词汇学论文

英语词汇学论文开题报告一、选题背景随着全球化时代的到来，英语作为国际通用语言，其地位日益凸显。

在我国，英语学习已成为从基础教育到高等教育的重要课程。

词汇是英语学习的基础，英语词汇量的积累和理解程度直接影响到英语听说读写译等技能的提高。

然而，目前我国英语词汇教学仍存在一定的问题，如教学方式单一、词汇记忆方法缺乏科学性等。

因此，研究英语词汇学，探讨更有效的词汇教学方法，对提高我国英语教育质量具有重要意义。

二、选题目的本论文旨在通过对英语词汇学的研究，分析现有词汇教学方法的优缺点，探索适合我国英语学习者的词汇教学方法，以促进英语词汇学习效果的提高。

三、研究意义1、理论意义（1）通过对英语词汇学的研究，有助于丰富我国英语词汇教学的理论体系，为英语教师提供理论支持。

（2）总结和归纳现有词汇教学方法的优缺点，为英语词汇教学改革提供参考。

2、实践意义（1）为我国英语学习者提供科学、高效的词汇学习方法，提高词汇学习效果。

（2）帮助英语教师改进教学方法，提高教学质量，为培养具备较高英语水平的人才奠定基础。

（3）有助于提高我国英语教育整体水平，满足社会对英语人才的需求，促进国际交流与合作。

四、国内外研究现状1、国外研究现状在国际范围内，英语词汇学的研究已经取得了丰富的成果。

许多研究者从不同角度对词汇学习进行了探讨。

例如，Nation（2001）提出了词汇习得的四大要素：词汇量、词汇深度、词汇用法和词汇联想。

此外，国外研究者还关注词汇教学策略的探讨，如Cohen（1990）的词汇教学策略分类，以及Nation （2003）的词汇教学大纲设计。

同时，随着认知心理学的发展，研究者们开始关注词汇记忆的心理机制，如Baddeley（1990）的工作记忆模型，为词汇学习提供了新的理论视角。

国外学者还广泛研究了词汇附带习得（incidental vocabulary learning），即学习者在进行其他语言活动时，不经意间习得词汇的现象。

Lexicology and My English StudyI. What Is Lexicology?The term lexicology was borrowed from the French word lexicology, which contains two morphemes: one is Greek lexicology, meaning ‘workbook’ or ‘vocabulary;’ the other is French logie, meaning ‘the study or science of.’ So the literal meaning of the term is ‘the science of words.’The term first appeared in the 1820s, though there were lexicologists in essence before the term was coined. Computational lexicology as a related field (in the same way that computational linguistics is related to linguistics) deals with the computational study of dictionaries and their contents. An allied science to lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words in relation with dictionaries – it is actually concerned with the inclusion of words in dictionaries and from that perspective with the whole lexicon. Therefore lexicography is the theory and practice of composing dictionaries. Sometimes lexicography is considered to be a part or a branch of lexicology, but the two disciplines should not be mistaken: only lexicologists who do write dictionaries are lexicographers. It is said that lexicography is the practical lexicology; it is practically oriented though it has its own theory, while the pure lexicology is mainly theoretical.Comprehensively speaking, lexicology is the branch of linguisticsconcerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.Ⅱ. Aims and Significance of LexicologyThe aim of the term lexicology is to give a systematic description of the English vocabulary. Concretely speaking, English lexicology offers students an insight into the origin and development of the English vocabulary. It deals with meanings of Modern English words and their changes in the course of historical development. It discusses the problems of word-structure and word-formation in English, including the formation of new words which have appeared since the 1960s. It also it also studies the use of English words, phrases and idioms.The significance of lexicology for language learning is also evident. The term will help the learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve their ability to analyze and use English words. For instance, the study of new words, synonyms, figures of speech, etc. will arouse the interest of the learners on the one hand, and enhance their ability to choose the correct and expressive words in writing and speech on the other hand.Language learning requires practice. Practice makes perfect. Without practice there would be no theory. English lexicology as a theory of Modern English may be useful in vocabulary study because it derivesfrom practice and should guide practice. Students will use the basic knowledge of English lexicology to understand the material already familiar to them from English classes, and apply it in their further study of English.Ⅲ. Language, Linguistics and LexicologyBriefly speaking, lexicology deals with words. Words are the foundation and core of language. We know that without words, there would be no language, while without language, there would be no linguistics. Therefore, words, that is, lexicology, language and linguistics are very closely interrelated with one another. Before studying lexicology, we should learn about what language is and what linguistics is.Ⅳ. The Connection of Lexicology with phonetics and grammar and stylistics1) With phonetics:Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the sounds made in spoken utterance, that is, the study of speech sounds. It is closely related to lexicology.Without sound there is no word because every word is unity of sound and meaning.2) With grammar:V ocabulary and grammar are organically related to one another. In learning a language, attention to grammar is as important as attention tovocabulary. Joseph Stalin pointed out that the vocabulary is the building material of a language. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in front of words and the combination of words into sentences.3) With stylistics:Stylistics is “the study of optional variations in the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language as characteristic of different uses of language, different situations of use, or different literary typ es.” Lexicology studies stylistics variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes: synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech, etc.Stylistics is concerned with language variety differing according to use rather than user. The same user may use different varieties for different purposes, different situations, in conversation with different people, to produce different effects. The same subject matter can be expressed in different styles.Ⅴ. Two Approaches of the study of LexicologyThere are two main approaches to the study of lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic.The term synchronic means describing a language as it exists at one point of time. The term diachronic means concerned with historical development of a language.A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time. Ⅵ. The Division of the History of the EnglishThe history of the English language is divided into three periods.1) The period from 450 to 1150 is known as the Old English or Anglo-Saxon period. It is described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjective, and the conjugation of the verb were not weakened.2) The period from 1150 to 1500 is known as the Middle English period. During this period the inflections, which had begun to break down towards the end of the Old English period, became greatly reduced, and it is known as the period of the leveled inflections.3) The period from 1500 to the present day is called the Modern English period. A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared, and it is known as the period of lost inflections.Ⅶ. The Main Processes of English Word-formationThere are four main types of word-formation in English:1) Prefixation:Affixation includes prefixation and suffixation. Affixation is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base.Affixation has played an active part in the course of the development of the English language. It is not only an age-old, but also a productive method in English word-building.What is prefixation?Prefixation is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes with, but more usually without a change of word class, e.g. dislike (dis + like).2) Suffixation:Suffixation is a main type of word-formation, putting a suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually with a change of word class, e.g. frankness (frank + ness)The primary function of prefixes is to effect a semantic modification of the base, and the chief function of suffixes is to change the word class of the base, although suffixes have only a small semantic role. Therefore suffixes may be classified into four categories according to the word class.3) Conversion:Conversion (or full conversion) is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. For example, the verb release is converted to the noun release.In the English language conversion is unusually prominent as a word-formation process. Of course, conversion, like other main types ofword-formation, is treat as a process now available for extending the lexical resources of the English language.There are two kinds of conversion: full conversion and partial conversion.4) Compounding：Compounding is a main type of word-formation adding one base to another, such that usually the one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes the one that follows, e.g. blackbird, etc.Compounding can occur not only in the three major word classes, nouns and, to lesser extent, adjectives, and, to least extent, verbs but also in other word classes: prepositions, such as into, within, by means of, instead of, etc. pronouns, such as each other, one another, anybody, someone, herself, itself, etc. and adverbs, such as headlong, somehow, somewhere, upside down, inside out, etc.A compound is a lexical until consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. Compounds usually comprise two bases only, however internally complex each may be.Ⅷ. English IdiomsIdioms are very important and extremely interesting part of language. They are commonly used in all styles of language: informal and formal, spoken and written. If we can understand and use idioms correctly, ourlanguage skills increase constantly. One important problem our students have with idioms is how we understand them in our daily study.The best way to understand an idiom is to see it in context. Let us give an example below.If someone says: This ti n opener’s driving me round the bend! I think I’ll throw it away and get a new one. Then the context and common sense tells us that drive round the bend refers to something different from driving a car round a curve in the road. So the context points out that the tin opener is not working properly and that it’s having an effect on the person using it.Drive or send sb. round the bend is an idiom used as an informal style meaning ‘to make someone very bored or very angry.’Ⅸ. British and American EnglishGrammatical differences between British and American English are few. The more noticeable differences are phonetic and especially lexical. It does not seem likely that distinctions between British English and American English will become more extensive. On the contrary, as the modes of communication have improved, the tendency is towards uniformity and better understanding between the people of the two countries.But why does American English differ from British English?There are two reasons for this.Firstly, British English itself changed in the course of time. All languages change as time passes. English is no exception. That is why Chaucer’s English is different from Shakespeare’s English, and why Shakespeare’s English is different from contemporary Engli sh.Take the following English word borrowed from Latin and Greek for example.Such words as apparatus, complex, focus, maximum, minimum, series, etc. appeared in English only after the year 1600.In the past fifty years British English has adopted a great number of words that originated in American English.Words like cafeteria, highlight, hotrod, OK, etc. are example.Secondly, American English has acquired a character of its own. It reflects the growth, development and history of American society.In the earliest period a number of words denoting places, plants, animals, tools, and customs which existed in America were added to the English language, e.g.Hickory—a type of tree of North America which provides hard wood and bears nuts.Moose—a type of large deer, with very large flat horns, that lives in the northern pert of America.The above-mentioned words belong to American English and were borrowed from American Indian languages.After the American Independence a number of words related to institutions appeared, e.g. assembly, congress, president, representative, vice-president, etc.Strictly speaking, British English is the English spoken by the great majority of educated people in South and Southeast England, especially in London and its vicinity. BrE or BE is shot for British English. American English is General American spoken by the great majority of the American people. AmE or AE is short for American English.References:I.Chengzhang Lin﹠Shiping Liu An Introduction To EnglishLexicology, WuHan University Press FourthII.Wikipedia。

2021小学英语词汇教学论文（优选论文6篇）范文 词汇学习是英语学习的中心任务,离开了词汇,听,说,读,写,译这些语言技能将无法立足。

没有一定的词汇量,则无法运用我们所学的句法结构进行有效的交际。

下面是搜素整理的小学英语词汇教学论文，以供参考。

小学英语词汇教学论文第一篇：小学生英语词汇学习中思维导图的运用 摘要：目前,小学英语词汇教学存在成效不显着的问题,不少学生学了词汇后,不知词义,不会书写,不能发声。

思维导图将抽象的思维变成可画、可看、可循的轨迹图,打开了英语词汇教学改革的大门,是教师提高词汇教学效果行之有效的工具。

教师可参照我国学者贾彦德提出的同义义场、反义义场、语义场词汇的分类引导学生绘制思维导图,并在课堂教学中设置情境,在情境中赋予词汇具体意义。

关键词：思维导图;语义场; 词汇教学; 小学英语; 一、问题提出与现状分析 威尔金斯认为,“没有语法,表达甚微;没有词汇,表达为零”。

词汇在语言教学中具有极其重要的作用。

然而,实际上词汇就像是一头拦路虎,成为教师和学生心中共同的“痛”,教师苦于词汇难教,学生抱怨词汇难记。

笔者就小学英语词汇教学情况开展了问卷调查,数据统计发现,87%的教师认为学生在课堂中对所学词汇的掌握情况一般,3%的教师认为效果不好,仅有10%的教师认为学生掌握速度较快。

那么,学生识记词汇时面临的主要问题在什么地方呢85%的教师认为是词义学习,81%的教师认为是词汇拼写,75%的教师认为是词汇读音。

从以上数据可以看出,小学英语课堂中的词汇教学成效不显着,不少学生学了词汇后,不知词义,不会书写,不能发声。

究其原因,主要包括如下几个方面: 第一,学生学习主动性不强。

在问卷调查中,认为学生不愿意主动学词汇的教师占比高达88%,表明在课堂中学生学习词汇的主动性不强,对词汇学习缺乏兴趣,学习非常被动。

小学阶段的学生活泼、好动、可塑性强,这就需要教师找到符合学生天性的方法,充分激发出学生的学习兴趣,营造好学、乐学的学习氛围。

Abstract词汇是我们在英语学习过程中最大的障碍。

然而，英语构词法能够帮助我们很好的辨别并正确理解英语，同时也可以在短时间内增加我们的词汇量，英语构词法是学习英语的有效途径和强有力的“武器”，在所有的英语构词法中，词缀法能够生成的新单词是最多的也是最广泛，它被认为英语学习的最佳途径之一。

除了词缀发以外，复合法、转类法、混成法、截短法、首字母拼音法、逆向构词法也都是英语学习的有效途径V ocabulary is one of the main obstacles of English study. However English word formation can help us recognize English words, understand them correctly, and enlarge our vocabulary quickly. It is an efficient way and powerful weapon for English study. Among them，affixation is the strongest one to form a great range of vocabulary, and it is claimed to be one of the best ways of learning English. Besides, compounding, conversion, blending, clipping, acronyms, back-formation are also efficient ways of learning English. In the paper the ways and characteristics of word formation is analyzed form these aspects: affixation, compounding, conversion, blending.Key words: English, lexicology, word formation, affixation（关键字：英语、词汇学，构词法，词缀法）IntroductionThe expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion. Talking about word formation patterns means dealing with rules. But not all words which are produced by applying the rule are acceptable. The acceptability is gained only when the word have gained an institutional currency in the language. Therefore rules only provide a constant set of models from which new word are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent. For instance, affixes and compounding processes may become productive at one time or lose their productivity. By word formation processes, we concentrate on productive or on productive rules. While applying the rules, we should keep in mind that there are always exceptions. In my opinion, the most important principle for all these rules of word formation is economy.Chapter 1 the function of English word formation1.1 Word formation is an effective way to enlarge our English vocabulary.Nowadays, more and more people have taken notice of learning English. The number of the people who begin to learn English has increased at a high speed. How can we improve our English effectively is undoubtedly the focus of our attention. Generally speaking, vocabulary and grammatical rules are keys to learning Englishwell. Among the two aspects, vocabulary apparently plays a more important role.V ocabulary is the foundation of language. If a language learner doesn‟t have enough vocabulary to express his or her opinions and understand other people, even if his or her grammatical rules and pronunciations are excellent, but he can not communicate with others well, he shouldn‟t be a good language learner.Under the influence of traditional teaching mode, teachers often emphasis more on grammatical rules and pronunciations than vocabulary. As a result, students spend a lot of time on remembering new words, but the results are not so efficient. However if we have a knowledge of English word formation, the results will be not that bad. Word formation is really an effective way to enlarge our English vocabulary.1.2 Word formation can help us have a better comprehension of an article.When we are reading a new article, we often encounter with some new words that we have never seen before. In this case, most of us will leave out the new word and go on with the following sections. However, this is not a good habit. If we want to improve our English, we have to take every new word seriously either look them up in the dictionary or search for the internet. But don‟t you think that these methods are inefficient? If we know something about English word formation, maybe the article would not be so difficult for us to understand. In this way, we can guess the meaning of the new word according to what we have learned about English word formation. It has been proved that our guess is correct in most cases. So we say word formation can help us have a better comprehension of a new article.1.3 Many new words can be derived based on the rules of word formationRecent years, the use of computers as a medium of communication has given birth to a new language phenomenon-cyber language. A large amount of cyber language has sprung up. Not all the new vocabulary can be recognized by human society. Some new words only emerged in a very short time and then disappeared, however, there are still a lot of words are shared by many people. Finally, these words are recognized by the whole human society. Some are even added to the reversed dictionary. Can we say that these words are unreasonable and irrational? The answer is absolutely “No”.Most of the new words that have been recognized are derived based on certain rules of word formation. For example, the sentence “3QU” is widely used in the chatting room on the internet by foreigners. This is also known as one important characteristics of English word-productivity. So it is necessary for us to learn English word formation.Chapter 2 AffixationAffixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also known as derivation, by which new words derived from old or base forms. The words that are created in this way arecalled derivatives. According to the position affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into three subcategories: pre-fixation, in-fixation and suffixation.Pre-fixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases, which do not generally change the word-class of the base. That is to say, prefixes do not change the part of speech of a word. Their chief function is to modify its meaning, although there are exceptions. In my opinion, prefixes can be divided into: negative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree or size, prefixes of time and order, and so on.Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. Their primary function is to change the grammatical function of the base, such as the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning, though there are a few exceptions. Suffixes can be divided into noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes, and verb suffixes. I can give you an example. The word “countless”, “-less”change the part of form and show the negative meaning of the stem.Infixes are not so common and they usually show a kind attitude of the speaker and will not change the part of form and meaning of words.Chapter 3 CompoundingCompounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a …lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word‟ (Quirk).Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open. Compounds have remarkable characteristics which are different from noun phrases. It comes down to three major ones:1) Phonological features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally accented if there is only one stress. In cases where there are two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the second stress, if any, on the second, whereas the opposite is true of free phrase.2) Semantic features. Compounds differ from free phrases semantically. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. The meaning of a free phrase can not be inferred from the two components of itself. Nevertheless, a lot of compound are transparent, that is to say, the meaning can be obtained from the separate elements of compounds. But the two elements are inseparable and the change of the element would result in the loss of the original identity.3) Grammatical features. Two elements of a compound each plays a separate grammatical role, which can be seen in the way the expressions are handled morphological. For example, compound nouns often show their plural forms by taking inflectional –s at the end. Though there are exceptions, their …one-wordness‟identity is apparent.Chapter 4 ConversionIn English learning, students will often confused with words which have two or more part of form. Many of such conditions are caused by conversion. Conversion is the formation of mew words by converting words of one part of speech to those of another part of speech, without changes in morphological structures but in function. Words created in this way are new only in a grammatical sense. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives and verbs. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs. It deserves nothing that conversion is not only a change of grammatical function of the item involved but with it the different range of meaning is originally carried.Chapter 5 BlendingBlending is a very productive process and many coinages are resulting from blending have become well established. Moreover, they can sever as models for new formation. It is not the Combination of two words directly, but to combine parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. This kind of word formation is called blending. This processes including:The first part of the first word +the last part the second word.The whole part of the first part +the last part the second word.The first part of the first word +the first part the second word.The whole part of the second word + the first part of the first word.The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and newspapers and magazines. Though many of them have already achieved currency in English, they are still considered by the serious-minded peopleto be slang and informal. However, it is advisable not to use such words too often, particularly in formal writing.ConclusionLanguage develops with the development of society and vocabulary is sensitive to the changes of society. Some old words are abandoned and some new ones are created. Most of the new words in English are created according to certain rules and conformed to certain methods. These rules and methods are closely related to English word formation. So it is essential, as well as important, for us to learn word formation, especially for the students of English major.参考文献（5条）：外语语言文学系列教程张维友英语词汇学教程2009学术论文魏红构词法是迅速扩大英语词汇量的有效方法2009期刊论文丁琳徐玲English word formation processes 2009期刊论文张莉浅谈英语构词法中的词缀发2008广州大学学报卢春媚浅谈英语构词法2002。

On Word Formation★PrefaceLearn a language; you must learn pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary. Among the three factors, vocabulary has a very important role in your language-studying. A famous scholar Wilkins said” without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed.”He emphasized that in most cases, the vocabulary is more important than grammar. Another famous lexicologist McCarthy said, when a student learn the second language, no matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the seconds of a L2，without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any manful way.From these two examples and of course include many other cases that are not mentioned here now, we can conclude that if you don’t care vocabulary at all, it is impossible to learn a language in some way. What’s more, you cannot express your real feeling no matter you are happy, sad, fortune, or you are unlucky, because you don’t know what words you can say or you can write.Today, I will tell you what I had learned in this class. What I will teach you is “word formation”, why do I choose this topic to talk? Because in my opinion, if you know the word formation very well, you can remember and use the new words easily. Absolutely, it’s very helpful for your language studying.D on’t you think so?★SummaryEnglish vocabulary has several of Word-formation methods. But the three greatest word formation powers are affixation, compounding, and conversion. The other six kinds of word-formation methods include blending, clipping, acronymy, back-formation, sound reduplication, and communization of proper names.★KeywordsMorphemes, classifying, word-formation★ContextBefore talking about word formation, maybe we should know the morphological structure of English words first. So what we will discuss next is morphological structure of English words. It includes morphemes, morphs and allomorphs, classifying morphemes, identifying morphemes, morphemes and word-formation.☆morphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentence, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as ‘thesmallest functioning unit in the composition of words’. Syn tactically, however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.Morphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories:①Free versus Bound Morphemes ---- morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particular grammatical function.②Derivational versus Inflectional Morphemes ---- morphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.③Content versus Grammatical Morphemes ---- On a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes. Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as we see above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes.☆Morphemes and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or elements to modify meaning or function. Affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes and derivational affixes. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of word, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix.Before we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying:1.Root: a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzedwithout total loss of identity.2.Stem: a stem may consist of a single root morpheme or of two rootmorphemes. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes.3.Base: a base is referred to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Itcan be a root or a stem.☆ Word FormationThe expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion.⑴AffixationAffixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-formingor derivational affixes to base. This process is also known as derivation, by which new words are derived from old or base forms. The words created in this way are called derivatives. According to the positions affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subcategories: prefixation and suffixation.Prefixation includes:Negative Prefixes (a-, dis- ,in-, non-, un-…)Reversative or Privative Prefixes (de-, dis-, un,…)Pejorative Prefixes (mal-, mis-, pseudo- …)Prefixes of Degree or Size (arch-, co-, extra-, hyper-, macro-, micro-, mini-, out-,over-, sub-, super-, sur-, ultra-, under- …) Prefixes of Orientation and Attitude (anti-, contra-, counter-, pro-…)Locative Prefixes ( fore-, inter-, intra-, super-, tele-, trans-…)Prefixes of Time and Order ( ex-, fore-, post-, pre-, re- …)Number Prefixes ( bi-, multi-, semi-,tri-,uni- …)Conversion Prefixes ( a-, be-, en- …)Miscellaneous Prefixes ( auto- , neo-, pan-, proto-, vice- …)Suffixation includes:Noun suffixes (denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, non andadjective suffixes)Adjective suffixes (denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes )Adverb suffixes (Omit example)Verb suffixes (Omit example)⑵CompoundingCompounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. Wordsworth formed in this way are called compounds. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.1.Characteristics of compoundsCompounds have noticeable characteristics which may in most cases differentiate themselves from noun phrases in the following four aspects: Phonological features, semantic features, grammatical, orthographical features.2.Formation of compoundsCompounding can take place within any of the word class, but the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent.Noun compounds, adjective compounds, verb compounds.⑶ConversionConversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.Conversion to nouns (deverbal, de-adjectival, miscellaneous conversion )Conversion to verbs (denominal, de-adjectival, miscellaneous conversion )conversion to adjectives (voiceless to voiced consonant, initial to end stress)the other six means of word-formation includes:Blending, Clipping, Acronymy, Back-formation, Sound reduplication, Communization of proper names.Because the words limit, the six word-formation methods is not detailed introduced here. If you are interested in them, please refer to the lexicology. Annotation: 《英语词汇学教程》张伟友著，《词汇学学习指南》杨春慧著。

英语词汇学的论文怎么写[共5篇]第一篇：英语词汇学的论文怎么写英语词汇学的论文怎么写？英语词汇学习在英语词汇学习过程中，学习者要遵循第二语言习得的规律，掌握并灵活运用多种词汇学习策略。

可分为词汇表策略、语境策略、精加工策略、语义场策略。

一．词汇表策略（Word list strategy）词汇表策略一般为：一列是按字母顺序排列的英语单词，另一列是这些单词的汉语意思（等值词、同义词或近义词）。

有些学者认为，通过词汇表策略能够迅速且有效地学会大量的词汇。

然而，Gaims 和Redman 却指出，通过词汇表记忆词汇会阻碍对所记词汇进行充分地处理和系统地组织，因此就失去了有效的长时记忆的基础。

语言大师桂诗春教授也认为，词汇表策略既费时又费力，徒劳无功，因为这种做法不仅把外语的词语和母语的词语等同起来，而且把它从语言和语境中孤立出来。

二．语境策略（Context strategy）语境策略就是学习者通过上下文语言环境所提供的信息对出现在语境中的生词进行猜测，从而习得这个单词。

语境策略是目前比较流行的词汇学习策略之一，它不仅仅可以扩大词汇量，而且可以让学生了解有关目的语的文化知识。

但是，Channell(Carter &McCarthy ,1988:89)认为，音节认知和重音认知对学习者理解词汇起着非常重要的作用。

为了更好地理解词汇，学习新单词的方法应使学习者准确地内化和吸收新单词：即学会单个音标的发音、了解音节数、掌握重音位置。

从这一方面来看，运用语境策略学习词汇不能算是一个很好的方法。

三．精加工策略（Elaborative strategy）精加工策略是指通过对学习材料进行深入细致的分析、加工，理解其内在的深层意义并促进记忆的一种策略。

皮连生（1998）在《学与教的心理学》一书中也曾提到：“精细加工策略”（同“精加工策略”）指对学习材料作精细的加工活动，即通过在要记忆的材料上增加相关的信息来达到对新的材料记忆的学习方法。

词汇学论文OnWordMeaningsandSenseRelationOn Word Meanings and Sense Relations12级英语D班，赖惠珊，NO.12 Word MeaningsWhat is the definition of word meanings? Meaning is a notion in semantics classically defined as having two components: reference, anything in the referential realm denoted by a word or expression, and sense, the system of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships between a lexical unit and other lexical units in a language. So, words may have two natures:“conventionality”and“motivation”. Conventionality Most English words are conventional,arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the symbol and its sense. There is no way to explain why this or that symbol has this or that meaning.MotivationMotivation refers to the connection between word symbol and its sense. From the point of view of motivation, the great majority of English words are conventional. However, there is a small group of words that can be described as motivated, that is, a direct connection between the symbol and its sense can be really observed. Motivation can arise in three major ways:(1).Phonetic motivation:(onomatopoeic words)(2).Morphological motivation:(derivation, compounding, conversion)(3).Semantic motivation:Semantic motivation refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.eg: the leg of a table, a stony heartHer favorite dish is steak.He manages to earn bread.There are two main Types of Word Meaning. Word meaning is made up of various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. Two main types of word meaning are grammatical and lexical.Grammatical meaningGrammatical meaning refers to that part of meaning which indicates grammatical relationships or concept, such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns,tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Words with the similarlexical meaning can have different grammatical meanings, and words with different lexical meanings can have the same grammatical meaning. Grammatical meaning is in use.Take the following as the example,(1).word-class:modern (adj) →modernize(v) →modernization(n)(2).Inlfectional paradign:cat →catswrite →writes →wrote →written →writingLexical meaningLexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. For example, …go, goes, went, gone, going? possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement. Lexical meaning is composed of conceptual meaning and associative meaning. Lexical meaning is relatively stable.Conceptual meaning is the meaning given in the dictionaryand forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the sameword has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. For example,the word …sun?means a heav enly body which gives off lights, heat and energy. …Mother? means a female parent.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, ect.What?s more, associative meaning comprises four types:Connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning and collocative meaning.In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies. Take a example, …Mother? is often associated with …love?, …care?, …forgiving?,etc.Words may have stylistic features,which make them appropriate for different contexts. This stylistic difference is especially ture of synonyms. Take some example, bodily---corporal, brotherly---fraternal,etc.Affective meaning indicates the speaker?s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or commendatory and pejorative or derogatory.Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. For example, …a bit or a little?collocates with wordsod negative connotations: drunk, jealous, gloomy, etc.Sense Relations between WordsWords are arbitrary symbols and are independent indentities so far as their outer facet---spelling and pronunciation,is concerned. But semantically, all words are related in one way or another, hence sence relations. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically.There are four types of sense relations.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusions. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus and the species,such that the former is included in the latter.Examples:color∣∣---------∣--------∣---------∣---------∣--------∣-------∣grey blue Red black white yellowSynonyms are traditionally defined as words differing in sound form but identical or similar in meaning. Synonyms are based on the denotative meaning. In every synonymous group a common denotative component brings the words together. Such an agreement in denotation is the most important criterion of Synonymy. Example: head —chief —boss —leaderstatesman —politicianTypes of synonymsRelative or partial synonyms:words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degree of a given quality.Sources of SynonymsThe English language is noted for its wealth of Synonyms.“The richness of English in Synonyms is largely due tothe happy mingling of Latin, French and native elem ents.”Based on semantic similarity,synonymes are usually arranged into synonyms are usually arranged into synonymic groups or sets. Within this groups there is the most general term known as “synonymic dominant”. The synonymic dominant is the common denotational component that brings two or more words together into a synonymic group, which can be called a semantically synonymous field. Antonymy is the standard technical term for oppositeness of meaning between words. Words that are opposite in meaning are Antonyms. They are a variety of …oppositness?. They can be classified into three major groups.a.semantic contrast:rich —poorheavy —lightdeep —shallow/doc/d6*******.html,plementariesalive —deadsingle —marriedpresent —absentc.Conversiveslend —borrowtake —bringimmigrate —emigratehusband —wifeHomonymy is commonly used to refer to the linguistic phenomenon that words are identical in pronunciation, spelling, or both, but different in meaning.Modern English is exceptionally rich in homonymous words, due to the monosyllabic structure of many common Englishwords. There are roughly four times as many monosyllabic as polysyllabic homonyms.Polysemy means a single word having several or many meanings. Radiation and concatenation are the main processes leading to polysemy. Polysemic words of long standing are signs of an advanced culture. Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language?s economy and efficiency.Homonyms are words different in meaning,but identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound. Phonetic convergence,semantic divergence and foreign influence are the three main sources of homonymy.Polysemic and homonymous words are stylustically useful to achieve humor or irony,or to heighten dramatic effect.。

The Influence of the Entertainments on the Study of the English Vocabulary姓名：王兆青学号：200904331班级：2009级英语本科一班授课教师：李辉The Influence of the Entertainments on the Study of the EnglishVocabularyAbstract：V ocabulary is one of the three elements constitute the language, only to master a certain number of words in order to achieve the right to use and understand language and to improve speaking and writing ability. Through the appreciation of English entertainments, learners not only understand foreign customs and culture, but also improve their English vocabulary. This article aims to analyze the vocabulary of traditional learning model proposed by the English entertainments‟ role in learning vocabulary, so to prove the English entertainments is to promote learning vocabulary in English is an effective way of learning.Key Words：Entertainments , Interests , Vocabulary, Spoken language1. IntroductionEnglish learners, especially English Majors, after 10 years of English learning, accumulated their own method of learning English more or less. Through the entertainments in English to improve the level of English language learning is more and more popular with people nowadays. Especially the English film. It is a media made up of picture, text and sound, can create vivid English learning environment motivate students to learn English, enthusiasm and initiative to improve learning efficiency.2. The Definition of Vocabulary and the Importance of Vocabulary2.1 The Definition of VocabularyAll the words in a language make up what is generally known as its vocabulary. The term …V ocabulary' is used in different sense. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a give dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. English is one of the worlds highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate of the vocabulary is over one million words.There are more than 460'000 different words in the Webster Dictionary, but you can understand 80% of normal speech with only the 2'000 more frequent words, and with the 3'000 most frequent words you make 95% of normal speech. So don't be afraid when you'll discover the immense amount of words you don't understand. You will probably learn vocabulary all your life (use flash cards) but the words you really need are about 3'000.A difficult but rewarding part of vocabulary learning is the idioms part. Every human language has ways of speaking, expressions, idioms that it uses to vividly convey a meaning and sometimes a proverbial piece of wisdom. For example I recently hear in an American movie a black man telling his friend that if was better to "check out than to come back home all fucked up", equaling death with the process of checking out at a hotel. Whatever you think of the poetry of that one, you have to master some idiomatic expressions if you want to understand people, and if you use them you will most probably find it highly enjoyable.Orthography, or the way you write the words, is another story. Some languages made a clever reform that lets you write as you speak and speak as you write, like for example German or Spanish, but others are backward on this, like English or French.I recommend the excellent "International Dictionary", which lists 1200 words in 21European languages in a very useful format for the student who wishes to compare vocabulary.2.2 The importance of VocabularyV ocabulary is an important part of language knowledge to students, vocabulary teaching ability of using language form is very important. Therefore, this article is the principle and method of vocabulary teaching is discussed. V ocabulary is the language of building materials, is the language of the three elements (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, like one of the building, paving bricks of the foundation. Students in foreign language learning in the primary problem encountered obstacles, not certain vocabulary is the basic vocabulary, want to get strong listening, speaking, reading and writing ability is very difficult. British linguis ts Wilkins once said: “Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed.”And linguists McCarthy even said that “No matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the sound of a L2, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way.”3. The reason of Entertainments Influent the Study of English VocabularyA neural psychology experiment proof, a variety of organs participate in memory is much better than a sense organs alone memory. Generally speaking, a person from visual to obtained knowledge is 25%, and only form hearing to acquire knowledge can remember 15%. When make it a combination, we can remember what we learn more than 65%. Ohio university professor of psychology H f. Bart and H, G Bess grams, they have done a test, and the result shows: Learning foreign languages, read aloud words, easily retained deep impression. Reading aloud memory than the efficiency can be increased memory read silently stages. So we can exploit every opportunity to, as long as it doesn't affect others cases. Foreign language, still can recite phonate improving spoken English ability, what is there against it? From theabove several experiments can be proof when learning to mobilize various sense organs collaborative memory effect is good. This memory method of the theory is that: each organs of the person and brain nerve has a close relation, each sensory organs contact everything in the cerebral cortex leave some trace. If my eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hand and so on many kinds of sensory organs are accept the same information, will be in a cerebral cortex leave a lot of "the same meaning" mark; Of course deeper than an organ the impression, so keep the cerebral cortex visual, auditory area, smell district area, kinesthesia area such as the establishment of multi-channel temporarily neural connections, even if one trace faint and other trace of existence. So launch various sense organs memory materials, can prolong reserved memory time, and consolidate memorial trace.Two thousand years ago, our country the first pedagogy monograph record of study pointed out: "学无当于五官，五官弗得不治。

初中英语词汇教学论文10篇一、初中英语词汇教学现状(一)词汇教学方法单一有调查显示，目前，在初中英语词汇教学过程中，绝大多数教师仅采用一种方法进行教学，只有为数不多的教师采用了一种以上的方法。

词汇教学方法的单一导致了词汇教学收效甚微。

此外，调查结果还显示，直接讲解法是教师在进行词汇教学过程中所采用的最为广泛的方法。

但众所周知，此种方法的教学效果最差。

(二)忽视英文单词与其含义及用法之间建立有效联系的重要性在目前初中英语词汇教学过程中，最为流行的做法是，由学生通过单词表进行词汇的学习，这种方式导致学生的词汇学习由于脱离了具体语言环境而无法将单词本身与其含义和用法之间建立有效的联系，单词识记效率低、效果差强人意，最终导致英语词汇教学收效甚微。

(三)教学时间短，复现频率低传统的英语词汇学习的理念是，词汇学习的主要目的是为了语法学习做准备。

基于此种理念，在教学过程中，部分教师只对词汇进行简单讲解、听写，所花时间只占整个单元教学所需课时的5%不到。

此外，绝大多数教师对词汇的处理仅限在课堂上，课后的时间极少花在词汇学习上，学生词汇学习的时间无法得到保障。

遗忘曲线规律表明，在对新知识的学习过程中，必须要对其进行多次重现，才能使学习者真正掌握该新知识。

这个规律同样适用于对初中英语词汇的学习，学生要想真正掌握英语词汇，必须做到重复多见。

但综观初中英语词汇教学的现状，笔者发现，部分英语教师缺乏对这一规律的足够认知，导致初中学生词汇学习效率低、词汇教学效果不理想。

二、提高初中英语词汇教学成效的对策(一)加强音标及拼读技巧的训练正确认读是迅速有效掌握单词的前提。

因此，在词汇教学过程中，教师务必确保学生始终能正确拼读单词。

此目的的达成需要教师做好以下两件事情:一是教会学生正确认读音标。

二是使学生掌握五个元音字母的开、闭音节拼读规律。

(二)多次对词汇进行重现在语言学习过程中，边学边忘是一个正常现象，但这种现象能对学生真正掌握词汇造成消极影响。

初中英语词汇教学论文（汇总8篇）篇1：初中英语词汇教学论文曾经在学生中做过这样的调查：“学英语，你最怕的是什么？”各种各样的答案都有，有的说害怕语法，有的说害怕作文，有的说害怕听力，但答得最多的却是害怕背单词，尤其是新教材，原来的《英语教学大纲》中规定初中毕业的学生掌握800个左右的单词即可，现如今的《英语课程标准》则要求在1500个左右，在各个科目纷纷“减负”的同时，唯独英语学科在默默承受着“增压”的痛苦，于是就出现了“单词是基础，词汇是拦路虎，背单词真痛苦”的现象。

教学的过程是师生互动的过程，词汇教学也是如此，800个得教，1500个也得教，只是苦了学生，累了教师罢了。

要想让学生掌握好词汇，关键是让学生对英语产生兴趣，把背单词当作一种苦中作乐的事，而要做到这样，又是相当的不容易，除了学生自觉外，教师采用不同的教学方法来帮助调动学生的积极性，也是很重要的。

（一）针对词汇量多的问题，初步统计一下，每个话题的单词少则二三十个，多则五六十个，以前教的时候多是要求学生全部要掌握，胡子眉毛一把抓。

结果是有的学生接受得来，而有的学生一看那么多单词，实在是件痛苦的事，干脆就不背了，反正是死猪不怕开水烫，任你老师罚呗，他自有办法应付，这终究不是好办法。

现如今则稍作改变，要求四会的黑体单词，中下水平的学生要求掌握，至于学有余力的学生，就要求掌握黑体和三会的白体单词，打三角形的只需要了解就可以。

相信大多数老师和我的感受相差不多，对于800个变成1500个毫无心理准备。

以前词汇少时，一星期教一次单词和听写一次就行，如今每个话题单词少的也要分两次教，多的则要分为三次教才行，当然听写也随之水涨船高，次数增多了，不这样做学生根本接受不了。

（二）所谓的“教无定法，教有良法”说明白些，其实就是依据学生具体情况而选择适当的教学方法。

以下是我课堂教学中较为常用的方法。

1音标教学法：七年级英语刚入门时，教师在字母教学法中应该融入音标教学，可以要求学生学会制作音标卡，并要求他们背诵48个国际音素。

词汇学论文
词汇学论文是指对词汇学这门学科进行研究和探讨的学术论文。

词汇学是语言学的一个重要分支，研究词汇的起源、形态、结构、意义和用法等各个方面。

词汇是语言的基本单位，对于理解和分析语言的内部组织和功能具有重要意义。

在词汇学论文中，研究者通常会选择一个特定的词汇问题或主题，进行细致的分析和论证。

词汇学论文的写作通常会涵盖以下几个方面：
1. 引言：介绍研究的背景和目的，对研究的重要性进行概述，并提出研究问题和假设。

2. 文献综述：对前人在相关领域的研究进行综述，概述现有研究成果和发现，并分析其中的研究空白或争议。

3. 研究方法：描述研究的具体方法和步骤，包括数据收集、样本选择、分析方法等。

4. 结果与分析：根据研究数据和方法，对词汇问题进行分析和讨论，阐述研究的发现和结果。

5. 讨论与结论：综合分析词汇研究的结果，回答研究问题并讨论研究的意义和启示，并提出后续研究的方向和建议。

写作词汇学论文需要熟悉词汇学的基本理论和研究方法，并具
备相关的研究技巧和分析能力。

同时，严谨的逻辑思维和清晰的表达能力也是写好词汇学论文的关键。

词汇与语境研究的论文（大全五篇）第一篇：词汇与语境研究的论文摘要：语境意义包括语言语境意义、情景语境意义、文化语境意义、社会文化意义、联想意义等。

同时，词义还随着社会文化的发展变化而变化。

因此，词汇教学不能脱离于他们的使用环境，即语境。

拟就语境在词汇教学中的作用进行探讨。

关键词：语言语境意义；情景语境意义；文化语境意义；社会文化意义；联想意义引言词汇除了基本意义之外，还有丰富的语境意义。

一般来说，语境意义包括语言语境意义，情景语境意义；文化语境意义，社会文化意义，联想意义等。

同时，词义还随着社会文化的发展变化而变化。

因此，词汇教学不能脱离于他们的使用环境，即语境。

本文拟就语境在词汇教学中的作用进行探讨。

语境与词义的基本关系Geffrey Leech 说：“语境是语言交际中不能忽视的一个重要因素。

”这是因为语境对于正确理解词义，话语意义以及正确选择词语表达思想起着非常重要的作用。

可以说，对于一个词准确透彻的理解是依赖语境的帮助来实现的。

马林诺夫斯基把语境分为三类，即话语语境、情景语境和文化语境。

简单的说，话语语境是指字、词、句、段等的前后可帮助确定其意义的上下文。

情景语境是语篇指产生的环境。

文化语境是指某种语言赖以根植的民族里人们思想和行为准则的总和。

伦敦学派的核心人物物弗斯接受并发展了马林诺夫斯基的情景语境理论，他指出：情景语境不仅包括说出来的话，而且还包括说话人的面部表情、手势、身体的姿势，所有参与交谈的人以及这些人所处的那一部分环境。

关于语境与词义的关系，Firth说：“You shall know a word by the company it keeps。

”他认为在任何语言中，一定的词总是结伴出现。

他所讲的“结伴”关系，就是狭义上的语言语境。

“结伴”可以是搭配关系，前后文以及词与词之间的语境联系。

一个词的准确意义在这种语境（结伴）关系中充分体现出来。

语言学家Linda Taylor也说：“只能在词与词的相互联系中来理解掌握词义”。

[标签:标题]篇一：《英语词汇学教程》论文(中文版)英语词汇学论文(中文版)单词记忆法细谈一，读音规则记忆法它就是按照元音字母、元音字母组合、辅音字母及辅音字母组合在开音节和闭音节的读音规律记忆。

例如：ea，ee，er，ir，ur，or分别能发［i：］［：］［：］等。

还有些固定的字母组合，例如：ing发［i］，ly发［li］，ty发［ti］和各种前缀、后缀，例如：a-，re-，un-，dis-，im-；-ed，-ing，-ly，-er，-or，-ful，-y等都有其比较固定的发音。

掌握了这些规则，记单词时就不必一个字母一个字母地记忆了。

二.字母变化记忆法英语单词中以某个单词为基础，加、减、换、调一个字母就成了另一个新单词。

具体方法如下：1.前面加字母。

例如：is/his，ear/near/hear，read/bread2.后面加字母。

例如：hear/heart，you/your，plane/planet3.中间加字母。

例如：though/through，tree/three，for/four4.减字母。

例如：she/he，close/lose，star/tstar5.换字母。

例如：book/look/cook，cake/lake/wake/make/take6.调字母（即改变字母顺序）。

例如：blow/bowl，sing/sign，from/form三.联想记忆法在日常生活中可以根据所处的环境，所见到、所摸到的事物，联想相关的英语单词。

例如：打球时联想到：ball，(play)basketball，(play)football，(play)volleyball，playground等等；吃饭时联想到：dining-room，(have)breakfast，(have)lunch，(have)supper等等；睡觉时联想到：bed，bedroom，gotobed，sleep，gotosleep，fallasleep等等。

一。

The Development of English VocabularyThere are about one million English words in all. English is also an international language in this society. You can see English words almost every where, even in non-English-spoken countries.How does English come into being? Why it has so many vocabularies? In the following passage, I will give you a general picture about these two questions. The English people are of a mixed blood. The early inhabitants of the island we now call England were Britons, but in fact all the races were the invaders came from Europe. Nobody knows very much about Britain before the Romans came during the first century BC, but there had been at least three invasions before that. The first of these was by a dark-haired Mediterranean race called the Iberians. The other two were by Celtic tribes: one is Gaels, whose descendants are the modern Scots and Irish; another is the Britons, who gave their name to the whole island of Britain. These were the people whom the Romans conquered. The Romans gave the Britons a good deal of their civilization. Then at the beginning of the fifth century Britain was invaded by three tribes from the northern Europe: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. These three tribes merged into one people, and the three dialects they spoke naturally grew into a single language, the English language.But at first, the English word made up of only a small part of native words and some borrowed words. The native words were the core words of English. According to a kind of classification of language, English is classified as a Teutonic language, which is a Germanic language. To be more exact, English belongs to the low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European family. Because of the complex history of Briton, the language of English is of a mixed character. On one hand, it shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures. On the other hand, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French. Besides, English has accepted words from other languages of the world in the course of its historical development.The history of English language is divided into three periods:1. the old English period ( from 450AD to 1150 AD )2. the middle English period ( from 1150AD to 1500AD )3. the modern English period ( from 1500AD up to now )As I mentioned above, in fact, that there is also a period we can call it thepre-old English period, which includes the Celts, the Scottish and Irish races and culture, and also Welsh race and culture were brought by the Celts. Then the Romans brought Latin alphabet and civilization to this land. After these two were the formation of the Anglo-Saxons people, which is the original English race and language.Old English consists mainly about the native language of Anglo-Saxons people. The period from 450AD to 1150AD is known as the old English period, and it isalso been called Anglo-Saxons period. It is described as the period of full inflections, since during most of this period the case endings of the noun, the adjective, and the conjugation of the verb were not weakened. Also during this period, when the Norman Conquest in 1066AD brought French to England, and much of the English vocabulary was replaced by words borrowed from French and Latin.Old English is a synthetic language. (There are two classes of languages in the world: synthetic and analytic. A synthetic language is one which shows the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections. An analytic language is one which indicates the relation of words in a sentence by means of word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs, rather than by inflections.) Old English nouns and adjectives have four cases: the nominative case, the genitive case, the dative case and the accusative case. Apart from these four cases, Latin nouns have the ablative and locative cases.Middle English period is from 1150AD to 1500AD. During this period the inflections which had begun to break down towards the end of the old English period, became greatly reduced, and it is known as the period of leveled inflections. The Norman Conquer was the cause of this change. The change of this period had a great effect on both grammar and vocabulary. In grammar English has changed from a highly inflected language to an analytic language. In this period many old English words were lost, but thousands of words borrowed from French and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary. French influence on the English vocabulary is much more direct and observable. The number of French words that came into English was very numerous. More than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin.Modern English period is from 1500 to the present. A large part of the original inflectional system has disappeared, and it is known as the period of lost inflections. We may divide this period into two parts: the early Modern English period and the Late Modern English period.The early modern English period extends from 1500AD to 1700AD. The chief influence of this time was the great humanistic movement of the Renaissance. In this period the study of the Latin and Greek classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin and Greek on English was great.The late modern English period started after 1700AD. The eighteenth century in England was a time of stabilizing and purifying the English language. The publication in 1755AD of A Dictionary of the English Language edited by Samuel Johnson was a typical example of consolidating and purifying the English language in this period. He set a standard for using English words in spelling, meaning and usage. In the eighteenth century French greatly influenced English. The number of French words in the period from 1650AD to 1800AD increased rapidly. Such as: ballet, cartoon, champagne, cohesion, dentist, patrol, publicity, routing, etc.Meanwhile the territorial expansion of the English empire in this period resulted in the expansion of the English vocabulary. Thus, there are many words flow into English vocabulary, which includes American Indian words, Mexican words, Peru words, Brazil words, India and African words.The nineteenth and twentieth centuries are a period of rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the history of the English language. In this period many changes have taken place. Especially the great development of science and technology is reflected in the English vocabulary.Besides, the great changes in industry, in political and social lives, in sports and amusements all have contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary. Since the Second World War the English vocabulary has been affected powerfully by social, political, economic, especially scientific and technical changes. The English vocabulary not only changes, but also changes quickly in this period. Thousands of new words are added, existing words acquire new meaning and old words die out.Till now, the English vocabulary is still changing, some words come out and some die out. In a word, as society is constantly in a state of development, so is language. Society depends on language for its existence. As society develops new objects are created that require the invention of new words and expressions. Therefore, the changing of English vocabulary is an endless changing process.Bibliography:陆国强，published in 1999，Modern English Lexicology (new edition)Adams, Valerie, published in1982,An Introduction to Modern English Word-formation戴炜栋，published in 2002，A New Concise Course on Linguistics for Students of English朱永涛，published in 1997，The Society and Culture of Major English-speaking Countries林承璋，published in 1987，An Introduction to English Lexicology也可以写广告中的词汇特点：The Lexical Features of Advertisement on NewspaperNewspapers are generally the cheapest way to reach a mess audiences,and the timing is fast.Adverments make an important part on English Newspaper.We live in a world of advertising.Advertising provides a valuable service to society and its members,because it defines for consumers the meaning and the role of products,services and institutions.Newspaper advertisements’ main text use words for the spread of vector,and must must be simple eye-catching,because of the layout of resources.To some extent,thenewspaper advertisements content mainly rely on language toexpress.Advertising language ,playing a role of communication and persuasion,has developed its own features.Naturally,advertisements in English have become an important means of communicatingideas,demoinstrating a variety of linguistic features of its own.The present study discusses some lexical features of English advertisement texts.ⅠChoose the simple wordsAdvertiment language must be easily understood terms so that readers can get information as soon as possible.In advertising,simple words can win the consumers by their exact,effective expression an d a kind of closeness.E.g.①Take time.Any time.Continuous using two “time” can make the language simple and clear.②Once tasted,always loved.The article should be clearly and concisly understood in order to arouse the interest of customers on food which make them mouth-watering.③My goodness!My Guinness!Common language facilitate people to memory and speak,this reproduce the scene of people driking the Guinness beer which is full of praise.ⅡFrequent Employment of Simple VerbsSimple verbs are frequently employed in English advertisements, which is an obvious wording characteristics of English advertising texts.Verbs are the most important part of language.It is a prominent feature in adervertising english that verbs are regularly used for the ultimate goal of advertising ,which is to enable consumers to buy their goods.So in terms of the using of words,dynamic and strong word will produce a better feeling effects.Verbs can be used to “touch”the consumer's heart.In this way,they will have impules to buy the goods.E.g.①Drink Coca-Cola.②I want you to sponsor a Rice Paddy Baby.③For incredible speed and accuracy, try the Minolta 7000, the world’s first body-integral auto-focus SLR.In the above examples, “try”,”sponsor” and “drink”are to fulfill the “get action” requirement seem more euphemistic and even more attractive.④Get noticed. Get results.⑤Feel the Hyatt Touch.⑥Send today for your free sample, and try the new flavor.After reading the above ads, we feel encouraged to take buying action or make repeated purchases. The active voice doesn’t force people to take the passive action while it makes people feel that they do something of their own accord. Ⅲ. Adjectives⑴It is hard for us to think of any really persuasive message without the use of descriptive and vivid adjectives. Copywriters like to use a large number of adjectives not only to describe the quality and features of the products or services, but to a great extent to praise and beautify them.E.g.For people who care about their bodies, Dairy Farm brings fresh skimmed milk. With almost no fat, it keeps your body fit inside and outside, fresh skimmed milk. Fresh Dairy Farm.The adjective “fresh” in Example appears three times to emphasize how fresh the product is, making its quality particularly attra ctive. And the adjective “fit” points out the remarkable function of the product.⑵The copywriter tends to select the superlative or comparative forms of adjectives that carry positive meanings so as to make a comparison and stress the wonderful qualities of the advertised product. E.g.①Using Dove, I do feel 20 years younger.“Younger” just emphasizes the magic power of the product.②Discover the season’s newest splendor.The word “newest” , which is an advertisement of a kind of perfume, means “fashionable to the highest degree”.Of course, the advertisers must make sure that the advertised goods or services are actually the best in the same category.Sometimes people do not know how superb the goods or the services are in quality. Anyhow, people tend to believe what is said in advertisements.Ⅳ.New Words Constantly AppearIn order to attract people’s attention, copywriters like to create some new words which are more active. The new words are mainly used for truthfulness, humor or emphasis in English advertising texts. E.g.①Surefit Shoe Ltd.“Surefit” is a new word which makes consurms thing of a sentence”Surely to fit your feet”.That means the shoes are fot for your feet.②Give a Timex to all, and to all a good time.The well-known watch brand “Timex” is a variation of “Time + Excellent”, wh ich persuasively shows the merit of the watch brand. Thus, brand names get and retain a unique image.Ⅴ.PronousPronouns of the first and second person: we, I and you outnumber the other pronouns in advertisements. It is because that you, we and I help create a friend-like intimate atmosphere to move and persuade the audience. The audience will easily accept a product, a service or an idea as if a good friend recommended them.Sometimes,we use infinitive pronouns,such asall,everyone,none,nothing and so on in order to feflect the extraordinarycharacteristics of a particular commodity or it has been spending and receiving most of people.E.g.Our finest time.It is about a well-known red wine.A pair of lover drink together at romantic atmosphere.Ⅵ.Compound wordsA compound word is often a noun or an adjective made up of two or more words which are frequently used to express more information in limited space. Especially,compound adjectives are often seen in advertisements.E.g.Kodak Single-use-came ras take pictures where you wouldn’t normally take your camera.It used the compound word skillfully and describe the capability and function of the product incisively and vividly.Now we have briefly discussed the six wording characteristics of English advertisements. We have got to know that simple verbs and concise adjectives are very important words in English advertising, and that new words which are attractively used to stress the new and special qualities or functions of the advertised products. Language in advertising presents us with a colorful, interesting and wonderful world in order to serve the purpose of attracting advertising readers. Of course, besides the above features discussed in this study, there is much more for further study in advertising language.Email:********************。

On native words and borrowings in the English vocabulary AbstractAs time goes on, great changes have taken place in native English vocabulary. In addition to the inner evolvement of itself, it has also absorbed more and more borrowings from other culture. This essay will focus on exactly this subject. The main parts in this paper are: ①to exhibit the basic conceptions regarding native words and borrowings in English vocabulary;②to discuss the major features of English native words;③to discuss the major sources and features of borrowings in the English vocabulary; ④to explore the interrelation between the native and foreign elements in the English vocabulary.⑤to make a conclusion of the whole paper.Key words native words borrowings English vocabularyChapter 1 Basic Information about Native Words in English Vocabulary1、1 Definition of Native WordsWe should first make clear the exact definition of native words or borrowings no matter what we are going to discuss about them next.According to some dictionaries and books of lexicology, native words refer to words which originated in the region where it is used. To put it simple, native words are words that are not foreign or imported.Specifically, as for English vocabulary, native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the Germanic tribes, namely the angles, the Saxons, and the jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. Though words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, they stand at the core of the language.1、2 Features of native wordsGenerally speaking, native words have these features below:First, they are neutral in style. That is to say, native words are usually neither formal nor informal. This is because native words denote the commonest things in human society. Almost all the people use them in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Take the word begin and commerce for instance. Begin is a typical native word and commerce is a borrowing.Obviously, we use begin neither formally or informally. However we use commerce mostly in formal occasions.Second, they are frequent in use. Native words are the foudation and the core of the English vocabulary. Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The percentage of native words in use reaches usually as high as 70 to 90 percent.Third, in structure they are mostly monosyllabic words.Fourth, in meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things. At the same time, they are highly polysemic words, that is, they have many meanings.Fifth, in grammar they include most parts of speech.Sixth, they are of collocability. Many commonly-used expressions and phrases in English are made up of native words.Seventh, they are good at forming word in modern English. Native words in modern English can form a great number of derivatives. For example, watery and waterless are both the derivatives of water. Native words in modern English can also form many compounds. For example, the word fire can form many compounds, such as fireman, firefighter, fireplace and firebrand and so on.Chapter 2 Basic Information about Borrowings in English Vocabulary2.1 Definition and Main Features of BorrowingsBorrowings, or borrowed words, or loan words, refers to the words taken from foreign language.As a language which owns the most speakers, English has adopted words from almost all other major languages in the world. As is stated in Encyclopedia Americana, “the English language has vast debts. In any dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed”. Thus the English language is called “a heavy borrower”. Here “borrowing” is not real “borrowing”. It has nothing to with returning. It’s merely a metaphor stands for the foreign words from a different culture. But not all foreign words do become borrowings. If they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the borrowing stage.Through analyzing the borrowings in English vocabulary, we can find some common features among them.First, borrowings in English vocabulary usually do not have relative native words with the same meaning with them. When this is the case, certain concepts, ideas or objects of the “lending”language community are new to the people of the “borrowing” language community. So instead of making up a complete whole new word for the idea or object they simply borrow the word from the people they came in contact with.Second, borrowings are usually words that refer to exotic ideas, concepts or objects. An example of this is how names of animals that do not inherently come from Great Britain are often loanwords in English. The name of the animal is borrowed from the language that is spoken in the country in which the animal originally comes from or lives in.Third, most of the borrowings in English vocabulary are nouns. Nouns and lexical words in general, are borrowed more frequently than grammatical words. An example of this is the word “bagel”. The word was adopted from the Yiddish language, since the Jews were those who introduced bagels to the rest of the world. Many other languages, including English, therefore borrowed the word “bagel”.Fourth, borrowings are often even more widely known than native words since their borrowing served a certain purpose, for example to provide a name for a new invention. An example of such a borrowing is “pizza”. Since the Italians were those who introduce pizzas in England, the England borrowed the word from them.2.2 Major Sources of Borrowings in the English VocabularyTo discuss this question, we should first get to know the exact meaning of “source of borrowing”. Here it refers to the place where the borrowing was borrowed.Generally speaking, Latin, Greek and French are the three languages that have contributed most to the English language. Other foreign languages that have contributed words are of less importance.That is to say, Latin, Greek and French are the three main sources where borrowings in English vocanulary come from. Apart from the three, Scandinavian, Celtic, Dutch, Low German, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Spanish are also the main sources of borrowings in English vocabulary. Some examples of borrowings in English voabulary are as follows.Among those borrowings that come from the Germanic are the words father, mother, brother, man, wife, tree, grass, summer, winter, bring, come, get, hear, meet, and think and so on.Such words as constitution, president, parliament, congress, city, place, , diner, café, liberty, veracity, carpenter, draper, haberdasher, mason, painter, plumber, and tailor are from France.English has acquired many words from Spanish. Some of these have been borrowed directly: cigar, armada, guerrilla, matador, mosquito, and tornado.Borrowings from Latin have been especially numerous. Many of these represent combinations of Latin words: alnutrition, transfer, circumference, supernatural, submarine, suburb, substantial, contemporary, multilingual, conjunction, compassion, and hundreds more.Borrowings from Greek are heavy in the sciences and technology. In addition to macro and micro, often-used prefixes include poly and tele. Among the well-known English words from Greek are alphabet, geometry, geology, photography, psychology, pathology, biology, philosophy, telephone, logistics, and metamorphosis.Among the common English words that have come from Arabic are: alcohol, alchemy, algebra, alkali, almanac, arsenal, assassin, cipher, elixir, mosque, naphtha, sugar, syrup, zenith, and zero.Borrowings in English vocabulary are so numerous that they can not be listed one by one The above are the language sources that English vocabulary comes from. Below are the specific sources or we’d better say specific channels that borrowings come from. Generally speaking, English vocabulary mainly comes through conquest, commerce, travel, literature, mass media or some other ways. In other words, those borrowings have come into English vocabulary through the spoken word, on one hand, and through the written word, on the other hand.Chapter 3 The Interrelation between the Native and Foreign Elements in the English VocabularyIn fact, no language has so complex and varied a vocabulary as English. The English vocabulary has been adopted from more than fifty languages. As a cosmopolitan language English has no rival. That is to say, up to seventy percent of the English vocabulary consists of loan-words, and only thirty percent are native words.In spite of large-scale borrowings, it is the native words that form the basic stock of modern English vocabulary. And what’s more, native words are used in everyday speech and writing more frequently than borrowed words.Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language.In the course of historical development borrowed words have extended the total number of the English vocabulary, and Latin or Greek roots, prefixes or suffixes have changed the structures of English words.Chapter 4 conclusionTo sum up, we can say that English vocabulary has been marked by the word ‘borrowing’. Since early times, English has been in contact with other languages such as Greek, French, Scandinavian, Celtic, Dutch, Low German, Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, and Spanish and so on, and as a result, English vocabulary has been riched under the influence of other languages. It is native words and borrowings together help strengthen the English vocabulary and make it a very open and the most poewrful language in the modern world.Bibliography参考书目??/~kemmer/Words04/structure/borrowed.htmlhttp://www1.ku-eichstaett.de/SLF/EngluVglSW/grzega1032.pdfhttp://dooku.miun.se/engelska/englishC/C-essay/VT06/Final/NicoleFerm.pdf/~kemmer/Words/loanwords.html/media_file/200708/huashi/0809/cihuix/web/unit02.htm。

英语词汇学硕士论文范文词汇教学是大学英语教学的重要组成部分，词汇教学在一定程度上影响着是大学英语教学成败。

下面是店铺为大家整理的英语词汇学论文，供大家参考。

英语词汇学论文篇一：《探讨计算机英语词汇的构词法》缩略词是计算机英语专业词汇构成的一大显著特点，使用起来方便、简洁，易于上口，而且节省书写、打印时间及文章篇幅等。

因此，缩略词在计算机英语中的应用极为普遍，作用十分活跃。

通过教学，让学生掌握常用缩略词及其含义，对学好计算机课程有很大帮助。

计算机英语缩略词主要有以下两种形式：1.首字母缩略词。

它是由词组中每个单词的第一个字母组合构成的新词。

这些词经常出现在网络、硬件描述等方面，如PC(personalcomputer)个人电脑、WWW(WorldWideWeb)万维网、BBS(BulletinBoardSystem)电子公告系统、CAI(ComputerAidedInstruction)计算机辅助教学、IT(InformationTechnol-ogy)信息技术、LAN(LocalAreaNetwork)局域网、CPU(CentralProcessingUnit)中央处理器、OS(Oper-atingSystem)操作系统、DOS(DiskOperatingSystem)磁盘操作系统、ROM(ReadOnlyMemory)只读存储器。

当然，首字母缩略只是一种大致情况，但在某些情况下，缩略词并非按照上述缩写各单词首字母的方法进行缩写，如DatabaseManagementSystem(数据库管理系统)则缩写为DBMS、HypertextTransferProtocol(超文本传输协议)缩写为HTTP。

2.截短词。

它是计算机英语中比较特殊的词，在程序设计语言的标识符和函数名、操作系统的命令、配置文件中的属性等条目中常常见到。

截短词的构成主要有两种形式：一是截取一个完整单词的前部分来代替整个单词，旨在使用起来方便快捷、简洁高效。

英语词汇学论文---词义的变化The Causes of Changes in Word Meaning Abstract:Key words: historical; social; psychological; linguistic; semanticDo you know when Juliet tells Romeo, “I am too fond”, she is not claiming she likes Romeo too much? She means “I am too foolish” Do you know when Horatio says to Hamlet, “Season your admiration for a while…”, he is not telling Hamlet “to increase his respect( the current meaning of admiration) for something”?In fact, he means “ to moderate his astonishment.”Don?t be surprised, because, as Quirk asserts, almost every word we use today has slightly different meaning from the one is had a century ago; and a century ago it had a slight different meaning from the one it had a century before that. When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning.As nonnative English learners, learning the causes of changes in word meaning can help us deepen the understanding of the meaning of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and culture background. By learning this, we can use vocabulary in a more precise way and avoid mistake or embarrassment when communicating with native speakers.The causes of changes in word meaning can be divided into linguistic cause and extra-linguistic cause. Extra-linguistic cause can also divide into historical cause, social cause and psychology cause.Linguistic causeChange of meaning is frequently brought about by two tendencies in a linguistic system: towards ellipsis and towardsanalogy. Some linguists think foreign influence should subordinate linguistic cause.Ellipsis occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole, so it often occurs in habitual collocations, such as adjective + noun or attributive noun + noun. Private, daily, duplicate are all adjectives, but they are used as nouns. Private means a soldier of the lowest rank, daily means daily newspaper, and duplicate means duplicate copy. Under such circumstances, whatever is left, whether a noun or an adjective, is all used as a noun assuming the original meaning. Naturally, the association became so close that the first element could alone carry the meaning of the whole phrase.Besides, there is a change of grammatical function as well, as when adjectives assumethe roles of nouns. Unlike the above examples, whose sense of one word has been transferred to another simple because the two occur together habitually, in some cases, it is the second or “headword”of the phrase that remains. For example, (stream) engine, (coal) gas and (light) bulb.The analogical tendency means new meanings developed in one part of speech are passed on to other parts of speech from the same lexical bas e. Fortuitous formerly denoted …happening by chance?, …accidental?, and later took on the meaning …fortunate?probably by analogy because the two words look similar in shape. Another interesting example is fruition, originally from a Latin word fruitio meaning enjoyment. But now, its meaning is given as “fulfillment of (plans, desired results, aims, etc.),”possibly from connection with the word fruit.Foreign influencesA particularly important cause of change of meaning inwords has been the influence of foreign words. For example, the native word stool originally meant any kind of seat for one person, and could even be used for a king?s seat. It got its humble meaning because the French word chair was adopted to denote a more comfortable piece of furniture. Other example is dream. Dream meant “joy” in OE; it gets its modern sense from the related Scandinavian word draumr.Historical causeIt often happens that though a word retains its original form, its meaning has changed because the object which it denotes has changed. This is the historical cause of semantic change.The well-known semanticist Ullmann notes, “It often happens that language is more conservative than civilization, material as well as moral. Objects, institutions, ideas, scientific concepts change in the course of time; yet in many cases the name is retained and thus helps to ensure a sense of tradition and continuity.”(Ullmann 1997:198)Indeed, it often happens that a word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed because the referent has changed. Take pen for example, it donated …feather?, which was used in the West as pen in old times. Now, the time when …feather? served as pen is long gone, and people are using hall-point pens and fountain pens, yet the name is still kept. This change has also occurred to computer, which designated a …person who computes? in the past. At present, when we talk about computer, people, people would think of an …electronic machine? rather than a person.There are also many scientific concepts which have retained their original forms, although their meanings have changed as a result of new scientific discoveries and increased knowledge. Forinstance, before Copernicus, the sun was thought to be …the luminous celestial body that in the Plolemaic system is one of the seven planets revolving around the earth? and this meaning is retained in “The sun rises and sets.”The Copernician theory tried to change the historical point of view and now everyone knows that the sun is a …star around which the earth a nd other planets revolve…?Social causeWe are going to discuss social cause of the changes of words?meanings in five aspects.A. Social developmentChange in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common word and various technical words is referred to as social cause of semantic change. (Ullmann 1997:199-200) As a result, some technical words have lost their specialized meanings and have come to be used in more general senses, which connect with electricity, physics, chemistry, medicine, mathematics, etc. For instance, feedback means “response” in common use, as in “The teacher likes to have feedback from his students.”Dimension: as a common word, it means “extent in a particular aspect”, as in “This problem has a new dimension.”B. Social environmentBig events in society will change the meaning of some words. The simple words cold and hot have changed their meanings in the field of politics, as in “cold war” and “hot war”. In England, Abdication can mean King Edward VIII abdicated for marrying a divorced American woman, Ms Simpson. In these cases, nonnative speakers should try to memorize.C. Social classVillain means bad people, but its original meaning is villager.Because the aristocrat looks down upon the low social status villagers, the meaning of villain changed. It is a kind of degeneration of meaning. More examples are clown, boor, knave, and churl. Thus, if a word has something to do with low social status, it will have derogatory sense, vice versa.D National sentimentNational sentiment influences the meaning of word deeply. In English, some bad things will have connection with other nations. For instance, to take French leave means leaving without saying goodbye. Italian hand means interfere. Spanish athlete means a person who says nonsense.The most obvious nation, to which English shows great prejudice, is Netherlands, because these two countries always fought each other in 17century. Dutch act means commit suicide. Dutch comfort means comfort of no help. Dutch widow means prostitute. Dutch uncle means strict critic. Dutch treat means a party that you should pay for yourself. Dutch bargain means a deal made when you are drunk. I amDutched means I am cheated. Double Dutch means words that are rather baffling. I’m a Dutch man if …E. SexismThere are some words with sexism in English, but the number is minor. For example, “Man is a rational animal; men are born equal.”The man in there refers to human being. Recent years, thanks to feminist movement, more and more words are created to refer to women, such as businessperson, draftsperson, poetess, heroine, spokeswoman etc.Psychological causePsychological cause is also constantly at work in bringing about changes in word meaning. Psychological factors play abasic part in meaning change, which leads to the elevation or degradation of word meanings. It takes three forms: euphemism, grandiloquence and cynicism.A.EuphemismPeople change word-meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, irony, contempt, hatred, etc. People tend to use mild, agreeable language when speaking of an unpleasant or embarrassing fact and taboo subjects.Death and things related to death are one of the most common objects of euphemism. “To pass away,”“to brea the one?s last,”“to cease to think,”“to fall asleep,”“to kick the bucket,”“to be no more,”“to go west,” all refer to death.Toilet is another example. Rest room, lounge, convenience, comfort station and powder room are just some of its euphemism. Pregnant can be said “big,”“big with child,”“expectant,”“heavy with child,”“laden,”“anticipating,”“in the family way,”and “in an interesting condition.”B.GrandiloquenceGrandiloquence refers to the use of long, important-sounding words for effect. The desire to upgrade or raise the social status of a position, occupation, or institution by changing its common name to one felt to confer greater dignity or importance is another psychological factor in the change of word meaning.In American English, there are so many words of grandiloquence used in unpopular jobs. Garbage collector is sanitation engineer, servant is domestic engineer, mortician is funeral director and gardener is landscape architect.In a sense, grandiloquence is a form of euphemism, too. So some linguists consider grandiloquence subordinate the Euphemism.C.CynicismCynicism is the desire to sneer and to be sarcastic. For instance, the word pious may mean “hypocritically virtuous” in addition to its primary meaning, “having, showing deep devotion to religion.” The present meaning of sanctimonious is “pretending to be very holy or pious”, while it once meant “devout, holy or sacred”. Fanatic, a Latin synonym for enthusiastic, means “unreasonably enthusiastic, almost approaching to madness.”ConclusionChange in word meaning is commonplace and fundamental in a living language, for it is one of the simplest and most convenient ways of meeting peoples? need for new manes to refer to new things, ideas, processes, etc. Broadly speaking, change of meaning refers to the alteration of the meaning of existing words, as well as the addiction of new meaning to established words.The causes of semantic change are historical, social, psychological or purely linguistic. As nonnative English learners, we need to pay more attention to the changes of word meanings, for we are not familiar with their own history, their culture background and psychological situation. Only by learning these causes can we get a better understanding of lexicology, vocabulary, semantic field and context. Only by learning these causes can we know which words should be used and which words should be avoided, so that we can express our meaning more specific in communication with others.Bibliography:Jackson Howard (2000), Words, Meaning and V ocabulary, Trowbridge: The Cromwell PressJavier E Diaz Verd (2004), Lexicography, Semantics and Lexicology in English Historical Linguistics, Netherlands: Rodopi 汪榕培（2000），《英语词汇学研究》，上海：上海外语教育出版社汪榕培& 卢晓娟（2006），《英语词汇学教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社杨艳华& 张树凡（2007），《现代英语词汇学》，：冶金工业出版社张维友（1997），《英语词汇学教程》，武汉：华中师范大学出版社张韵斐（2012），《现代英语词汇学概论》，北京：北京师范大学出版社。