧～～Part A and BNew words and phrases（要求：知道中文意思，听懂，会读，会拼写。

）grow up 长大dream job 梦想职业(a) dentist 牙医(an) engineer 工程师(a) vet 兽医(a) fashion designer 时装设计师《(an) astronaut 宇航员(an) inventor 发明家(a) pilot 飞行员(a) film director 电影导演explore space 探索太空look after animals 照顾动物fly planes 开飞机make films 拍电影build and repair things 建造、修理东西think up new things 想出新事情(事物)design new styles of clothes 设计新款服装take care of people’s teeth 爱护(呵护)人们的牙齿#the winner of a drawing competition 绘画比赛获胜者（以下词汇要求：知道意思，会读，听得懂）theme 主题Sentences （要求：会读，知道其中文意思，会拼，会写，会运用。

）1.What do you want to be when you grow up 你长大后想要做什么2.I want to be an engineer. Engineer s build and repair things.我想做一名工程师。

工程师建造和修理东西。

3.I want to be a dentist. Dentist s take care of people’s teeth.》我想成为一名牙医。

牙医爱护人们的牙齿。

4.I want to be an astronaut. Astronaut s explore space.我想做一名宇航员。

Chapter One 主谓一致Subject-predicate Agreement一、基本概念主谓一致指的是句子的谓语动词与其主语在数上必须保持一致，句子的主语是第三人称单数，其谓语动词须用第三人称单数，主语是复数，则谓语动词用复数形式。

主谓一致遵循三个原则：语法一致、意义一致、就近原则。

（一）语法一致的原则谓语和主语通常从语法形式上取得一致，主语为单数形式，谓语动词也用单数形式;，主语为复数形式，谓语动词也为复数形式。

(即单对单，复对复)(1) 以单数名词或代词，动词不定式短语作主语时，谓语动词要用单数;主语为复数时，谓语用复数，例如:He goes to school early every morning.The children are playing outside.To work hard is necessary for a student.(2) 由and或both……and连接的并列成分作主语时，谓语动词用复数。

例如:Both he and T are right.Mr Black and Mrs Black have a son called Tom.✧注意：但并列主语如果指的是同一人，同一事物或同一概念，谓语动词用单数。

例如：His teacher and friend is a beautiful girl.The poet and writer has come.(3) 由and连接的并列单数主语之前如果分别由each, every修饰时，其谓语动词要用单数形式。

例如: In our country every boy and every girl has the right to receive education.Each man and each woman is asked to help.(4)主语是单数时，尽管后而跟有but,except, besides, with等介词短语，谓语动词仍用单数。

Chapter OneⅡ. 1. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k of the rulesof his language.2. Langue refers to the a linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.3. D is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.4. Language is a system of a vocal symbols used for human communication.5. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s .6. Human capacity for language has a g basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.7. P refers to the realization of langue in actual use.8. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a linguistics.9. Language is p in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produceand understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before..10. Linguistics is generally defined as the s study of language.11. Language is a system of a symbols used for human communication. use, it is said to be d ; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior,it is said to be p .14. In modern linguistics, S study seems to enjoy priority over d study. The reason is that successful studies of various states of a language would be the foundations of a historical study.15. Langue refers to the a linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community; and parole refers to the r of langue in actual use.16. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s k of the rules of his language, and performance, the actual r of this knowledge in linguistic communication.17. “ A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”. This famous quotation from Shakespeare illustrates that language has the design feature ofa .18. The property of d of language provides a speaker with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.19. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, one of Sounds, and the other of w . This double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.20. An English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use language, but they are not mutually intelligible, which shows that language is culturally t .III.1. The study of _____ does NOT form the core of linguistics.A. syntaxB. pragmaticsC. morphologyD. sociolinguistics2. If the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use, a branch of linguistic study called _____ come into being.A. syntaxB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics3. Which of the following statements is no the concern of psycholinguistics?A. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use languageB. It relates the social norms that determine the type of language to be used in a certain occasion.C. It pays more attention to the study of language acquisition in childrenD. It focuses on the way of processing the information we receive in the course of communication.4. Which of the following words is the entire arbitrary one?A. bookB. beautifulC. crashD. newspaper5. Which of the following items is not a design feature of human language？A. arbitrarinessB. competenceC. displacementD. productivity6. The difference between modern linguistics and traditional grammar are all of the following EXCEPT _______A. descriptive vs. prescriptiveB. non Latin-based vs. Latin-based frameworkC. spoken vs. writtenD. competence vs. performance7. The term _____ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stage.A. synchronicB. comparativeC. diachronicD. historical comparative8. Which word is the absolute arbitrary one?A. carefulB. handbagC. crackD. table9. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics10. ______ is regarded as the “Father of modern linguistics”.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Whorf11. Competence refers to ________.A. the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageB. the actual realization of the language user’s knowledge of the rules in utterancesC. knowledge of meaning of words and sentencesD. what speakers can actually do with language12. The subject area on the borders of linguistics and literature has become known as _____ .A. anthropological linguisticsB. linguistic stylisticsC. neurolinguisticsD. mathematical linguistics13. The distinction between competence and performance is similar to the distinction between ________.A. prescriptive & descriptiveB. synchronic and diachronicC. speech and writingD. langue & parole14. _____ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. applied linguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. psycholinguisticsD. anthropological linguistics15. Children can speak before they can read or write shows that ______.A. language is arbitraryB. language is productiveC. language is used for communicationD. language is basically vocal16. _____ means the lack of logical connection between the form of something and its expression in sounds.A. AmbiguityB. FuzzinessC. AbstractnessD. Arbitrariness17. Which of the following statements about language is NOT TRUE?A. Language means the system of pronunciation, grammar and vocabularyB. Language includes animal and artificial features of languageC. Language means a particular type or style of language used for a particular purposeD. Language refers to the common features of all human languages18. All human languages are organized on two levels: the sound level –meaningless, the grammatical level – meaningful. This means language has the design feature of _______.A. dualityB. changeableC. creativeD. arbitrary19. ____ are two sub-branches of linguistics that study the units at the grammatical level.A. morphology and semanticsB. morphology and syntaxC. semantics and syntaxD. morphology and phonology20. ____ dictionary established a uniform standard for English spelling and word use.A. LongmanB. OxfordC. Webster’sD. Johnson’s21. Langue & Parole are a pair of important distinctions put forward by_______ .A. ChomskyB. LyonsC. SaussureD. Halliday22. Language has the feature of ____ in the sense that users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.A. dualityB. interchangeabilityC. displacementD. productivity23. Linguistics gives priority to the spoken language instead of the written language because ______.A. vocal sounds are derived from writing systemsB. spoken language precedes written language only in Indo-European languagesC. we have recording devices to study speech in modern timesD. speech precedes writing everywhere in the world24. The distinction between competence and performance is made by _____ in _______.A. F. de. Saussure; SwissB. Noam Chomsky; USAC. M. A. K. Halliday; UKD. L. Bloomfield; USA25. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic26. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness27. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable28. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above29. A historical study of language is a_______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative30. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. applied, pragmaticD. semantic, linguistic31. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language32. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas33. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______.A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission34. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。

Chapter One—Chapter Three【本讲教育信息】一. 教学内容：Revision: From Chapter One to Chapter Three二. 重难点词汇：1. be keen on 喜欢＝like doing sth.e.g.: He is keen on playing football. ＝He like playing football.2. be similar to 与……相似，其反义词：be different from 与……不同e.g.: Tom is similar to other students.3. be responsible for 对……负责e.g.: The man is responsible for sales.4. fail an exam 考试不及格，与fail有关的词组有：fail to do sth. ＝fail in doing sth. 做某事失败5. continue doing sth. 继续做某事＝go on doing sth.6. shout at 对着……喊〔不友善的〕shout to 对……大喊〔没有不友好的〕7. stare at 盯着看：look at sth. with interest8. steal sth. from sb. 从某人那里偷到什么，容易与它混淆的：rob sb. of sth. 从某人那里抢来什么东西。

rob 〔v. 〕抢劫--- robber 〔n. 〕抢劫犯---robbery 〔n. 〕抢劫案9. be afraid of sth. 害怕……与此相关的词组：be afraid of doing sth. 害怕做某事be afraid to do sth. 担忧做某事这两个词组有时可以相等，但是有时不能交换。

e.g.: I am afraid of going out at night. 不能说成 I am afraid to go out at night.10. hope to do sth. 希望做某事hope＋that 从句 e.g.: I hope you will write to me soon.注意：绝对不能用 hope sb. to do sth.希望某人做某事可以说成：expect sb. to do sth.三. 重点句子：1. I am about five feet tall. 我大概有五英尺高。

鹅妈妈经典童谣Chapter One部分童谣备课学习笔记中英对照如下01 Jerry HallHe is so smallA cat could eat himHat and all.中文译文：Jerry Hall，个真小，老鼠吞下他，从帽子到脚。

02 Mabel, Mabel,Strong and able,Take your elbowsoff the table.中文译文：Mabel，Mabel，强壮能干，别把手肘，放在桌上Chapter One03Jack and Jill went up the hill,To fetch a pail of water;Jack fell down and broke his crown,And Jill came tumbling after.Jack and Jill这首韵律是第一要紧的，第一句重音在Jack Jill up hill手里打着拍子正拍子就是Jack Jill up hill继续To fetch a pail of water.重音在fetch，pail water下一句重音是Jack down broke crown Jill tumbling after.这首歌就是打拍子，找重音，大家可以试试，找一下感觉。

刚开始夸张一些没关系。

crown 是牙床，这个词确实不查不知道。

tumbling跌下来中文译文：Jack and Jill 上山打一桶水，jack摔了一跤，磕破牙床，Jill 跟着骨碌滚下来。

相关讨论：可以网上去找清华少儿英语Jack and Jill的动画，就是语感启蒙里的。

孩子很好理解04 Shoo fly, don't bother me,Shoo fly, don't bother me,Shoo fly, don't bother me,I belong to somebody.中文译文：咻，苍蝇，别烦我，* 3，我可没时间理你。

Chapter OneVocabularyWords1. hockey n. game played with two opposing teams that each usescurved sticks to try to drive a puck into the opponent’sgoal 曲棍球2. rugby n. 橄榄球3. title n. 标题4. signature n. person's name written by himself 署名5. corner n. 角落6. pen-friend n. some one you write letters to, as a hobby 笔友7. hobby n. an interest or activity such as collecting stamps ormaking models 爱好8. chess n. a common board game 国际象棋9. architect n. a person who plans and designs a building 设计师10. ambition n. wish or goal 志向，雄心，抱负11. enclose v. put something inside the letter 附上12. trainers n. (通常用复数)(also training shoe) 软运动鞋13. idle adj. (of people) avoiding work, lazy 懒惰的14. inaudible adj. not loud enough to be heard 听不见的15. height n. 身高16. weight n. 体重17. blond n. 浅黄色，金黄色头发18. European adj. 欧洲人的 n. 欧洲人19. recently adv. 最近20. describe v. 描述21. reference n. 出处，参照22. arrange v. 整理，排列，安排23. alphabetical 字母(表)的，依字母顺序的24. envelope n. 信封25. capital n. 首都，大写字母26. length n. 长度27. childhood n. 童年时期28. underlined adj. 下划线的29. couple n. 一对（夫妇）30. adopt v. 收养31. destine n. 命中注定32. fortune n. 命运33. arrival n. 到达34. embassy n. 大使馆35. housekeeper n. 管家(尤指女性)36. chief n. 首领，头目 adj. 主要的37. earn v. 挣，赚38. drama n. 戏剧，戏，剧39. academy n. 专科学院40. idol n. 偶像PhrasesReading1.read the letter 看信；读信2.on the next page 在下一页上3.take a look at sth. 看某物4.a title 标题，题目5.a signature at the end 在信尾签名6.an address at the top-right corner 地址在右上角7.a greeting 信件开头词（亲爱的……）8.a date under the address 日期在地址下方9.live in a country called England 住在一个名叫英国的国家10.write to sb. 给某人写信11.want to be the girl’s pen-friend 想成为这个女孩的笔友12.want sb. to do sth. 想要某人做某事13. a postal code 邮政编码14. a group of letters and numbers 一组字母和数字15.the post office 邮局16.deliver letters 投递信件17. a letter from a pen-friend 一封笔友的来信18.in ‘Pen-friends’ magazine 在《笔友》杂志里19.would like to do sth. 想干某事20.tell sb. sth. about oneself 向某人自我介绍21.be about five feet tall 大约五英尺高22.have short black and brown eyes 有黑短发和棕色的眼睛23.favourite hobby 兴趣爱好24.play computer game 打电脑游戏25.enjoy doing sth. 喜欢干某事26.play chess / rugby / badminton 下棋/打橄榄球/羽毛球27.live with sb. 与某人住在一起e to sp. 来某地e from 来自于30.own a Chinese restaurant 拥有一家中国餐厅31.be born in sp. 出生于某地32.have a brother called xx 有个名叫xx的兄弟33.work as an architect 做为/当一名建筑设计师工作34.be in Form One 在一年级35.walk to school 走到学校36.be friendly to sb. 对某人友好37.sports field 运动场地38.be keen on sth. 爱好/对……感兴趣39.in the winter / summer 在冬季/夏季40.to be an engineer 成为一名工程师41.enclose a photo of oneself 附上一张某人的照片42.be in the middle 位于中间43.best wishes 谨祝多福（书信结束语）44.look up the word in a dictionary 在字典中查找单词45.for example 比如，例如46.as well 也47.give sb. some more punch 再给某人一些饮料48.be all in 感到疲劳49.hurt one’s feet 伤了脚50.be terribly idle 非常懒惰51.tidy one’s room 整理房间52.at the back of the hall 在大厅的后部53.be inaudible 听不见54.an ambition 一个愿望（目标）55.shut the door 关门56.put something inside the letter 把某物放入信内57.one’s full name 某人的全名58.one’s age / height / weight 某人的年龄/身高/体重59.the name of one’s school 学校的名字60.one’s worst school subject 某人最差的学科61.be less than five feet two inches 不到五英尺二英寸高tall62.at all 根本63.become an engineer 成为一名工程师64.play sports 参加体育运动65.eat good meals 吃可口的饭菜66.speak English well 英语说得好67.go to university 上大学68.leave school 中学毕业；离校Listening1.hair colour 头发的颜色2.hair length 头发的长度3.eye colour 眼睛的颜色4.place of birth 出生地5.have blond hair 有金黄色的头发（男性）6.have blonds hair 有金黄色的头发（女性）Language1.begin with 以……开始2.consonant sounds 辅音3.vowel sounds 元音4.start with 以……开始5.vowel letters 元音字母6.a European 一个欧洲人7.wear a uniform 穿制服8.go to a university 去一所大学9.consonant letters 辅音字母10.an honest man 一个诚实的人11.an hour 一小时12.an actress / actor 一个女演员/男演员13.go to a high school 去一所中学14.at the other side of town 在城镇的另一边15.one-way street 单行道16.an accident 一次事故Speaking1.ask questions 提出问题2.answer these questions 回答这些问题3.let one’s voices fall at the end 在句末降调sentences4.make one’s voices fall at the arrow 在箭头标志处降调5.make one’s voices rise at the end of 在句末升调sentences6.express surprise 表示惊讶7.such as 比如8.make one’s voices go down or up 降调或升调9.make a similar conversation 编写一段同样的对话10.introduce sb. to the class 将某人介绍给全班Using English1.reference books 参考书2.an encyclopaedia 一本百科全书3.a telephone directory 一本电话号码本4.arrange these letter in alphabetical 按字母顺序排列这些字母order5.in the same order 按同样的顺序6.put these letters in alphabetical 按字母顺序排列这些字母order7.decide the alphabetical order 决定字母的顺序Writing1.receive the letter 收到信件2.want to reply to one’s letter 想回复某人的信件3.choose the best way 选择最好的方法4.start one’s letter 信的开头5.end one’s letter 信的结尾6.hear from sb. 收到某人的来信7.start / end sentences 开始/结束句rmation about oneself 关于自己的信息9.write one’s address on the envelope 在信封上写上某人的地址e capital letters 用大写字母More practicee into this world 来到这个世界上2.a poor couple 一对穷夫妇3.pay the hospital 支付医疗费用4.have enough money to pay the hospital 有足够的钱支付医疗费用5.ask sb. to do 要求某人做某事6.adopt sb. 收养某人7.the good omen of one’s birth 某人出生的好兆头8.in the Year of the Horse 在马年9.be destined to change one’s fortune 注定会改变某人的命运10.raise money for sth. / doing sth. 为某事筹集钱款11.take sb. home 带某人回家 sb. 给某人取名为13.celebrate one’s safe arrival in sp. 庆祝安全到达某地14.work as 从事15.dislike school 不喜欢学习16.chief cook 主厨师17.earn more money 赚更多的钱18.change greatly 变化很大19.from the moment 从……时起20.learn some skills 学习一些技能（本领）21.send sb. to sp. 送某人去某地22.the China Drama Academy 中国戏剧学院。

朗文6A Chapter One 学习提要亲爱的同学们，学习了这个章节后，请按照要求检测你的学习结果吧～～Part A and BNew words and phrases（要求：知道中文意思，听懂，会读，会拼写。

）grow up 长大dream job 梦想职业(a) dentist 牙医(an) engineer 工程师(a) vet 兽医(a) fashion designer 时装设计师(an) astronaut 宇航员(an) inventor 发明家(a) pilot 飞行员(a) film director 电影导演explore space 探索太空look after animals 照顾动物fly planes 开飞机make films 拍电影build and repair things 建造、修理东西think up new things 想出新事情(事物)design new styles of clothes 设计新款服装take care of people’s teeth 爱护(呵护)人们的牙齿the winner of a drawing competition 绘画比赛获胜者（以下词汇要求：知道意思，会读，听得懂）theme 主题Sentences （要求：会读，知道其中文意思，会拼，会写，会运用。

）1.What do you want to be when you grow up? 你长大后想要做什么？2.I want to be an engineer. Engineer s build and repair things.我想做一名工程师。

工程师建造和修理东西。

3.I want to be a dentist. Dentist s take care of people’s teeth.我想成为一名牙医。

牙医爱护人们的牙齿。

4.I want to be an astronaut. Astronaut s explore space.我想做一名宇航员。

Chapter One Invitation to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about linguistics as the science of languageFocal points: design features; functions of languageTeaching difficulties: design features; important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedure：Outline of this chapter:1 Why study language?2 What is language?3 Design features of language3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 concept3.1.2 two levels3.1.3 Arbitrariness and convention 3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept3.2.2 two levels3.2.3 advantages3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 concept3.3 .2 two senses3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 concept3.4.2 three senses4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments4.1.2 evidence4.1.3 problem4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments4.2.2 evidence4.2.3 problem4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments4.3.2 evidence4.3.3 problem5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schools5.1.1 the Prague School5.1.2 the London School5.2 Functions of language6 What is linguistics? p147 Main branches of linguistics8 Macrolinguistics9 Some important distinctions in linguistics1 Why study language?Language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be a worthy subject for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject in and of itself. However, if you pause and think of the following myths about language, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really understand the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.The following are some fundamental views about LANGUAGE, which you may instinctively agree without having thought about the reasons,or you may not agree at the moment. Follow this course and you will find they are discussed in more detail in the ensuing chapters.1）．Children learn their native language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.2）．Language operates by rules.3). All languages have three major components; a sound system, a systemof lexico-grammar and a system of semantics.4)．Everyone speaks a dialect.5)．Language slowly changes.6)．Speakers of all languages employ a range of styles and a set of jargons.7)．Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals that use them.8)．Writing is derivative of speech.Some people find the subject of language intriguing and useful for many different reasons. Language can be used as a way of finding out more about how the brain works, or how damage to the brain results in certain kind of language disorders, how children learn language, how people learn and teach different languages, what the relationship between meaning and perception is, what the role of language is different cultures, why people use different varieties of language, why there are linguistic differences between different groups, and how scientists make the computer work in a more human-like manner. This course book will serve as a starting point from which you may go on researching in one of the above and other language-related fields.2 What is language?Webster‘s New World Dict ionary offers several most frequently used senses of the word ―language‖, namely,Language is human speech; the ability to communicate by this means; a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; the written representation of such a system. (Webster's New World Dictionary)Most widely accepted definition of language is that a language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of speech community communicate , interact and transmit their culture.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called DFESIGN FEATURES. The following are the frequently discussed ones.3.1 Arbitrariness3.1.1 conceptThe widely accepted meaning of this feature, which was discussed by Saussure, first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.For instance, we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. However there seems to be different levels of ARBITRARINESS.3.1.2 two levels1) Word level: Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.（1）we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / and a pen a / pen /. （2）And we cannot explain why a book is called a / buk / in English ,书in Chinese .You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe.e.g. In Chinese, these linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwangwang in Chinese.2) Sentence level: Less arbitrariness at the syntactic level According to systemic-functionalists and American functionalists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.（1）By syntax we refer to the ways that sentences are constructedaccording to the grammar of arrangement. We know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules.(2)And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.In other words, syntax(sentence) is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as this kind of order is concerned.Compare the sentence at P5:When we say (a) we refer to the sequence of actions; if we say (b) the readers will take it as meaning the opposite sequence of real happenings—perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled himself into the room. In (c) with the help of the word ―after‖ we can reverse the order of the clauses. Therefore the functionalists hold that the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish.3.1.3 Arbitrariness and conventionWhat then is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of CONVENTION. Here we have to look at the other side of the coin of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality.(1)Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.(2)And conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of a foreign language, it is the conventionality of a language that is more worth noticing that its arbitrariness.3.2 Duality二重性3.2.1 concept―By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization‖ (Lyons, 1982:20)3.2.2 two levels1）primary level （words）We call sounds here secondary elements as opposed to such primary units as words which convey meaning in them and have distinct and identifiable meaning, which are made up of the secondary level.2)secondary level (sounds)Roughly speaking, the elements of the spoken language are sounds, which do not convey meaning in them. The only function of sounds is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning, such as words.3.2.3advantagesNow we can perceive the advantage of duality, which lies in the great productive power our language, is endowed with. 1)Countless words can be formed out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And 2)the huge number of words can be combined together to form endless number of sentences, 3)which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.3.3 Creativity创造性3.3 .1 conceptBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.3.3 .2 two senses1)dualityThe creativity of language partly originates from its duality which we just discussed in the above section, namely, because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.2) recursive natureLanguage is creative in another sense, that is, its potential to create endless sentences. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for this possibility. For instance, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:Eg:He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…3.4 Displacement移位性3.4.1 conceptDISPLACEMENT means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3.4.2 three senses1) Our language enables us to describe things in the past, now and in the future.2) Our language also enables us to communicate about things that don‘t exist or don‘t yet exist.3) Our language also makes it possible for us to talk and think inabstract terms.4 Origin of language语言的起源4.1 The bow-wow theory汪汪理论4.1.1 arguments1) In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and2) Speech developed from that.4.1.2 evidenceOnomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory.4.1.3 problemBut in our discussion we can find they are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. This theory lacks supportive evidence.4.2 The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论4.2.1 arguments1) In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.2) And speech developed from that.4.2.2 evidenceAs for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections.4.2.3 problemWhat makes the theory problematic is that there is only limited number of interjections in almost all languages. Besides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, aiyo bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.4.3 The ―yo-he-ho‖ theory吆嗬吆理论4.3.1 arguments1) As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts .2) They gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.3.2 evidenceWe do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages.4.3.3 problemRhythmic grunts are far different from language in its present sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.5 Functions of language语言的功能5.1 schoolsLinguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet people, etc, they summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language like the following:5.1.1 the Prague School1)representative: Jacobson.2)Arguments: 6 functions, based on the key elements of communication,namely: referential (to convey message and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), cognitive (to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear up intentions, words and meanings).5.1.2 the London School1) representative: Halliday2) arguments: 3 functions. He proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has IDEATIONAL, INTERPRESONAL and TEXTUAL functions. Ideational function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual function creates relevance to context (Halliday, 1994)5.2 Functions of language5.2.1 Informative信息功能For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language.1) Language is the instrument of thought .2) Language is used to record the facts, which is a perquisite of social development.It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar:1)Halliday notes that ―Language serves for the expression of ‗content‘: that is, o f the speaker‘s experience of the real world, including the innerworld of his own consciousness.2)In serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.‖ (in Lyons, 1970, p.142-3)5.2.2 Interpersonal function人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function,1）by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.2) Language serves to establish and maintain social rules.3) Language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality.4）Attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of the expression of identity.( Language also serves in the expression of identity)5.2.3 Performative施为功能This concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the backboneof pragmatics. (see section 8.1 below)1) The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.2)The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be safe and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.5.2.4 Emotive function感情功能According to some investigations, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998:17).1) It is a means of changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.2) It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy According to David Crystal (1992: 17).When we are under stress, swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to beautiful art or scenery can relax us; conventional words / phrases, e.g. God, My, Dam it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Ow…can do so ,tooIt is also discussed under the term expressive function:1)The expressive function can often by entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others.2)Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people who reinforce one another‘s expressive use of language to show their solidarity.(Nida, 1998:21)The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way.5.2.5 Phatic communion交感性谈话The term PHATIC COM MUNION originates from Malinowsky‘s study of the functions of language performed by Trobiand Islanders. It refers to the social interaction of language,1) We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintaina comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content.2) Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations.We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects ifthey are to interact comfortably with different people.5.2.6 Recreational function娱乐性功能1) It is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language.If you observe children‘s play, you will fin d the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in it.2) Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. We are getting very close here to Jacobson‘s poetic function.5.2.7 Metal lingual function元语言功能1) Our language can be used to talk about itself. P 132) This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive.6 What is linguistics?什么是语言p147 Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics the production of speech,Phonology studies the rules governing the structure ,the sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology the internal organization of words, the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation process.Syntax principles of forming and understanding correct English sentencesSemantics How meaning is encoded in a languagePragmatics the study of meaning in context.8 MacrolinguisticsPsycholinguistics the interrelation of language and mind in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisitionSociolinguistics the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users.Anthropological linguistics the history and structure of unwritten languagesComputational linguistics the use of computer to process or produce human language9 Some important distinctions in linguistics 9.1 Prescriptive & descriptive 规定性研究和描述性研究：前者总结语言中的标准，后者着重分析语言中的事实。