英语词汇学引论(笔记) chapter 1
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Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to:English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics(文体论)and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help le arners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of t he historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of w ord-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding a nd their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills o f using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that ca n function alone in a sentencesound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thin g or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”sound and form: the sound should be similar to the formVocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyThe 3 Stages of Development of E Vocabulary: Old English vocabulary, Middle EV, Modern EVClassification of English Words According to Different CriteriaThe basic word stock: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the co mmon core of the language.Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock:1)All-National character(全民通用性most important)2)Stability(相对稳定性)3)Productivity(多产性)4)Polysemy(多义性)5)Collocability(可搭配性)words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon(行话)(3)slang(俚语)(4)Argot(暗语)(5)Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms(古语)(7) Neologisms(新词语):Neologisms means newly-created words or expressi ons, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words (cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words (on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Loan WordsNative words: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th ce ntury by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks)Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词) (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens(外来词):are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (ko wtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see from China4) semantic loans(借义词):their meanings are borrowed。
一.概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)(也可能是第三四五外语) also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary重点知识锦集:1. According to semanticists(意义学家), a word is a unit of meaning.2. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’.3. Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency.4. Words may fall into content words and functional words by notion.5. Words may fall into native words and borrowed words by origin.6. The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language.7. ‘all national character’(全民性)is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.8. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.9. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.9. The English language is noted for the remarkable complexity and heterogeneity of its vocabulary because of its extensive borrowings.10. According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes: Denizens, Aliens, Translation-loans, Semantic-loans.11. The differences between sound and form are due to innovations made by linguists.12. Of all the five characteristics listed for the basic word stock, the most important is all national character.(全民性)13. Content words are changing all the time whereas functional words are stable.14. In Old English there was more agreement between sound and form.15. A word is a symbol that represents something else in the world.16. Some words in the basic words stock are said to be stable because they refer to the commonest things in life.17. In different language, the same concept can be represented by different sounds and the same sound can show different meanings.18. The internal reason for the difference between sound and form is the fact of more phonemes than letters in English.19. Native words are neutral in style and frequent in use.20. The expression of “long time no see”is translation-loan among the four classes of borrowings.名词解释:1. word(词): A word is a minimal free form of a Language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. vocabulary(词汇): The term ‘vocabulary’is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book,a given disicipline and the words possessed by an individual person.3. Jargon(专门术语): It refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particulararts, sciences, trades, and professions, communicate among themselves.4.Archaisms(古语词): Archaisms are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.5. Neologisms(新词语): Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.6. borrowed words(外来词): Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.7. Deizens(同化词): Deizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are all assimilated into the English Language.8. Aliens(非同化词): Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognisable as foreign in origin.9. Translation-loans(译借词): Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.10.Semantic-loans(借义词): Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. In other words, English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language11. argot(黑话): It generally refers to the jargon of criminals.12. content words(实词): Content words denote clear notions including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.13. terminology(术语): Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.14. native words(本族语): Native words, also known as Anglo-Saxon words, are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the German tribes.论述问答题:1. With the development of the Language, why do more and more differences occur between the Sound and Form?答:It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural Language is the written record of the oral form. But with the development of the Language, more and more differences occur between them, the reasons are as follows:①. The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the Language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination.②. Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.③. A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.④. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. When English borrowed words from other Languages , it borrowed spelling as well.2. What are the obvious characteristics of the words of the basic word stock(基本词汇)?①. All national character.(全民性)②. Stability(稳定性)③. Productivity(多产性)④. Polysemy(多义性)⑤. Collocability(搭配性)Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but are semantically monosemous and have limited productivity and collocability. Therefore, ‘all national character’is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.3. Apart from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features, what are they?答:①. Neutral in style(文体上中性). Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Therefore, they are not stylistically specific.②. Frequent in use(使用频繁). Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number.4. Illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning with examples.答:A word is phonetic symbol that stands for something in the world. This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary, and there is ‘no logical relationships between the sound which stands for a things or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself’. For example, woman is represented by the sound Frau in German, femme in French, and funv in Chinese.5. Explain neologisms(新词语)with examples.答:Neologisms are newly created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. For example, “emil”(electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems) is a word newly coined against the background of rapid development in information technology. The word “mouse” might examplify the words taking on new meanings : now a mouse is indispensable for computer users.6. How are English words generally classified? Elaborate on it.答:V ocabulary can be classified by different criteria into different types.①By use frequency(使用频率), words may fall into the basic word stock(基本词汇)and nonbasic vocabulary(非基本词汇). Basic vocabulary is small in number but forms the core of the language and enjoys the high frequency of use. Nonbasic vocabulary contains such words as terminology, jargon, which have a relatively limited use;②By notion(实义), words can be divided into content words(实义词)and functional words (功能词即虚词), content words have clear notions such as nouns, verbs. Functional words cover prepositions, articles, conjunctions, etc, whose major functions are to help make sentences;③By origin(起源), words can be grouped into native words(本族语词)and borrowed words (外来语词). Native words refer to the words of Anglo-Saxon origin, which are small in number but form the main stream of basic word stock. Borrowed words are words taken over from other languages and make up 80%of the whole English vocabulary. These three criteria are the most widespread and popular. There are other ways too, for example, by morphological structure, formality, emotionality, and so on.Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary重点知识锦集:1. Indo-European Language is made up of most of the Languages of Europe, the Near East, and India.2. The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages:Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian Languages.3. In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic.4. The surviving Languages show various of degrees of similarity to one another. The similarity bears a more or less direct relationship to their geographical distribution.5. Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English(古英语).6. The introduction of Christianity(基督教)at the end of the 6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.7. Old English (古英语)has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like modren German.8. Until 1066, although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic.9. The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.10. During the Middle English period, Britain had trade relations with the low countries, especially Holland.11. Middle English retained much fewer inflections. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.12. As a result, Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary with such words as crag and bin and a number of place names like Avon, Kent, London, and Thames.13. After the invading Germanic tribes settled down in Britain, their Language almost totally blotted out Celtic .14. Old English is considered to be a highly-inflected Language.15. During the Middle English period three languages—English, French and Latin(英语,法语和拉丁语)---- existed simultaneously for over a century.16. Modern English(当代英语)began with the establishment of printing(印刷术)in England.17. Since the beginning of this century, word-formation has become even more important for the expansion of English vocabulary.18. Early Modern English refers to the language spoken from 1500 to 1700 .19. The major factors that promote the growth of modern English are the growth of science and technology, economic and political changes, the influence of other cultures and Languages .20. The four major foreign contributors to the English vocabulary in earlier times were French, Latin, Greek and Scandinavian .21. Though still at work today , borrowing can hardly compare with what it was in the past.22. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic Language(Old English) to the present analytic Language.23. Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing.24. The word of “recollection” is formed by creation.25. The first people known to inhabit the British isles were Celts. Their languages were Celtic.26. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of Dutch origin in theMiddle English period.名词解释:1. creation(创造新词): Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. In Modern times, creation is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.2. semantic change(旧词新意): Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. borrowing(借用外来词语): Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.4. Old English(古英语): It refers to the Language used from 450 to 1150.5. Middle English(中世纪英语): It refers to the Language used from 1150 to 1500.6. Modern English(现代英语): It refers to the Language used from 1500 up to the present.论述问答题:1. What are eight principal language in the Indo-European Language family(印欧语系)?答:They are Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Albanian, Celtic, Italic, Hellenic and Germanic.2. What are the causes of more new words appearing today?答:the rapid development of modern science and technology.;Social, economic and political changes.;The influences of other cultures and languages.;3. What are three main modes of vocabulary developments?答:Creation creates new words by using existing materials.Semantic change. An old form takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrow words from other Languages.Chapter 3 Word Formation I重点知识锦集:1. It seems to be generally agreed that a word is the smallest unit of a Language that stands alone to communicate meaning.2. In other words, the morpheme is ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words’.3. Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.4. The morpheme to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.5. Allomorphs as such do not occur at random, but are phonetically conditioned and thus predictable.6. Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes.7. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words.8. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and affix.9. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.(内部曲折词缀和派生词缀)10. A monomorphemic word is a word that consists of a single free morpheme.11. Chiefly found in derived words, bound morphemes(黏着语素) include bound roots, inflectional affixes, derivational affixes.12. The plural morpheme ‘s’ is realized by /s/ after the sounds /t, p, k/ and by /z/ after /d, b, g, l/13. In the Eastern Set, Albanian and Armenian are each the only modern language respectively.名词解释:1. morpheme(语素): the minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.2. allomorphs(语素变体): some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.3. free morphemes(自由语素): Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.4. bound morphemes(黏着语素): morphemes which can not occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words.5. bound root(黏着词根): a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. It’s a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.6. affixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or words elements to modify meaning or function.7. inflectional affixes(曲折词缀): Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.8. derivational affixes(派生词缀): As the term indicates, derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words. Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.9. root(词根): A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. It is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.10. stem(词干): A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.论述问答题:1. What are the differences between root and stem?答:①A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analysed without total loss of identity. The root whether free or bound generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.②A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in “iron”or of two root morphemes as ina compound like “handcuff”. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in “mouthful”. Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind cab be added.2. Analyze the morphological structure of the following words in terms of free morpheme and bound morpheme, then explain the differences between the two kinds of morphemes.UnhappilyIdealistic答:①Each of two words consists of three morphemes:unhappily(un+happy+ly), idealistic(ideal+ist+ic).②“happy”and “ideal”are free morphemes; un-, -ly, -ist and –ic are bound morphemes.③free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Bound morphemes must be bound to other morphemes to form words.3. Analyze the morphological structures of the following words and point out types of the morphemes. recollection, nationalist, unearthly.答:recollection, nationalist, unearthly1) Each of the three words consists of three morphemes:recollection(re+collect+ion), nationalist(nation+al+ist), unearthly(un+earth+ly).2) Of the nine morphemes, only “collect” “nation” and “earth” are free morphemes as they can exist by themselves.3) All the rest are bound morphemes as none of them can stand alone as words.Chapter 4 Word Formation II重点知识锦集:1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.(前缀和后缀)3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.(连写的,加连字符号的,不连写的)8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.(功能转换)10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,(完全转换)others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.(部分转换)13. Blending(拼缀法)is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are written separately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion(转换法)refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释:1. affixation(词缀法): Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation(前缀法): Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation(后缀法): Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding(合成法): Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion(转换法): Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending(拼缀法): Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping(截短法): Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy(首字母拼音法): Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms(首字母缩略词): Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms(首字母拼音词): Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation(逆生法): Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题:1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答:Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答:Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning.Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答:Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答:When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation(逆生法)and back-clipping(截后留前)are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答:Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”’is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other’s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答:In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5 Word Meaning重点知识锦集:1. Reference(所指关系) is the relationship between Language and the world.2. The reference of a word to a thing outside the Language is arbitrary and conventional.(任意的和依照惯例的)3. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer tosomething specific.4. Every word that has meaning has sense(not every word has reference).5. Different lexical items, which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning.(语法意义)6. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning.7. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.(概念意义和关联意义)8. Associative meaning(关联意义)comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective, collocative.9. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative.(褒义词和贬义词)10. To a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the context where the word is used.11. Motivation(理据)explains why a particular form has a particular meaning.12. Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.13. By etymological motivation, we mean that the meaning of a particular word is related to its origin.14. The relationship between the linguistic sign and a referent is conventional.15. Content words have both meanings, and Lexical meaning(词汇意义)in particular.16. The word “miniskirt”is morphologically motivated.17. The word “laconic”is etymologically motivated.18. In the phrase “the mouth of the river”, the word “mouth”is semantically motivated.名词解释:1. concept(概念): Concept, which is beyond Language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It’s universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, Language and so on.2. sense(语义): Sense denotes the relationship inside the Language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the Language.3. motivation(理据): Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.4. onomatopoeic motivation(拟声理据): In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang, miaow, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning.5. morphological motivation(形态理据): Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Quite often, if one knows the meaning of each morpheme, one can figure out the meaning of the word. For instance, “airmail” means to ‘mail by air’.6. semantic motivation(语义理据): Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.7. etymological motivation(词源学理据): The meanings of many words often relate directly。
Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and LexicologyI.Linguistics1.DefinitionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.2.Scientific study method①observe②hypothesis③classify④test & conclude3.Features of scientific study①exhaustiveness②consistency③economy④objectivitynguage1.DefinitionLanguage is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols by means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact and transmit their culture.2.Functions·interrogative·expressive·informative·evocative·directive·performative·phaticrmation transmissionSemantic encoding↓Grammatical encoding↓Phonetic & phonological encoding (pitch, loudness, length, quality)↓Sending↓Transmission4.Origins of the calendarBabylonian→Egyptian→Greek→(750 BC)Old Roman1)Months·750 BCMarch MarsApril Goddess of love May Goddess of spring June God of marriage ※Quintillis Five※Sextillis Six September SevenOctober Eight November Nine December Ten·500 BCJanuary ‘door’February ‘festival’·46 BCQuintillis→July Julius Caesar Sextillis→August Augustus Caesar 2)DaysSunday God of Sun (Babylonian) Monday God of Moon (Norse) Tuesday Chief of all gods (Nor.) Wednesday God of commerce (Nor.)Thursday God of Thunder (Nor.) Friday God of Love (Nor.) Saturday God of Harvest (Bab.)III.Lexicology1.Basic terms and definitionsword (OE): talk, speakvocabulary (MLat): ①all words in a certain realm②words in specific context lexicon (lexis): words in a special language lexicology: origins + development + meanings of words 2.English Lexicology·morphonological structures·formation·semantic structure relations·usages·lexicography3.A poem~Spring, the sweetest spring, is the year’s pleasant King Then blooms each thing, then the maids dance in a ring Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do singKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe palm and may make country houses gay Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day And we hear aye birds tune this merry layKoo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-wooThe fields breeze sweet, the daisies kiss our feet Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sitIn every street, these tunes our ears do greet Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo。
一.概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)(也可能是第三四五外语) also commonly called a target language (TL)3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge?3). Why are some learners more successful than others?4.linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2 monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can only beestimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may not bereliable.3) A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school and thedevelopment normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through the1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:♦Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much the same way.♦…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.♦…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.♦There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.♦L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that part oflanguage structure is genetically “given” to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and may havelittle effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural and socialfactors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources has littleeffect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learningⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned from theinput.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.♦Children use language in accordance with general universal rules of language though they have not developed the cognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learned from deduction or imitation.♦Patterns of children’s language development are not directly determined by the input they receive.。
1。
词汇学是以语言中的词和词汇作为研究对象的一门学科。
2。
词的意义的体现,则有事物、思维和语言结构三者。
因而词的基本分类,则有客体、特征、状态和代替之别。
据此研究,一在抓词的理据;二在抓词的变化,考察哪些意义变化引起哪些形式变化和哪些形式变化引起哪些意义变化。
即通过词的结构分析,串连语音、形态、语义的内在联系和词义系统相符的名词,确定词与词间的语源关系,从而寻求词根及其衍化轨迹。
现代词汇学的研究,不能再墨守传统训访学的方式和方法。
既要由上而下地从经籍递推到大众口语,又要根据大众的词汇逆溯到它们最初的来源。
这样,对词形结构的分析,词义发展的识别和语音衍化的探讨,才能有所创获。
3。
对于某一发展阶段上的语言体系的描写和研究又叫共时的或静态的研究;对于语言体系及其各个组成部分在历史上的发展变化的研究又叫历时的或演化的研究。
“共时性”(synchronie)和“历时性” (diachronie)这两个概念是瑞士语言学家索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussurel857—1913)在他的《普通语言学教程》里首先提出来的。
索绪尔对“共时”和“历时”的解释是,“有关我们这门科学的静态方面的一切都是共时的,涉及演他的一切都是历时的”“共时和历时分别指一种语言状态和一种演化情况。
”汉译本《普通语言学教程》,商务印书馆,1980,页119. (P2)4。
个别语言词汇学又可以分为历史词汇学和描写词汇学。
前者研究语言的词汇在历史过程中的发展,后者研究在历史发展的某一阶段(一般是指现阶段)语言的词汇系统的状况和特点。
自然,二者也是相互为用,不可以截然划分开来的。
(P2)5。
若是研究一个民族的古代历久那就更加用得着词汇学(特别是历史词汇学)的知识。
正如当代语言学家丰克 (Wilfred Funk)在《词的来源和它们的传奇故事》(Word Origin and Their Romantic Stories,1950)中所说,“词汇也象个小窗户,通过它可以熟悉一个民族的过去。
词汇学Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology1-1-1Introductory Remarks/11-1-2A Definition of Language/11-1-3Language, Society and Thought/21-2-1 A Definition of Linguistics/51-2-2 The scope of Linguistics/51-3-1 What is a Lexicology/61-3-2 Aims and significance of the Course of English Lexicology/61-3-3 The Connection of Lexicology with other branches of Linguistics/71-3-4 Two Approaches to the study of English Lexicology/8a)Synchronic b)diachronicChapter 2 The Sources of the English V ocabulary2-1-1 what is Etymology?/132-1-2 the English People and the English Language/142-1-3 The Position and Character of the English Language in the Indo-European Family/142-1-4 The Divisions of the History of the English Language/15The history of the English language is divided into three periods.a)450——1150 Old Englishb)1150——1500 Middle Englishc)1500——preaent Modern English2-1-5 Some Characteristics of Old English/15a)There are two classes of languages in the world: synthetic and analyticb)Old English is a synthetic language2-1-6 Some Characteristics of Middle English/202-1-7 Some Characteristics of Modern English232-1-8 Etymological Twins in English/302-1-9 Some Combining Forms Used in Modern English/322-2-1 Words of Native Origin/392-2-2 Borrowed Words in the English V ocabulary/41The English vocabulary can be divided into two groups according to origin:Native words and borrowed words.2-3-1 The Foreign Elements in the English V ocabulary/44Four groups of loan-words:1)aliens;2)denizens; 3)translation-loans;4)Semantic borrowings.2-3-2 The Scandinavian Element in the English V ocabulary/44Most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the colloquial language.2-3-3 The French Element in the English V ocabulary/462-3-4 The Latin Element in the English V ocabulary/492-3-5 The Greek Element in the English V ocabulary/522-3-6 The influence of the Classical Elements upon the English V ocabulary/532-3-7 Other Foreign Elements in the English V ocabulary/552-3-8 The Interrelation between the Native and Foreign Elements in the English V ocabulary/572-3-9The Linguistic and Historical Origins of Some Common English Words/58 Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations3-1-1 Some General Remarks on Semantic and Meaning/673-1-2 The Relationship Between Meaning and the Object/703-2-1 what is a word?/713-2-2 Meaning and Motivation/72Motivation can occur in three ways.1)Phoneticmotivation; 2)grammaticalmotivation;3)Motivation bymeaning.3-3-1 Classifications of Words/733-3-2 Main Types of Word Meaning/76 Main types of word meaning.1)grammatical meaning;2)lexical meaning3)contextual meaning 4)denotative meaning5)connotative meaning6)stylistic meaning3-3-3 Word Meaning and Context/80There are two types of context: linguistic and non- linguistic.1)Linguistic context refers to lexical and grammatical context.2)Non-linguistic context refers to context of situation, culture and style. 3-4-1 Synonyms/833-4-2 Antonyms/89There are two types of antonyms:1)morphologicalclassificationa)root antonymsb)derivative antonyms 2)semantic classificationa)contrariesb)complementariesc)conversives3-4-3 Polysemy and Homonymy/931)two main processes of self-shifta)radiation b)concatenation2)the classification of homonymsa)perfect homonymsb)partial homonyms3)three ways of forming homonymsa)Convergingsound-development b)diverging sense-developmentc)foreign influence3-4-4 Homonymy/100Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form, but differ in meaning.Chapter 4 The Changing English V ocabulary4-1-1 The Constant Change in Language and the Continuous Appearance of Neologisms/1034-1-2 The Definition of Neologisms or New Words/1044-1-3 The Rate of Changes of the English V ocabulary/1061)The English vocabulary changes with the development of society2)The rate vocabulary change varies from age to age.4-1-4The Sources of New Words/1064-1-5 The Formation of Neologisms/1261)By word-formation2)By adding new meaning to existing words3)By borrowing words from other language.4)By analogy5)By creating completely new coinages.4-2-1 Archaisms/1374-3-1 Changes in Meaning/141Changes of meaning can be brought about by many reasons.1)Historical causes2)Social causes 3)Psychological causes4)Linguistic causes4-3-2Four Tendencies in Semantic Changes/143 Four tendencies in semantic changes1)Extension of meaning(generalization)2)Narrowing of meaning(specialization)3)Elevation of meaning(amelioration)4)Degradation of meaning(deterioration)◆Change in the denotative component of the lexical meaning may result inthe extension of meaning and the narrowing of meaning.◆Change in the connotative component may bring about the elevation ofmeaning and the degradation of meaning4-3-3 Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use/152 Chapter 5 Word-formation in English5-1-1 Introduction/1685-1-2 Morphological Structure of words/1685-1-3 Two Types of Morphemes/1691)According to their character: free form ; bound form2)According to their lexical and grammatical relationships: lexicalmorphemes ; grammatical morphemes.5-1-4 Three Types of Words/1701)Simple words2)Compound words3)Complex words5-1-5 Root, Base, Stem/1715-2-1 The main Processes of English Word-formation/177There are four types of world- formation in English.1)prefixation;2)suffixation 3)conversion4)compounding5-2-2 The minor Processes of English Word-formation/2591)clipping or shorten2)acronyms3)blending 4)back-formation5)forming new words by analogy6)onomatopoeiaChapter6 English Idioms6-1-1 Introduction/2736-1-2 The Definition of Idioms/273Idiom: an idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use.6-1-3 The significance of Studying English/2736-1-4 The Features of English Idioms/2751)English Idioms can be very short or rather long2)English Idioms take different structures3)The Idioms which cannot be changed at all are called fixed idioms4)An English idiom has a special meaning6-1-5 English Idioms in different Styles/2796-1-6 The difference Between Idiomatic and Free Phrases/2816-2-1Classifications of English Idioms/282There are five groups of idioms in English .6-2-2 Some Useful Language Areas of Idioms/301There are 15 useful language areas of idioms.Chapter 7 English Collocations7-1-1 Introduction/3207-1-2 what is a Collocation?/3207-1-3 The Importance of Learning English Collocations/3217-2-1 Classifications of English Collocations/3247-2-2 Register Used in English Collocations/3417-3-1 Some Commonest Words Used in English Collocations/3427-4-1 Different Subjects of English Collocations/3477-4-2 Families/3487-4-3 Houses, Flats and Rooms/3507-4-4 Food and Drinks/3577-4-5 Study and Learning/3587-4-6 Fitness and Illness/3597-4-7 Job and Work/3617-4-8 Computers/3667-4-9 Sport/3687-4-10 Time/372Chapter 8 British and American English8-2-1 Differences Between British English and American English/381Chapter 9 English Dictionaries9-1-2 Characteristics of Dictionaries /412There are four fundamental features of Dictionaries.1)Dictionaries are reference books, to be exact, the reference source in printor electronic form2)Dictionaries are compiled according to the nature of the vocabulary3)The chief units of compiling dictionaries are entries, that is, words,including morphemes (affixes), and combining forms.4)Word-entries in any dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order.9-2-1 Types of Dictionaries/413词汇学一、定义1)Language: language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychologyand physics, it is a specific action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society.2)Idiom: an idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way ofexpression based on its time-honored use.二、判断1)The history of the English language is divided into three periods.2)Old English is a synthetic language.3)Most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the colloquial language.4)Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the sameform, but differ in meaning.5)Euphemism——P1646)There are four fundamental features of dictionaries.三、填空1)Four groups of loan-words: aliens; denizens; translation-loans; semanticborrowings.2)Motivation can occur in three ways: phonetic motivation; grammaticalmotivation; motivation by meaning.3)Main types of word meaning: grammatical meaning; lexical meaning(词汇意义); contextual meaning(语境意义);denotative meaning(外延);connotative meaning(内涵); stylistic meaning(文体意义).4)Change in the denotative component of the lexical meaning may result in theextension of meaning and the narrowing of meaning.5)Change in the connotative component may bring about the elevation ofmeaning and the degradation of meaning6)The four types of world- formation in English : prefixation; suffixation;conversion; compounding四、简答1)There are two types of context: linguistic and non- linguistic.i.Linguistic context refers to lexical and grammatical context.ii.Non-linguistic context refers to context of situation, culture and style.2)Four tendencies in semantic changesii.Extension of meaning(generalization)iii.Narrowing of meaning(specialization)iv.Elevation of meaning(amelioration)v.Degradation of meaning(deterioration)五、选出句中的antonyms(反义词)——P89六、词根root——P171i.acu-(acr-)——sharpii.volv-(volut-)——to roll P176iii.anthrop-(anthropo-)——man or human iv.aut-(auto-)——self七、中文i.Blendingii.Back-formation。
一.概论Chapter 1. Introducing SLA1.Second language acquisition (SLA)2.Second language (L2)(也可能是第三四五外语) also commonly called a target language (TL)Refers to: any language that is the aim or goal of learning.3.Basic questions:1). What exactly does the L2 learner come to know2). How does the learner acquire this knowledge3). Why are some learners more successful than othersDifferent answers from different fields4.3 main perspectives:linguistic; psychological; social.Only one (x) Combine (√)Chapter 2. Foundations of SLAⅠ. The world of second languages1.Multi-; bi-; mono- lingualism1)Multilingualism: the ability to use 2 or more languages.(bilingualism: 2 languages; multilingualism: >2)2)Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.3)Multilingual competence (Vivian Cook, Multicompetence)Refers to: the compound state of a mind with 2 or more grammars.4)Monolingual competence (Vivian Cook, Monocompetence)Refers to: knowledge of only one language.2.People with multicompetence (a unique combination) ≠ 2monolingualsWorld demographic shows:3.Acquisition4.The number of L1 and L2 speakers of different languages can onlybe estimated.1)Linguistic information is often not officially collected.2)Answers to questions seeking linguistic information may notbe reliable.3)A lack of agreement on definition of terms and on criteria foridentification.Ⅱ. The nature of language learning1.L1 acquisition1). L1 acquisition was completed before you came to school andthe development normally takes place without any conscious effort.2). Complex grammatical patterns continue to develop through theschool years.Time Children will< 6 months (infant)Produce all of the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of any language in the world. Learn to discriminate the among the sounds that make a different in the meaning of words (the phonemes)< < 3 years old Master an awareness of basic discourse patterns < 3 years old Master most of the distinctive sounds of L1< 5 or 6 years old Control most of the basic L1 grammatical patterns2. The role of natural ability1) Refers to: Humans are born with an innate capacity to learnlanguage.2) Reasons:Children began to learn L1 at the same age and in much thesame way.…master the basic phonological and grammatical operations in L1 at 5/ 6.…can understand and create novel utterances; and are not limited to repeating what they have heard; the utterances they produce are often systematically different from those of the adults around them.There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition.L1 acquisition is not simply a facet of general intelligence.3)The natural ability, in terms of innate capacity, is that partof language structure is genetically “given”to every human child.3. The role of social experience1) A necessary condition for acquisition: appropriate socialexperience (including L1 input and interaction) is2) Intentional L1 teaching to children is not necessary and mayhave little effect.3) Sources of L1 input and interaction vary for cultural andsocial factors.4) Children get adequate L1 input and interaction→sources haslittle effect on the rate and sequence of phonological and grammatical development.The regional and social varieties (sources) of the input→pronunciationⅢ. L1 vs. L2 learning1.L1 and L2 development:2.Understanding the statesⅣ. The logical problem of language learning1.Noam Chomsky:1)innate linguistic knowledge must underlie languageacquisition2)Universal Grammar2.The theory of Universal Grammar:Reasons:1)Children’s knowledge of language > what could be learned fromthe input.2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned.3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained bylanguage-specific input.Children often say things that adults do not.Children use language in accordance with general universalrules of language though they have not developed thecognitive ability to understand these rules. Not learnedfrom deduction or imitation.Patterns of children’s language development are notdirectly determined by the input they receive.Ⅴ. Frame works for SLA≤1950s1960s1970s1980s1990s。
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (高叔叔说这章要考50分,所以东西有点多~)1.Linguistics1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Three key words:? Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general. ? Study: investigate examine research ? Scientific:observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→datacollection→hypotheses testing→ theory f ormulation How to make a study \1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one'sinvestigation and give theman adequate explanation. 2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement 3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization. 1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics). 1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax[‘sint?ks]: studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences 5)Semantics [si’m?ntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context. 1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language; 2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with theaid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis) 1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点 )1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objectivePrescriptive→subjective ]? If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use , it is descriptive(描写性) ? If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive(规定性).Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时) ? The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)? The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study) 1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of communication,speech is primary to writing. 1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)? Ferdinand de Saussure (1857―1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.? Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ? Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ? Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event. 1.3.5 competence(语言能力)and performance (语言运用) It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.? Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and, ? Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication, ? what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why? 1) Competence is comparatively stable2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge. It is a distinction between what one “knows” and what one “does”. nguage2.1 Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.2 Design features of language (重点) Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.? Arbitrariness(任意性)It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning. ? Productivity (创造性/多产性)Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. ? Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)? At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning? At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme―morpheme―word―phrase―clause―sentence? Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的 & Spatial空间的 ]Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .? Cultural transmission (文化传递性)Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth. ? Specialization (特化作用)Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding. ? Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver. 2.3 Functions of Language1)Informational function(信息功能): transmission of information (tell story /teaching)2) Interpersonal function(人际功能): interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)3)Performative function(施为功能): use language to change one’s social status.4)Emotive function(感情功能): change the emotional status of audiencefor or against some one or something. 5)Phatic function(寒暄功能): maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factualcontent (nice day/ good morning )6)Recreational function(娱乐功能): use language for sheer joy7) Meta-lingual function(元语言功能): use language to talk about language itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学) ? What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.? Three aspects of words:1) A physically definable unit:Phonological & orthographic 2)The common factor underlying a set of forms. 3) A grammatical unit ? Classification of words:1) Variable and invariable words (有时态变化的词和没有变化的词) 2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词) 3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words(封闭性词) ? Word formation:(最重要的两种)1) Compounding(复合词) 2)Derivation(派生词) 3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology: 1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学 2) derivational morphology词汇形态学 3.2 Morpheme词位,语素 (形位) 3.2.1 Definition of morpheme? Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words. 3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体 The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs(词位变体). A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning. 6.3 Types of Morphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位(语素)? A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. Free morphemes fallinto two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位(语素) ? Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.? Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes(词缀)? Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case. 2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~) CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学) 5.1 The definition of semantics? Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically. 5.2 Approaches to meaning 5.2.1 Meaning as naming? The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory. 5.2.2 Meaning as concept? Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with aparticular concept. 5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour? The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both onparticular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory. 5.2.4 Meaning as context? The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context. 5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions ? The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory. 5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference? Sense(意义) relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.? Reference(所指) deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning(记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背)According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: 5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning(概念意义)? The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. 5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning(内涵意义)? Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning ? Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.? In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.5.3.2.3 Social meaning(社会意义)? Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance. 5.3.2.4 Affective meaning(情感意义)? Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker. 5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning(联想意义)? Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning(搭配意义)? Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning(主题意义)? Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semantic relations between words(记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意) ? Homonymy(同音异义):words having different meaning have the same form. Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字) Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字) ? Polysemy(一词多义):one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and Homonymy The distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries. ? Synonymy (近义词):the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”. ? Antonymy(反义词):refers to oppositemess of meaning. ? Hyponymy(下义关系):the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,? Meronymy(部分与整体):the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts” and “wholes”body.Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningPredication (句子) consist of Arugement(变元)&Predicates(谓语)consist of Features(语义特征) 5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到,最好晓得例子) ? Entailment(蕴含关系)? Presupposition(预设关系) ? Synonymy(同义关系)? Inconsistency(不一致关系)感谢您的阅读,祝您生活愉快。
Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.1 The definition of a word(1)一个最小的自由形态(2)一个发音的集合体(3)一个意义单位(4)能独自影响句子的形式因此,我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式,拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
”1.2 vocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over one million words.1.3Sound and meaning词语是一个符号,代表着世界上其他的事物。
每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人,事,地方,特性,过程,行动,当然是在语言系统之外。
这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的,并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。
”1.4 sound and form在古英语中,口语比今天更忠实地代表书面语,但随着语言的发展,越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。
有以下几点原因:1.内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母,罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音,因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
2.另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快,在一些时候还拉开了距离。
在最近五百年里,尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化,却没有相应的拼写变化。
Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3.第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同Those scribes had made some change to the word spelling4.到1500年年末,印刷已经变得非常普及。
NOTES OF ENGLISH LEXICOLOGYIntroduction0.1The Nature and Domain of English LexicologyLexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of word.English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular.0.2It’s Relation to Other DisciplinesLexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct.Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.Stylistics is the study of style.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference.0.3Methods of StudyThere are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic.0.4 Aims and Significance of the courseChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary1.1 What Is a WordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and FormThe three reasons for the differences between sound and from.㈠the internal reason is that the English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound.㈡the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years.㈢some of the differences were created by the early scribes.1.4 VocabularyThe term “vocabulary” is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for the words used in a particular historical period.1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇The 5 characteristics of basic word stock: 基本词汇的5大特点①All national character 全民性② Stability 稳定性③ Productivity 多产性④ Polysemy 多义性⑤ Collocability 搭配性The 7 types of nonbasic word stock words: 非基本词汇的7大种类① Terminology 术语② Jargon 行话③ Slang 俚语④ Argot 黑话⑤ Dialectal words 方言词⑥ Archaisms 古语词⑦ Neologisms 新词1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 功能词和实义词①Functional words 功能词② Content words 实义词1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本地词和外来词The 2 characteristics of native words: 本地词的另2大特点(包括基本词汇的5大特点)① Neutral in style 文体中性② Frequent in use 使用频繁The 4 types of borrowings: 外来词的4大类型① Denizens 同化词② Aliens 异形词③ Translation- loans 翻译借词④ Semantic- loans 语义借词Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系ScandinavianEastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, AlbanianArmenianAlbanianBalto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany(the last three derived from deadlanguage Sanskrit) Western set: Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, GermanicGreek (derived from Hellenic)Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, BretonItalic: Portuguese, Spanish, French,Italian, Roumanian(Latin Romance language)Germanic: Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish(Northern European Language)GermanDutchFlemishEnglish 北欧日耳曼语系东部:巴尔特-斯拉夫语系,印度伊朗语系,亚美尼亚,阿尔巴尼亚亚美尼亚阿尔巴尼亚巴尔特-斯拉夫语系:普鲁士语,立陶宛语,波兰语,捷克语,保加利亚语,斯洛文尼亚语,俄罗斯语印度伊朗语系:波斯语,孟加拉语,印地语,吉普赛语(后三种语言源于已消失的梵文)西部:凯尔特语系,意大利语族,古希腊语言,日耳曼语系希腊语(源于古希腊语言)凯尔特语系:苏格兰语,爱尔兰语,威尔士语,布列塔尼语意大利语族:葡萄牙语,西班牙语,法语,意大利语,罗马尼亚语(拉丁语)日耳曼语系:挪威语,冰岛语,丹麦语,瑞典语(北欧语言)德语荷兰语佛兰芒语英语2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的历史概况2.2.1 Old English( 450-1150 ) 古英语2.2.2 Middle English( 1150-1500 ) 中古英语If we say that Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now) 现代英语①Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语② Late Modern English (1700- up to now) 后期现代英语2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式:创词,旧词新义,借词English vocabulary develops through 3 channels: creation, semantic changes, borrowingCreation创词refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements.Semantic changes旧词新义means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.Borrowing借词has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation I3.1 Morphemes 词素Morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words.3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word are known as allomorphs.3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类① free morphemes = free root 自由词素② bound morphemes 粘附词素3.3.1 Free Morphemes自由词素= 自由根词Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 粘附词素:粘附词根,词缀:内部曲折词缀,派生词缀:前缀,后缀Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Bound morphemes include 2 types: bound root and affix.Bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning , it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.Affixes include: inflectional and derivational affixesInflectional affixes: affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional.Derivational affixes: are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.Derivational affixes include: prefix and suffix.3.4 Root and Stem 词根和词干A root词根is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed.A stem词干can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.Chapter 4 Word Formation II4.1 Affixation词缀法Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Prefixes can be classified into 9 groups on a semantic basis.①Negative prefixes 表示否定意义的前缀②Reversative prefixes表示逆向意义的前缀③Pejorative prefixes 表示贬义的前缀④Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度、大小等意义的前缀⑤Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀⑥Locative prefixes 表示方位意义的前缀⑦Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序等意义的前缀⑧Number prefixes 表示数字的前缀⑨Miscellaneous 其他种类意义的前缀4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Suffixes can be grouped into 3 types on a grammatical basis: noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and verb suffixes1. Noun suffixes include: denominal nouns, deverbal nouns, de-adjective nouns, noun and adjevtive suffixesDenominal nouns: a. Concrete:-eer, -er, -ess, -ette, -let 由n.转化来的名词b. Abstract: -age, -dom, -ery, -ery(-ry), -hood, -ing, -ism, -shipDeverbal nouns: a. nouns denoting people:-ant, -ee, -ent, -er(or), 由v.转化来的名词b. nouns denoting acting, result, process, state: -age, -al, -ance,-ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,De-adjective nouns: -ity, -ness, 由a. 转化来的名词Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese, -an, -ist n.和a.后缀2.Adjective suffixes include: denominal suffixes, deverbal suffixes.加在n.后的a.后缀,加在v.后的a. 后缀Denominal suffixes: -ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al(-ial, -ical),-esque, -ic, -ous(-eous, -ious),Deverbal suffixes: -able(-ible), -ive(-ative, -sive),3. Adverb suffixes: -ly, -ward(s), -wise a.后缀4. Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -(i)fy, -ize(-ise) v. 后缀4.2 Compounding 复合构词法Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特点The 3 characteristics of compounds.① Phonetic features 语音特点② Semantic features 语义特点③ Grammatical features 语法特点4.2.2 Formations of Compounds 复合词的构成There are 3 major classes of compounds① Noun compounds 名词复合词② Adjective compounds 形容词复合词③ Verb compounds 动词复合词4.3 Conversion 转类法There are 3 types of words that produced by conversion: nouns, verbs, adjectives,1. Conversion to noun 转换成n.的转类词① Verb to noun② Adjective to noun③ Miscellaneous conversion2. Conversion to verbs 转换成v.的转类词① Noun to verb② Adjective to verb③ Miscellaneous conversion3. Conversion to adjectives 转换成a.的转类词4.4 Blending 拼缀法Head + tail 词头+词尾Head + head 词头+词头Head + word 词头+词Word + tail 词+词尾4.5 Clipping 截短法There are 4 common types of clipping:① Front clipping 首部截短② Back clipping 尾部截短③ Front and back clipping 首尾部截短④ Phrase clipping 短语截短4.6Acronymy 首字母拼音法Words formed this way can be divided into: initialisms or acronyms.4.6.1 Initialisms 首字母缩略法Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.Letters represent full words: A.D., VOA, UFO, p./c.Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word: TV, ID, GHQ4.6.2 Acronyms 首字母拼写法Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.: NA TO, AIDS, V-Day4.7 Back-formation 逆生法1. Abstract nouns 抽象名词2. Human nouns 人物名词3. Compound nouns and others 复合词及其它4. Adjectives 形容词4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词转化而来的普通名词1. Names of people 人名2. Names of places 地名3. Names of books 书名4. Tradenames 商标名Chapter 5 Word MeaningWord is the combination of form and meaning. By form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling.5.1 The Meanings of ‘Meaning’意义的意义5.1.1 Reference 所指Reference is the relationship between language and the word.5.1.2 Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5.1.3 Sense 意义The meaning of …meaning ‟ is perhaps what is termed …sense‟.5.2 Motivation 理据Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.5.2.1 Onomatopoeic Motivation 拟声理据Some words whose sounds suggest their meanings, for these words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises.5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compound and derived words are multi-morphological words and the meanings of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据Semantic motivation refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 语源理据The meanings of many words often relate directly to their origins.5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的种类5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义和词汇意义Grammatical meanings refers o that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept of relationships such as part of speech of word (n. v. a. ad.), singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word meaning.Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.5.3.2Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义和联想意义Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meaning.联想意义:内涵意义,文体意义,感情意义,搭配意义Chapter 6 Sense Rations and Semantic FieldSemantically, all words are related in one way or another.6.1 Polysemy 多义关系Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两个研究方法:历时方法,共时方法The problem of interrelation of the various meanings of the same word can be dealt with from two different angles: diachronic approach and synchronic approach.1. Diachronic approach历时方法In diachronic approach, other meanings apart from the primary meaning of a word were acquired by: extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer.2. Synchronic approach共时方法Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the central meaning.6.1.2 Two Processes of Development 语义发展的两种模式:辐射型,连锁型The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as: radiation and concatenation.Radiation辐射型is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.Concatenation连锁型is the semantic process in the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.6.2 Homonymy同形同音异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的种类1. Perfect homonyms 完全同形同音异义词2. Homographs 同形异音异义词3. Homophones 同音异形异义词Of the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源There are various sources of homonyms: change in sound and spelling, borrowing, shortening.1. Change in sound and spelling 语言和拼写变化2. Borrowing 借用3. Shortening 缩略法6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology, the second principal consideration is semantic relatedness.6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的修辞特点As homonyms are identical in sound of spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humour, sarcasm or ridicule.6.3 Synonymy 同义关系Synonyms is one of the characteristic features of the vocabulary of natural languages.6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词的定义(异形异音同义)Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类别:绝对同义词,相对同义词Synonyms can be classified into two major groups: absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.Absolute synonyms绝对同义词also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects.Relative synonyms相对同义词also called near-synonyms are similar or near the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning of different degrees of a given quality.6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源①Borrowing 借词② Dialects and regional English 方言词③ Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语④ Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 同义词的区别:外延上,内涵上,应用上The differences between synonyms boil down to 3 areas: denotation, connotation, and applicationDifference in denotation, synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.Difference in connotation, by connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words.Difference in application, many words are synonyms in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.6.4 Antonymy 反义关系6.4.1 Types of Antonyms 反义词的类别Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition.Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning1. Contradictory terms, 互为矛盾的反义词these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning.2. Contrary terms, 相对反义词antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two polesor extremes.3. Relative terms, 表示相互关系的反义词this third type consists of relational opposites such as parent/child.6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 反义词的一些特点1. Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.In a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.反义词是按语义相反的情况进行划分的。
大三英语词汇学引论笔记英语词汇学引论笔记英语词汇学引论笔记之“名词解释篇”1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion.2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words.3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk.4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of “say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand".6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion.7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes.There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks.8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war.10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word.Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base)Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective)11. Root --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove.13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).英语词汇学引论笔记14. Morphs--Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in match /iz/.16. Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally definedas the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation.17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.19. Compounding(Compositon)--Compounding is a process of word-formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. E.g. hen-packed; short-sighted.20. Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. This process of creating new words without adding any affixes is also called zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)--to dry.21. Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language before edit.22. Abbreviation ( shortening )-- is a process of word-formation by which the syllables of words are abbreviated or shortened.23. Abbreviation includes four types : I. Clipped words II.Initialisms III. Acronyms IV. Blends.I. Clipped words--are those created by clipping part of a word, leaving only a piece of the old word. E.g. telephone--phone, professional--pro.II. Initialisms--are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund.III. Acronyms--are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.IV. Blends--are words that are combined by parts of other words. E.g. smoke+fog=smog.24. Polysemy--The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as "polysemy". The word "flight", for example, may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying", "air of journey", etc.*Two approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and SynchronicDiachronically, we study the growth or change in the semantic structure of a word , or how the semantic structure of a word has developed from primary meaning to the present polysemic state .Synchronically, we are interested in the comparative value of individual meanings and the interrelation between the central meaning and the secondary meanings.*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and concatenation英语词汇学引论笔记Radiation : Semantically, radiation is the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.Concatenation : is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, untill there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.25. Homonyms--are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical『a.同一的,完全相同的』only in sound or spelling.26. Perfect Homonyms--are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning。
高一英语第一章知识点笔记Introduction:In this article, I will provide a comprehensive set of notes on the key points covered in the first chapter of the English curriculum for high school freshmen. These notes aim to assist students in understanding and reviewing the important concepts and information discussed in class. Please note that the format used in this article is not limited to this example and can be adjusted to suit the specific requirements of the topic.1. English Grammar:1.1 Parts of Speech:- Nouns: Words used to name people, places, things, and ideas.- Pronouns: Words used to replace nouns, such as he, she, it, they.- Verbs: Words expressing actions, states, or occurrences.- Adjectives: Words used to describe or modify nouns.- Adverbs: Words used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.- Prepositions: Words used to show the relationship between nouns or pronouns and other words in a sentence.- Conjunctions: Words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.- Interjections: Words or phrases used to express strong emotion.1.2 Sentence Structure:- Subject: The noun or pronoun that performs the action or receives the action of the verb.- Predicate: The part of the sentence that provides information about the subject.- Direct Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb directly.- Indirect Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the direct object.- Phrase: A group of words that work together but do not form a complete sentence.- Clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a verb, expressing a complete thought.- Dependent Clause: A clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence.2. Vocabulary Building Techniques:2.1 Synonyms and Antonyms:- Synonyms: Words with similar meanings.- Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings.2.2 Word Formation:- Prefixes: Word parts added at the beginning of a word to change its meaning.- Suffixes: Word parts added at the end of a word to change its meaning.2.3 Context Clues:- Using the surrounding words or phrases to determine the meaning of an unknown word.3. Reading Skills:3.1 Skimming and Scanning:- Skimming: Quickly reading a text to gain a general understanding.- Scanning: Searching for specific information by quickly reading a text.3.2 Predicting and Inference:- Predicting: Making guesses about the content of a text based on prior knowledge and clues.- Inference: Drawing conclusions based on evidence from the text.4. Listening Comprehension:4.1 Note-taking:- Strategies for effective note-taking during lectures or conversations.4.2 Summarizing:- Condensing information into a brief and concise form.5. Writing Skills:5.1 Paragraph Structure:- Unity, coherence, and emphasis in constructing paragraphs.5.2 Essay Writing:- Introduction: Providing background information and stating the thesis.- Body: Presenting arguments and supporting them with evidence.- Conclusion: Summarizing the main points and restating the thesis.Conclusion:This set of notes provides a thorough overview of the key points covered in the first chapter of the high school freshmen English curriculum. By reviewing and understanding these concepts, students will be better prepared to succeed in their English studies. Remember to tailor the note-taking format to suit the specific topic or subject for optimal organization.。
词汇学词汇学Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology1-1-1Introductory Remarks/11-1-2A Definition of Language/11-1-3Language, Society and Thought/21-2-1 A Definition of Linguistics /51-2-2 The scope of Linguistics/5 1-3-1 What is a Lexicology /61-3-2 Aims and significance of the Course of English Lexicology/61-3-3 The Connection of Lexicology with other branches of Linguistics/7 1-3-4 Two Approaches to the study of English Lexicology/8 a) Synchronic b) diachronicChapter 2 The Sources of the English V Chapter 2 The Sources of the English Vocabulary ocabulary2-1-1 what is Etymology?/132-1-2 the English People and the English Language/142-1-3 The Position and Character of the English Language in the Indo-EuropeanFamily/142-1-4 The Divisions of the History of the English Language/15The history of the English language is divided into three periods. a) 450——1150 Old Englishb) 1150——1500 Middle Englishc) 1500——preaent Modern English2-1-5 Some Characteristics of Old English/15a) There are two classes of languages in the world: synthetic and analytic b) Old English is a synthetic language2-1-6 Some Characteristics of Middle English/202-1-7 Some Characteristics of Modern English232-1-8 Etymological Twins in English/30 2-1-9 Some Combining Forms Used in Modern English/322-2-1 Words of Native Origin/392-2-2 Borrowed Words in the English V 2-2-2 Borrowed Words in the English Vocabulary/41 ocabulary/41The English vocabulary can be divided into two groups according to origin:Native words and borrowed words. 2-3-1 The Foreign Elements in the English V 2-3-1 The Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary/44 ocabulary/44Four groups of loan-words: 1) aliens; 2) denizens; 3) translation-loans;4) Semantic borrowings.2-3-2 The Scandinavian Element in the English V 2-3-2 The Scandinavian Element in the English Vocabulary/44 ocabulary/44Most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the colloquial language. 2-3-3 The French Element in the English V 2-3-3 The French Element in the English Vocabulary/46 ocabulary/462-3-4 The Latin Element in the English V 2-3-4 The Latin Element in the English Vocabulary/49 ocabulary/492-3-5 The Greek Element in the English V Element in the English Vocabulary/52ocabulary/522-3-6 The influence of the Classical Elements upon the English V 2-3-6 The influence of the Classical Elements upon the English Vocabulary/53 ocabulary/53 2-3-7 Other Foreign Elements in the English V 2-3-7 Other Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary/55 ocabulary/552-3-8 The Interrelation between the Native and Foreign Elements in the EnglishV ocabulary/572-3-9The Linguistic and Historical Origins of Some Common English Words/58 Chapter 3 Word Meaning and Semantic Relations3-1-1 Some General Remarks on Semantic and Meaning/673-1-2 The Relationship Between Meaning and the Object/703-2-1 what is a word?/713-2-2 Meaning and Motivation/72Motivation can occur in three ways.1) Phonetic motivation; 2) grammaticalmotivation;3) Motivation by meaning. 3-3-1 Classifications of Words/733-3-2 Main Types of Word Meaning/76Main types of word meaning. 1) grammatical meaning; 2) lexical meaning 3) contextual meaning 4) denotative meaning5) connotative meaning 6) stylistic meaning3-3-3 Word Meaning and Context/80There are two types of context: linguistic and non- linguistic.1) Linguistic context refers to lexical and grammatical context. 2) Non-linguistic context refers to context of situation, culture and style.3-4-1 Synonyms/833-4-2 Antonyms/89There are two types of antonyms: 1) morphological classification a) root antonyms b) derivative antonyms 2) semantic classificationa) contrariesb) complementariesc) conversives3-4-3 Polysemy and Homonymy/931) two main processes of self-shift a) radiationb) concatenation2) the classification of homonymsa) perfect homonyms b) partial homonyms 3) three ways of forming homonymsa) Converging sound-development b) diverging sense-development c) foreign influence3-4-4 Homonymy/100Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form, but differ in meaning.Chapter 4 The Changing English V Chapter 4 The Changing English Vocabulary ocabulary4-1-1 The Constant Change in Language and the Continuous Appearance ofNeologisms/1034-1-2 The Definition of Neologisms or New Words/1044-1-3 The Rate of Changes of the English V 4-1-3 The Rate of Changes of the English Vocabulary/106 ocabulary/1061) The English vocabulary changes with the development of society2) The rate vocabulary change varies from age to age.4-1-4The Sources of New Words/1064-1-5 The Formation of Neologisms/1261) By word-formation2) By adding new meaning to existing words 3) By borrowing words from other language.4) By analogy5) By creating completely new coinages.4-2-1 Archaisms/137 4-3-1 Changes in Meaning/141Changes of meaning can be brought about by many reasons. 1) Historical causes 2) Social causes 3) Psychological causes4) Linguistic causes4-3-2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Changes/143Four tendencies in semantic changes 1) Extension of meaning(generalization)2) Narrowing of meaning(specialization)3) Elevation of meaning(amelioration)4) Degradation of meaning(deterioration)u Change in the denotative component of the lexical meaning may result in the extension of meaning and the narrowing of meaning.u Change in the connotative component may bring about the elevation of meaning and the degradation of meaning4-3-3 Semantic Changes from the Literal Use of words to Their Figurative Use/152 Chapter 5 Word-formation in English5-1-1 Introduction/1685-1-2 Morphological Structure of words/1685-1-3 Two Types of Morphemes/1691) According to their character: free form ; bound form2) According to their lexical and grammatical relationships: lexicalmorphemes ; grammatical morphemes.5-1-4 Three Types of Words/1701) Simple words2) Compound words3) Complex words5-1-5 Root, Base, Stem/1715-2-1 The main Processes of English Word-formation/177There are four types of world- formation in English.1) prefixation;2) suffixation 3) conversion4) compounding5-2-2 The minor Processes of English Word-formation/2591) clipping or shorten2) acronyms3) blending 4) back-formation5) forming new words by analogy6) onomatopoeiaChapter6 English Idioms6-1-1 Introduction/2736-1-2 The Definition of Idioms/273Idiom: an idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use.6-1-3 The significance of Studying English/2736-1-4 The Features of English Idioms/2751) English Idioms can be very short or rather long2) English Idioms take different structures3) The Idioms which cannot be changed at all are called fixed idioms4) An English idiom has a special meaning6-1-5 English Idioms in different Styles/2796-1-6 The difference Between Idiomatic and Free Phrases/2816-2-1Classifications of English Idioms/282There are five groups of idioms in English .6-2-2 Some Useful Language Areas of Idioms/301There are 15 useful language areas of idioms.Chapter 7 English Collocations7-1-1 Introduction/3207-1-2 what is a Collocation?/3207-1-3 The Importance of Learning English Collocations/3217-2-1 Classifications of English Collocations/3247-2-2 Register Used in English Collocations/3417-3-1 Some Commonest Words Used in English Collocations/3427-4-1 Different Subjects of English Collocations/3477-4-2 Families/3487-4-3 Houses, Flats and Rooms/3507-4-4 Food and Drinks/3577-4-5 Study and Learning/3587-4-6 Fitness and Illness/3597-4-7 Job and Work/3617-4-8 Computers/3667-4-9 Sport/3687-4-10 Time/372Chapter 8 British and American English8-2-1 Differences Between British English and American English/381Chapter 9 English Dictionaries9-1-2 Characteristics of Dictionaries /412There are four fundamental features of Dictionaries.1) Dictionaries are reference books, to be exact, the reference source in printor electronic form2) Dictionaries are compiled according to the nature of the vocabulary3) The chief units of compiling dictionaries are entries, that is, words,including morphemes (affixes), and combining forms.4) Word-entries in any dictionary are arranged in alphabetical order.9-2-1 Types of Dictionaries/413词汇学词汇学 一、一、 定义定义 1) Language: language is a system of symbols based on physiology, psychologyand physics, it is a specific action and a carrier of information used for human communication in a society.2) Idiom: an idiom is an element of a language that possesses a unique way of expression based on its time-honored use.二、二、 判断判断1) The history of the English language is divided into three periods. 2) Old English is a synthetic language.3) Most of the Scandinavian borrowings belong to the colloquial language. 4) Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or more words which have the same form, but differ in meaning.5) Euphemism ——P1646) There are four fundamental features of dictionaries.三、三、 填空填空1) Four groups of loan-words: aliens; denizens; translation-loans; semantic borrowings.2) Motivation can occur in three ways: phonetic motivation; grammatical motivation; motivation by meaning.3) Main types of word meaning: grammatical meaning; lexical meaning(词汇意义); contextual meaning (语境意义);denotative meaning (外延); connotative meaning (内涵); stylistic meaning(文体意义). 4) Change in the denotative component of the lexical meaning may result in the extension of meaning and the narrowing of meaning.5) Change in the connotative component may bring about the elevation of meaning and the degradation of meaning 6) The four types of world- formation in English : prefixation; suffixation; conversion; compounding四、四、 简答简答1) There are two types of context: linguistic and non- linguistic. i. Linguistic context refers to lexical and grammatical context. ii. Non-linguistic context refers to context of situation, culture and style. 2) Four tendencies in semantic changesii. Extension of meaning(generalization)iii. Narrowing of meaning(specialization)iv. Elevation of meaning(amelioration)v. Degradation of meaning(deterioration)五、五、 选出句中的antonyms (反义词)——P89六、六、 词根root ——P171i. acu-(acr-)——sharp ii.volv-(volut-)———— to roll P176 iii.anthrop-(anthropo-)———— man or human iv. aut-(auto-)——self七、七、 中文中文i. Blending ii. Back-formation。
1单元Language is a system of symbols based onphysiology ,psychology and physics .it is a specific socialaction and a carrier of information used for humancommunication in a society .Linguistic is the scientific study of language .it is the studyof human speech including the units ,nature ,structure andmodification of language .Lexicology is the branch of linguistic concerned with thestudy of the vocabulary of a given language .P h onetics is the study and systematic classification of thesounds made in spoken utterance ,that is ,the study ofspeech .Diachronic concerned with historical development oflanguageSynchronic means describing a language as it exists at onepoint of time2单元Etymology is the study of the origin and history of wordsand their meaningsOld English: the period of 450 to 1150 1 the prounciationof the old English words differs somewhat from that ofmiddle English words .the long vowels have changed agreat deal .2the vocabulary of old English consisted mainlyof Anglo-Saxon words ,but when the Norman conquest in1066,much of the English vocabulary was replaced bywords borrowed from French and Latin .3 old Englishwas a highly inflected language .It has a complete systemof declensions with four cases and conjunction .Synthetic language is one which shows the relation ofwords in a sentence largely by means of inflectionDeclension :the inflection of nous and pronouns andadjectives in Indo -European languageConjugation :the inflection of verbsNative language are the foundation and the core of theEnglish vocabularyAliens are words borrowed from a foreign languageDenizens are words taken from a foreign language with atransformation of the foreign sound and spellingTranslation -loans are words borrowed from foreignlanguage by means of translationSemantic borrowings :words which have acquired a newmeaning under the influence of other language Semantics: is a major branch of linguistics devoted to thestudy of meaning.3单元Word: a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, thesmallest form that may appear in isolation.Morpheme: is the smallest significant unit of speech Allomorph:a variant phonological representation of a morphemeFree form: is one which can occur as a separate word.Bound form:is one which cannot occur on its own as aseparate word.Motivation: is the relationship between the structure of aword and its meaning.Full words:nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbsare full words or notional words, because they are‘autosemantic’, meaningful in themselves, even if theyappear in isolation. Full words function as independentmembers in sentences.Form(-)words:articles, prepositions, pronouns,pronominal adverbs 代词性副词and the like areform-words ir functional words. They are ‘synsemantic’, meaningful only when used in conjunction with other words. So form-words have no independent meaning proper.Popular words: are words usually used in ordinary conversation. They are concerned with common things of life, and are a part of everyday vocabulary.Learned words: are words comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation but are used in books. The meanings of learned words are known to every educated person, but there is little opportunity to use them at home.Abstract words: are words which refer to states, events, feelings, etc.Concrete words: are words concerned with objects, things, etc.Transparent words: or motivated words whose formation can be explained.Opaque words: or non-motivated words are words whose formation cannot be explained.Colloquialism: are used in ordinary, familiar, or informal conversation.Vulgarism: are words not usually used by educated personsJargon:is a kind of language that is hard to understand because it is full of special words known only to the people of a certain group.Argot:is a kind of speech spoken and understood by a small class of people, esp. thieves.Linguistic context:refers to lexical and grammatical context. That is to say, the context determines which meaning out of all the possible meanings, including lexical and grammatical meaning, is to be attached to the word. Non-linguistic context:refers to context of situation, culture and style.Phatic communion: is used to establish common thought and feeling.Synonyms:are lexical items which have the same meanings.Doublets: paired words where a native word is opposed to one borrowed from Latin, Greek or French.Triplets: a group of three words where the native word is the simplest and most ordinary, the Latin word or the Greek word is learned, whereas the French one stands between the native word and the Latin word or the Greek word. Antonyms: are words opposite in meaning.Polysemy: is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. That is to say, the same word may have a set of different meanings.Radiation: refers to a process of sense-shift in which the original meaning of a word is to be considered as the central meaning and the other meanings are derived from it Concatenation: refers to a process of sense-shift in which the original meaning of a word may be lost on other meanings, that is to say, other meanings of a word produced are not connected with its primary sense4单元Neologismz/New word:newly coined word that is given new meanings to fit new situations and new needs because of the social, economic, political, cultural, esp. scientific and technical changes in the given period in human society. Nonce word: is used only once or coined for one particular occasion and never occur again.Archaism:is an obsolete word, which is not used now except for special purposes.Obsolete word:word which is not used now except for special purposes.Metaphor: a metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike elements, but this comparison is implied rather than stated. Metonymy: is an important factor in the shift of meaning that involves substitution of the name of one thing for the that of another closely associated with it. Synecdoche:is a figure of speech that involves the substitution of the part for the whole or the wholes for the part.Euphemism: is the substitution of a word of more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant connotation. In short, it is a false word substituted for the true word in order to soften the shock of reality.5单元Morpheme:is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. pp. 212)2. Free morpheme: is a morpheme which can occur as a separate word. (pp. 212)3. Bound morpheme: is a morpheme which cannot stand alone as a word. (pp. 212)4. Lexical morpheme:is a morpheme used for the construction of new words as in compound words and affixes. (pp. 212)5. Grammatical morpheme:is a morpheme used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context. (pp. 212)6. Allomorphs:some morphemes are expressed by more than one morph according to their position in a word or sentence, such alternative morphs are called ~, or morphemic variants. (pp. 213)7. Simple word: is one which contains only one free form. (pp. 213)8. Compound word:is one which consists of more than one free form. (pp. 213)9. Complex word: I one which has one free form and one or more than one bound form. (pp. 213)10. Root:is the base form of a word that expresses its essential meaning. To be more exact, the root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (prefixes and suffixes) are removed. (pp. 214)11. Base: is the same as root. (pp. 214)12. Stem: is a term used as part of a classification of the kinds of elements operating within the structure of a word. That is to say, a stem is a main part of a word to which suffixes, or case ending are added. (pp. 221)13. Affixation:is the morphological process whereby grammatical or lexical information is added to the base. 14. Prefixation: is a main type of word-formation putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes with, but more usually without a change of word class. (pp. 222)15. Suffixation: is a main type of word-formation, puttinga suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually with a change of word class. (pp. 261)16. Conversion/Full ~: is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word class with no change of form. (pp. 287)17. Compounding:is a main type of word-formation adding one base to another, such that the one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes the one that follows. 18. Reduplicative:a compound has two or more elements which are either identical or only slightly different. (pp. 316)19. Clipping/Shortening:is a method of shortening a word without changing its meaning. (pp. 318)20. Acronym:is a special kind of clipping. It is a word formed from the initial letter of a word that makes up a name. (pp. 321)21. Blending: is a process of word-formation, in which a new word is made by using the parts or the full form of the two words and combining their meanings. (pp. 325)22. Back-formation:is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from an already existing longer word in the vocabulary. (pp. 329)23. Onomatopoeia: is the oldest device of word-formation used to name a thing or an action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. (pp. 331)1单元1 What is the relationship between language and society ? Language is a mirror reflecting the culture of a society .society depends upon language for its existence .2 What is the relationship between language and man’s thought ?Man’s thought is indispensable to language just as language is inseparable from society .language is used to express man’s thought .without thinking there would be no human language .3 what are the tow main forms of language ?The spoken word (speech )and the written symbols .4 what is the scope of linguistics ?Phonetics(语音学)•Lexicology词汇学grammar Phonology(音系学)Syntax(句法学)•Semantics(语义学)phonetics语音学philology 语文学stylistic 文体学general linguistic and so on .5 what are the two main approaches of the study of lexicology ?synchrinic and diachronic2单元1 When did English language come into being ?At the beginning of the 5th centry .2 Which language family does English belong to ?Indo-European family3 Three period of English languageOld English 450-1150Middle English 1150-1500Modern English 1500-now4 What are the differences between old English and modern English ?In contrast with old English ,modern English is an analytic language .old English grammar differs from modern English grammar in declensions and conjunctions.5 what happened to the English gender during middle English period ?6what influence did Renaissance have on English vocabulary ?7 what is the significance of Johnson’s dictionary ?8 what are the basic characteristics of the native English vocabulary ?9 State five periods of Latin influence on English vocabulary .3单元1.What is the sign theory of de Saussure?According to the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, the linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified, that is,a sound image and a concept. (pp. 83)2.What is the semiotic triangle of Ogden & Richards? According to Ogden & Richards the symbol is thelinguistic element, that is, the word, sentence, etc. and the referent is the object, etc. in the world of experience, while thought or reference is concept.3.How can English words be classified?Words can be classified from different angles.according to the lexical meaning and grammatical function of words—full words and formal words; according to the usage of words—popular/common words and learned/literary words;according to the character of words—abstract words and concrete words;according to motivation—transparent/motivated words and opaque/non-motivated words;according to polysemy and monosemy—polysemic words and monosemic words;according to the origin—native words and loan-words (pp. 86-89)4.What are the main types of word meaning?Word meaning can be classified according to different perspectives.grammatical meaninglexical meaningcontextual meaningdenotative meaningconnotative meaningstylistic meaning (pp. 90-91)5.How are homonyms classified?There are two kinds of homonyms classified according to sound,pelling and meaning.perfect homonymspartial homonymshomographshomophoneshomoforms4单元1.What are the sources of new words? (pp. 133-160) Generally, there are two main sources of new words in the English vocabulary.the rapid development of modern science and technology (pp. 133)political, economic and social changes (pp. 144)2.How are new words formed? (pp. 161--175)They are created in four ways.by word-formation (pp. 161)by adding new meanings to existing words (pp. 161)by borrowing words from other languages (pp. 164)by analogy (pp. 168)by creating completely new coinages (pp. 174)3.What factors can cause changes in meaning? (pp.180—pp. 181)Changes of meaning can be brought about with the following factorshistorical causes (pp.180)social causes (pp. 181)psychological causes (pp. 181)linguistic causes (pp. 181)4.What are the four tendencies in semantic changes?(pp. 182--192)extension of meaning (generalization) (pp. 182) narrowing of meaning (specialization) (pp. 187) elevation of meaning (amelioration) (pp. 190) degradation of meaning (degradation) (pp. 191)5单元1. What are the three types of words? (pp. 213)There are three types of words according to morphology.1)Simple words2)Compound words3)Complex wordsSimple words are the core of the English vocabulary that provides the language with a basis for the formation of new words.1.What are the four main types of word-formation inEnglish? (pp. 222-318)There are four main types of word-formation in English. 1) Prefixation2) Suffixation3) Conversion4) Compounding3. What are the six minor types of word-formation in English? (pp. 318-333)Besides the four major methods of forming words (prefixation, suffixation, conversion and compounding), English uses minor word-formation processes.1)Clipping/Shortening2)Acronym3)Blending4)Back-formation5)Analogy6)Onomatopoeia。
Chapter 3 Morphology structure of English words3.1 MorphemesThe definition of a morpheme : The morpheme(词素) is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms. A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into smaller meaningful units. Words are composed of morphemes. What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemesWords can have an internal structure, i.e. they are decomposable into smaller meaningful parts. These smallest meaningful units we call morphemes.One morpheme: nationTwo morphemes: nation-alThree morphemes: nation-al-izeFour morphemes: de-nation-al-ize确定语素必须满足两个标准, 一是含义相近, 二是发音相近.-ly 在 manly, princely, friendly 中属于同一个语素.-er 在 worker, teacher, speaker, swimmer 等词中意为"做…的人", 属于同一语素,但在 manner 一词并不是 man 和 -er 合起来的意思, 所以 manner 不能看作是由 man 和 -er 两个语素构成, 其中的 -er 也不能看作是与 worker 中的 -er 相同的语素.3.2 Classification of MorphemesMorphemes can be classified in various ways.Morphemes may be classified into free and bound. Free morphemes (自由词素), also called content morphemes(实义词素), may constitute words by themselves. Bound morphemes (粘着词素), known as grammatical morphemes (语法词素), must appear with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound.3.2.1 Types of Morphemes —free vs. bound● Free morphemes(自由词素)Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Therefore, we might as well say that free morphemes are content morphemes (实义词素)or free roots(自由词根).man, earth, wind, faith, red, write ….● Bound Morphemes(粘着词素)Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning (un-kind, hope-ful) or grammatical meaning (cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed). They are also called grammatical morphemes.3.2.2 types of morphemes —root vs. affixesMorphemes may also be classified into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes). definition of root :A root is the part of the word-form which remains when all the affixes have been removed.A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word which conveys the fundamental meaning of the word.Two types of roots – Free roots: Morphemes are said to be free if they can stand alone as words (In English,many roots are free roots) black in black, blackboard, blacksmith, blackmail.Bound roots: They are so called because they are always bound to something else. Theycannot exist on their own ceive in receive, perceive, conceive, deceive. Bound roots(粘着词根): A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.(However, there are quite a number of roots which cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class of bound morphemes.For example, ceive in receive, conceive, perceive, deceive. these roots cannot be used to form new words.) A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word.therefore, that a knowledge of roots can help one to analyze and understand many words almost on sight. Although the Latin and Greek roots are usually bound morphemes and cannot stand alone, it is helpful to free boundroot affix inflectional derivationalrecognize some of the common ones, since thousands of English words are built on them. Knowing the meaning of these roots can help clarify the meaning of many English words.3.2.3 Two types of affixesAffixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional (曲折词缀)and derivational (派生词缀)affixes.Affixes can be divided into inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. This reflects two major morphological (word building) processes:Affix is a collective term for the type of formative (构词成分) that can be used only when added to another morpheme.●Inflectional affixes: does not form a new meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change thepart of the word to which it is affixed.●Derivational affixes: when they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word.Many have a specific lexical meaning. Quite a number of them have more than one meaning. They have affective meaning3.2.3 affixes●Inflectional affixes(曲折词缀)Affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. For example: cats, walked, walking, John’s book…●Derivational affixes(派生词缀)Affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. They can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes Prefixes(前缀) ; Suffixes(后缀)Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) serve to express the following meanings:(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in boxes, tomatoes; en in oxen.(2) the genitive case: e.g. ’s in boy’s, children’s.(3) the verbal endings: for example,a. -(e)s in words like eats, teaches shows the third person singular present tense.b. -ing in words like eating, teaching shows the present participle or gerund.c. -(e)d in words like worked, saved shows the past tense or past participle.(4) the comparative and superlative degrees:e.g. -er in words like smaller, harder; -est in words like smallest, hardest.●Derivational Morphemes-- either by changing the meaning of the base to which they are attached; or by changing the grammatical category (part of speech) of the baseDerivational Affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root, e.g. unjust, rewrite.As a rule, most prefixes modify the meaning of roots, but not their parts of speech.task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of speech. - en-(em-) as in words like embody, enrich (2) Suffixes are affixes after the root, e.g. darkness, worker.By the addition of the suffix, the word is usually changed from one part of speech into another, e.g. liberation, modernizeBoth prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:1. Their linguistic origin: Native/foreign affixes1). Native affixes are those that existed in the OE period or were formed from OE words, such as un-, mis-,be-,out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and –er.2). Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples:ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk), mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and –ize(F).A hybrid混合词is a word made up of elements from two or more different languages.2. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words.Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive.Examples of dead affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; with- as in withdraw, withhold and withstand,and –ant or –ent as in servant, different, etc.Sum: Inflection and DerivationDerivational morphemes are used to create new lexical items (lexemes (词位)).Inflectional morphemes only contribute to the inflectional paradigm 词形变化 of the lexemes, which lists all the word-forms of the lexeme.3.2 Types of MorphemesDiagram of morphemesclassification of words on a morphemic levelOn this level, words, according to the number and type of morphemes they contain, can be classified into:(1) simple words: those consisting of a single morpheme, such as man, work, kind;(2) derived words: those which are the result of a derivational process. Such words usually consist of a free morpheme and one (or more than one) bound morpheme, such as fruitless, fruitful, unfruitful, unfruitfulness;(3) compound words: those which are composed of two or more free morphemes, e.g. deep structure, spacesuit, forget-me-not, stick-in-the-mud, and jack of all trades.3.3 Morph and allomorphThe definition of morph(语素形式/词素形式)- phonological (音韵的)and orthographical (拼写的)forms used to represent morphemes. Morphemes can be represented in braces. For example, {big} is pronounced as /big/ and spelled as big, thus /big/ and big are respectively the phonological and orthographical morphs of {big} .Morpheme, Morph, AllomorphA morph is a physical form representing a certain morpheme in a language.Sometimes different morphs may represent the same morpheme; i.e., a morpheme may take different forms. If so, they are called allomorphs of that morpheme.An allomorph(词素变体) is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.区别:语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位、语素等)。
Chapter 1 Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
I.Linguistics
1.Definition
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
2.Scientific study method
①observe
②hypothesis
③classify
④test & conclude
3.Features of scientific study
①exhaustiveness
②consistency
③economy
④objectivity
nguage
1.Definition
Language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols by means of which the members of a speech community communicate, interact and transmit their culture.
2.Functions
·interrogative
·expressive
·informative
·evocative
·directive
·performative
·phatic
rmation transmission
Semantic encoding
↓
Grammatical encoding
↓
Phonetic & phonological encoding (pitch, loudness, length, quality)
↓
Sending
↓
Transmission
4.Origins of the calendar
Babylonian→Egyptian→Greek→(750 BC)Old Roman
1)Months
·750 BC
March Mars
April Goddess of love May Goddess of spring June God of marriage ※Quintillis Five
※Sextillis Six September Seven
October Eight November Nine December Ten
·500 BC
January ‘door’
February ‘festival’
·46 BC
Quintillis→July Julius Caesar Sextillis→August Augustus Caesar 2)Days
Sunday God of Sun (Babylonian) Monday God of Moon (Norse) Tuesday Chief of all gods (Nor.) Wednesday God of commerce (Nor.)
Thursday God of Thunder (Nor.) Friday God of Love (Nor.) Saturday God of Harvest (Bab.)
III.Lexicology
1.Basic terms and definitions
word (OE): talk, speak
vocabulary (MLat): ①all words in a certain realm
②words in specific context lexicon (lexis): words in a special language lexicology: origins + development + meanings of words 2.English Lexicology
·morphonological structures
·formation
·semantic structure relations
·usages
·lexicography
3.A poem~
Spring, the sweetest spring, is the year’s pleasant King Then blooms each thing, then the maids dance in a ring Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing
Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo
The palm and may make country houses gay Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day And we hear aye birds tune this merry lay
Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo
The fields breeze sweet, the daisies kiss our feet Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit
In every street, these tunes our ears do greet Koo-koo, juck-juck, puwe, to-witta-woo。