Pragmatic Analysis of Problems in Cross-cultural Communication

2024年3月第40卷㊀第2期外国语文(双月刊)Foreign Languages and Literature(bimonthly)Mar.,2024Vol.40㊀No.2收稿日期:2022-11-15基金项目:国家社会科学基金项目 实验语用学视域下的话语标记 音 形 义 系统实验分析与模型建构 (21FYYB058)的阶段性成果作者简介:单谊,男,南通大学外国语学院教授,博士,主要从事语用学㊁翻译研究㊂引用格式:单谊.基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析[J].外国语文,2024(2):24-37.基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析单谊(南通大学外国语学院,江苏南通㊀226019)摘㊀要:本文采用文献计量学分析法探究21世纪国外实验语用学热点与前沿㊂研究发现如下发展态势:既延续经典议题,又涉足众多新兴议题;语用学经典文献总体决定研究议题与发展方向;高被引作者中出现新面孔,但老面孔依然占主导地位;虽处于发展初期,但初显跨越多领域的特点;研究重镇在欧美,但亚洲已崭露头角;跳出专注语言哲学的窠臼,借助科学实验手段关注语言使用研究的学科独立性基本确立;英语在研究中独占鳌头,希腊语和法语比较活跃,汉语尚未占据一席之地;灵长目语言学这一新的领域正崭露头角㊂关键词:实验语用学;CiteSpace 6.1.R6(64-bit )Basic ;文献计量学分析;热点;前沿中图分类号:H030㊀㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀㊀文章编号:1674-6414(2024)02-0024-140㊀引言实验语用学(experimental pragmatics)在科学实证主义研究范式指导下采用现代心理实验方法进行语用研究(Katsos et al.,2010;Noveck,2018/2021),验证各种语用理论与假设,代表语用学研究的全新领域(张龙等,2020)㊂由于传统语用学关注的语言理解推理过程与认知机制尚无法借助观察法获得可靠证据与结论,实验语用学在探讨这些过程与机制㊁揭示其在本质方面发挥着不可替代的作用㊂实验语用学必将产生解码语言理解机制的崭新理论(Sauerland et al.,2016)㊂实验语用学研究涉及该领域的研究必要性与研究方法(如,周榕等,2007;Noveck et al.,2008;Li,2014)以及各种各样的语用学研究论题(Canala et al.,2019;张龙等,2020;李捷,2021;周凌等,2022)㊂虽然有研究探讨过实验语用学的主要理论与观点㊁研究方法㊁研究成果与发展前景(刘思,2008;张龙等,2020;李捷,2021),但迄今尚无文献基于Web of Science 核心集(SSCI 和A &HCI)源刊(以下简称 WoS )对21世纪国外实验语用学研究㊃42㊃㊀单谊㊀基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析㊀热点与前沿进行系统的文献计量学分析㊂CiteSpace知识图谱能全面㊁直观描绘研究所在知识领域,关键词共现功能可呈现领域研究热点与趋势,共被引文献分析功能能反映研究前沿与知识基础,基于这两种功能的全面考察有助于研究人员把握 某个领域中学者共同关注的一个或者多个话题 与 正在兴起的理论趋势和新主题的涌现 (李杰等,2017:126-127)㊂借助CiteSpace知识图谱可视化软件,我们能探究21世纪以来国外实验语用学研究发展动态,发现该领域的热点与前沿话题,厘清国外实验语用学研究现状与未来走势㊂实验语用学被誉为语用学研究乃至语言学研究领域的一次变革(Noveck et al.,2004),其研究重心从侧重心理学转向侧重语用学(李捷,2021),我们有必要对21世纪国外语言学领域实验语用学的发展动态进行文献计量学分析㊂1㊀研究方法与数据来源CiteSpace在科学研究领域颇具影响力,能反映科学文献识别与可视化的最新趋势与动态(向明友,2015)㊂本文采用CiteSpace6.1.R6(64-bit)Basic(以下简称 CiteSpace ),从宏观㊁微观视角对WoS相关文章进行文献计量学分析,聚焦发文趋势与研究阶段㊁共被引期刊㊁共被引文献㊁高被引作者㊁研究国家(地区)与机构㊁关键词聚类等维度,绘制㊁解读国外实验语用学研究的知识图谱与表单㊂我们以 实验语用学 (experimental pragmatics)为主题词,限定研究领域为语言学㊁文献类型为论文㊁语种为英语,从WoS中检索出2000 2022年间的346篇相关文献㊂CiteSpace数据去重㊁清洗分析显示,这346篇论文均为有效样本,可用于知识图谱绘制与分析㊂下文中,我们分别从上述六个维度对这346篇文章进行文献计量学分析,以期用一种多元㊁分时㊁动态的引文分析可视化语言,把该知识领域浩如烟海的文献数据集中展现在引文网络知识图谱上,并把图谱上作为知识基础的引文节点文献与共引聚类所表征的研究前沿自动标识出来(陈超美等,2016:1)㊂CiteSpace知识图谱中,年轮颜色深浅以及文字字体大小均表示对应节点在该领域影响力的大小㊂2㊀国外实验语用学研究文献分析2.1年度发文趋势与研究阶段图1显示,WoS相关发文量总体呈现增长势头,2008年后发文量增长趋势尤为明显㊂具体而言,增长趋势显著的几个区间为2008 2010㊁2011 2012㊁2015 2018㊁2020 2021年㊂总体来看,2001 2008年为国外实验语用学兴起阶段㊂样本追踪分析显示,这一阶段的研究主要涉及儿童语言习得㊁患者语言特征与语用能力㊁二语语用能力教学与习得㊁学术㊃52㊃㊀外国语文2024年第2期㊀话语㊁语境㊁语音语调的语用功能㊁指称㊁回指㊁声音识别㊁文本记忆等话题㊂其中,儿童语言习得㊁患者语言特征与语用能力㊁二语语用教学与习得等方面的研究占主导地位㊂限于篇幅,我们在此不引用每个方面的相关研究㊂图1㊀国外实验语用学研究年度发文量(2000 2022)2009 2022年为国外实验语用学初级发展阶段㊂该阶段实验语用学的科学实证主义研究范式已基本形成,主要研究均凭借事件相关电位(ERP)㊁功能磁共振(fMRI)㊁眼动追踪等科学仪器与手段对传统语用学中围绕语用意图㊁语用机制㊁语用能力等论题提出的术语㊁概念与假设进行实验验证㊂本阶段涉及的某些话题与兴起阶段某些话题类似,如儿童语用能力与习得㊁外语/二语学习者语用教学与习得㊁语调的语用功能㊁患者语用能力等㊂此外,本阶段还涉及很多不同话题,包括级差含义㊁预设㊁(不)礼貌㊁喻意性话语㊁言语行为㊁韵律㊁患者语用能力康复㊁模糊语言㊁各类语法与语用句式㊁各种语法与语用词类㊁情感㊁所言与所含㊁语义 语用界面㊁心智理论与认知复杂性㊁语言游戏中的语用推理㊁年龄与工作记忆对常规蕴含加工的影响㊁概率语用学㊁面部表情㊁职业培训㊁幽默㊁语用理论发展㊁二语习得中的纠错㊁二语习得对母语的影响㊁否定与归一性㊁语言创造力与身份㊁多义现象等等㊂其中,级差含义㊁预设㊁喻意性话语㊁言语行为㊁(不)礼貌等方面的研究占主导地位㊂限于篇幅,我们在此不引用每个方面的相关研究㊂上述两个阶段表明,国外实验语用学研究既延续发展了传统语用学研究中的关联理论㊁(新)格莱斯会话含义㊁预设㊁级差含义㊁言语行为㊁喻意性话语㊁(不)礼貌㊁句法 语用界面等经典议题,又拓展到心智理论㊁认知加工㊁儿童语用能力㊁二语/外语学习者语用能力㊁职业培训㊁患者语用能力(康复训练)㊁学术话语㊁机构会话㊁文本记忆㊁多义㊁韵律㊁语气㊁语音语调㊁语用能力与衰老等众多新兴议题㊂可见,国外实验语用学研究已从最初讨论研究必要性与研究方式发展到关注语用学各种研究论题㊂在实验语用学研究范式下,语用意图㊁语用机制㊁语用能力等方面的研究都能通过实验仪器与手段获得实验证据与科学依据,从而验证㊁修订传统语用学研究中提出的概念㊁假设与理论㊂㊃62㊃㊀单谊㊀基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析㊀2.2共被引期刊通过论文来源期刊共被引分析,我们既能了解某个领域的空间分布特点,掌握该领域的核心期刊群,又能为文献搜集与管理提供依据,为同行提供重要情报源的指导(向明友, 2015:42)㊂我们运用CiteSpace共被引期刊分析功能,对施引期刊进行聚类分析,绘制出国外实验语用学研究共被引期刊知识图谱(见图2)㊂该图谱聚类网络模块值(modularity)为0.551,平均轮廓值(mean silhouette)为0.8363㊂这两个值分别大于阀值0.3和0.7,说明图2网络社团结构显著,聚类结果高度可信(李杰等,2017:171)㊂下文所用其他知识图谱的网络模块值与平均轮廓值均大于阀值0.3和0.7,不再赘述㊂图2㊀共被引期刊共现网络由图2我们导出被引50次以上的20种期刊㊂这些期刊包含传统语用学研究的主阵地㊁排名第2㊁3的Journal of Pragmatics㊁Pragmatics,语言学研究的主阵地㊁排名第4㊁5㊁6㊁7㊁9㊁10的lingua㊁Linguistics and Philosophy㊁Language㊁Syntax and Semantics㊁Journal of Semantics㊁Linguistic Inquiry㊂ 作为生成语言学研究主阵地的Linguistic Inquiry (向明友,2015:44)位列第10,被引达71次㊂这充分说明句法 语用界面研究是国外实验语用学关注的重要议题㊂文本分析显示,这些语用学和语言学期刊的相关发文大都延续着传统语用学研究的经典议题㊂这一结论印证了2.1节有关发展阶段的研究结论㊂此外,被引量排名前20的期刊中,与认知科学相关的期刊有六种(包括引文量排名第一的Cognition),与心理学相关的有三种,与脑科学相关的有三种㊂通过文献追踪分析,我们发现国外实验语用学研究新兴议题的相关发文主要刊登在这些认知科学㊁心理学㊁脑科学期刊中㊂Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition㊁Journal of Child Language位列第18㊁19位,表明二语/外语习得与教学㊁儿童语言习得与发展也是国外实验语用学研究的重要对象㊂这些发现与2.1有关发展阶段新兴议题的研究发现是一致的㊂可见,国外实验语用学虽尚处于发展初期,但已初显出跨越众多研究领域的交叉学科特点㊂㊃72㊃㊀外国语文2024年第2期㊀2.3共被引文献被引文献可以反映某一领域的知识基础(李杰等,2017:174)㊂图3为共被引文献知识图谱,由此我们生成被引四次以上的28篇文献列表㊂聚类分析显示,这28篇文章中除诺姆㊃乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)(1981)提出管辖与约束句法理论之外,其余27篇主要聚焦四方面的研究:会话(级差)含义㊁心智理论㊁语境㊁it分裂句㊂乔姆斯基(1981)的管辖与约束理论是一种新的语言结构模型,描述语言的句法结构与功能㊂众多实验语用学句法研究都借鉴了这一经典句法理论(如,Perovic et al.,2018;Pinelli et al.,2020)㊂图3㊀排名前28位共被引文献共现网络28篇文献排名第1的研究(R Core Team,2021)㊁第11的研究(R,2020)㊁第16的研究(R Core Development Team,2021)描述统计分析和绘图的语言与操作环境,排名第2的研究(Bates et al.,2015)㊁第5的研究(Burkner,2017)分别介绍R语言环境下常用的建模程序包lme4与brms㊂排名第3的研究(Barr et al.,2013)证明最大线性混合效应模型(Maximal linear mixed-effects models)是心理语言学及其他领域确认性假设检验的 黄金标准 ㊂由于实验语用学旨在通过实验验证传统语用学提出的语用假设, 黄金标准 (Barr et al.,2013)备受广大实验语用学研究人员青睐㊂上述文献均作为计算统计工具与模型广泛应用于21世纪国外实验语用学研究,呈现高被引特征㊂这些文献中,其他文献围绕心智理论㊁语境㊁会话(级差)含义或it分裂句展开研究㊂排名第4的研究(Andrés-Roqueta et al.,2017)讨论语言语用学与社交语用学的划分,以及结构性语言(词汇和语法)与心智理论对提升儿童自闭症患者语用能力的作用㊂该研究对实验语用学的启示是:可以通过结构性语言与心智理论对儿童自闭症患者进行临床干预,以提高其语言语用能力㊂受其启发,不少研究借鉴了心智理论分别对出生14个月婴儿的语言理解能力(Forgacs et al.,2019)㊁自闭症患者语言习得与语用能力(Mognon et al., 2021)㊁二语说话者的语用加工过程(Khorsheed et al.,2022)㊁印度成年人的常规间接请求(Marocchini et al.,2022)进行研究㊂这表明心智理论,即理解他人欲望㊁观点㊁情感㊁知识和信仰的能力的理论(Wellman,2014),在实验语用学发展中起重要理论指导作用㊂排名第6的研究(Goodman et al.,2016)在博弈论与概率建模发展的基础上描述语用推理的理性言㊃82㊃㊀单谊㊀基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析㊀语行为(rational speech act)框架模型,认为该模型能使语境中的意义推理形式化,可解释夸张㊁模糊语言等复杂语用现象的原因㊂该模型提供了语用语言理解中整合语言结构㊁世界知识与语境的计算框架,已成功应用于各种任务与情境中人类行为的定量预测㊂排名第7㊁18㊁23的研究(Degen,2015;Degen et al.,2015;Degen,2016)均致力于 some 和 not all 级差含义的研究:使用语料库和基于网络的方法研究级差含义,发现级差含义强度具有很大的可变性与语言语境特征依赖行(Degen,2015);探讨如何利用语言认知理论和计算模型来理解级差含义的认知加工过程,提出一种基于约束(constraint-based)的模型来模拟语言加工过程中的级差含义,讨论该模型解释级差含义的可行性与有效性(Degen et al., 2015);通过眼动实验研究级差含义加工过程,发现受试在可用替代词较多的情况下能更容易㊁更快地接受级差含义(Degen,2016)㊂排名第8的研究(Chemla et al.,2014)回顾级差含义的有关文献,指出级差含义研究中的实验转向及其影响㊂他们发现,通过实验研究既能更好地理解级差含义背后的认知过程,又能为级差含义在各种语言中的存在提供证据㊂排名第12的研究(van Tiel et al.,2016)通过实验确定了语义距离与密切程度(boundedness)对级差含义推理的影响㊂排名第27的研究(van Tiel et al.,2017)依然探讨级差含义加工,他们发现与级差推理相反,自由选择推理㊁条件完备性㊁it分裂句的穷尽性三类推理的计算会加快应答时间㊂级差含义是实验语用学研究中关注度最高的议题之一(张龙等,2020),这些相关文献均借助实验手段推动了该议题研究的发展㊂2.4高被引作者图4为高被引作者知识图谱,由此我们可以导出被引用15次以上㊁排名前26位的研究㊂图5聚类分析显示,新世纪国外实验语用学研究高被引作者主要分布在七个聚类:级差含义(聚类0)㊁反语(聚类1)㊁跨文化(二语)语用习得(聚类2)㊁预设(聚类4)㊁隐喻焦点(聚类5)㊁句法 话语界面(聚类7)㊁主体性(聚类9)㊂图4㊀高被引作者共现网络㊃92㊃㊀外国语文2024年第2期㊀聚类0涉及13位高被引作者,说明级差含义是实验语用学研究中最前沿的领域之一㊂排名第1的研究(Grice,1975/1989)专注经典会话含义(合作原则)研究㊂保罗㊃格莱斯(Paul Grice)(1975/1989)提出一种新的推理形式 语用推理,对语言学与逻辑学发展作出重要贡献㊂格莱斯(1989)收录了包括格莱斯(1975)在内的19篇论文与讲稿,堪称聚焦意义研究的经典语用哲学著作㊂国内学者早已熟知该经典文献,我们不再赘述㊂排名第3的研究(Levinson,1983/2000)提出新格莱斯语用机制,将会话含义研究从 古典格赖斯会话含义理论 发展为 新格赖斯会话含义理论 ,推动了语用推理研究的发展㊂史蒂芬㊃列文森(Stephen Levinson)(2000)是继承与发展格莱斯(1975/1989)与列文森(1983)会话含义研究的集大成之作,该著作专注探讨常规会话含义的原则与规律,是新格莱斯会话含义研究中极富理论创新的语用学经典文献㊂格莱斯(1975/1989)经典会话含义与列文森(2000)新格莱斯会话含义既构成新世纪国外实验语用学研究的理论基础,又成为新世纪国外实验语用学研究验证㊁补充㊁发展的核心内容㊂排名第5的研究(Noveck,2004/2018)探讨指示㊁言语行为㊁隐喻等语用现象的认知加工过程,成为实验语用学研究先驱㊂艾拉㊃诺维克等(Ira Noveck et al.)(2004)介绍指称㊁歧义解除㊁隐喻㊁言语行为㊁级差含义的实验研究,诺维克(2018)呈现欧美认知心理学实验室关于级差含义㊁条件句㊁指示语㊁隐喻㊁反讽㊁转喻㊁否定㊁预设及韵律等语用现象的研究成果和认知科学实验技术前沿动态㊂这两部专著逐步奠定了实验语用学的学科地位㊂排名第10的研究(Degen,2015,2016)致力于 some 和 not all 级差含义的实验研究㊂与级差含义推理默认模式(Levinson,2000)类似,级差含义局部论认为内嵌结构中级差含义推理不需要命题的完整加工(Chierchia, 2004)㊂与之相反,排名第15的研究(Geurts,2009)提出的整体论则认为级差含义推理依赖完整命题㊂排名第14的研究(Bott et al.,2004)对比默认模式与语境模式下级差含义实验研究结果㊂排名第11的研究(Bardovi-Harlig,2001)关注二语教学与习得中的级差含义研究㊂排名第16的研究(Breheny,2006)指出会话含义的获取涉及对言者意图的推理,这种推理对成年人来说难度较大,对儿童来说则难上加难㊂排名20的研究(Huang et al., 2009)利用眼动追踪技术研究级差含义的理解㊂排名第25的研究(Franke,2017)从韵律角度研究级差含义㊂此外,排名第4的研究(Bates et al.,2015)㊁第12的研究(Barr et al., 2013)㊁第13的研究(R Core Team,2021)均作为计算统计工具与模型广泛应用于21世纪国外实验语用学研究,为级差含义研究提供科学手段与证据㊂聚类1涉及五位高被引作者,说明喻意性话语理解也是实验语用学关注度最高的领域之一㊂排名第2的研究(Sperber et al.,1986/1995)与第7的研究(Wilson,2004)构建的关联理论成为认知语用学的奠基之作㊂该理论从语言哲学㊁认知心理学㊁交际学等多学科角度对语言交际作出解释,将语用学研究重心从话语生成转移到话语理解背后的推理过程与认知机制㊂排名第6的研究(Clark,1996)主张语言使用过程并非言㊁听者言㊁听行为的简㊃03㊃㊀单谊㊀基于文献计量的国外实验语用学研究态势探析㊀单叠加,而是言㊁听者在信仰与意图的复杂交际语境中实现个人与社会之间互动协调的综合过程㊂新世纪国外实验语用学研究很多议题均借鉴了语言使用的社会综合视角(Clark, 1996),例如,言语行为的跨语言语用差异(Hendriks,2010)㊁(不)礼貌评价的个体差异性(Haugh et al.,2019)㊁求职面试技能培训(Travers et al.,2021)㊁跨文化工作场景中母语者对二语者套话(formulaic expressions)的理解(Boone et al.,2022)㊁心智理论视角下的常规间接请求(Marocchini et al.,2022)等㊂其中,对应的中心度值(0.34)足以说明语言使用的社会综合视角(Clark,1996),在实验语用学中发挥的研究视角引领作用㊂排名第19的研究(Gibbs,1994)提出了反语等喻意性话语理解的直接通达模式,强调喻意性话语理解无须考虑字面意义,可直接依赖语境判断言者意图㊂排名第21的研究(Brown et al.,1987)提出的礼貌理论与面子理论是诠释礼貌现象的人际关系理论,该理论构建了识别不同礼貌策略的系统模型,成为(不)礼貌研究经典理论㊂在此基础上,新世纪国外实验语用学研究采用实验仪器与手段,对面子㊁礼貌普遍性㊁礼貌的人际关系理论㊁不礼貌及权势争夺中的礼貌体现等 后现代礼貌研究 (向明有,2015:39)议题进行基于实验证据的全新解读(Haugh et al.,2019;Sperlich et al.,2022),推动了后现代礼貌研究的发展㊂聚类3涉及的排名第11㊁18㊁26的三位作者专注于留学生在跨文化语境中(二语)语用能力教学与习得实验研究㊂前文的分析也印证了该领域已成为新世纪国外实验语用学研究热点之一㊂聚类4探讨预设㊂排名第17的研究(Chemla et al.,2016)利用眼动追踪技术进行语义-语用界面实验研究㊂眼动实验能更好地理解人类思维过程,成为研究语言理解的最佳途径之一㊂排名第22的研究(Levinson,1983)探讨指示㊁蕴含㊁预设㊁言语行为㊁话语结构,为实验语用学特别是预设研究提供了理论基础㊂聚类5中的研究(Crain et al., 1998)堪称将生成语法理论假设与儿童语言实证研究紧密结合的典范㊂该著作通过儿童句法㊁语义习得研究实验,阐述了实验设计的理念㊁条件㊁步骤以及存在的问题,对儿童语言科学实验具有实用性指导作用㊂该著作对实验语用学研究具有方法论指导作用㊂聚类7涉及排名第23的研究(Chomsky,1995)㊂该研究提出的最简方案㊂该理论对以往语言理论研究进行检讨式探索,并不断修订此前提出的生成语法理论,以解释语言的简洁㊁经济㊁对称性,同时从生物语言学角度对内在语言的属性进行研究,强调运算的经济性㊂最简方案已成为新世纪国外实验语用学中句法 语用界面研究的理论基础㊂聚类9中涉及排名第9的研究(Carston,2002)㊂该研究具有研究方法上的开创性,该文献基于关联理论探究认知语义,在关联理论框架下区分话语理解中的语义内容与语用内容㊁显性交际内容与隐性交际内容, 已成为21世纪语用学界探究意义的众多著作中的新宠 (向明有,2015:39)㊂图4表示该文献的浓重色彩与深厚年轮以及该文献对应的中心度(0.12)清楚地印证了这一点㊂文献中心度是评判某文献在所在学科领域生成新文献能力的最根本指标,它与被引次㊃13㊃㊀外国语文2024年第2期㊀数有关,但不成正比关系(向明有,2015:40)㊂中心度值在0.10以上的高被引作者对应的相关文献(Grice,1975/1989;Sperber et al.,1986;Levinson,1983/2000;Carston,2002; Clark,1996;Chomsky,1995)均成为新世纪实验语用学的经典参考文献㊁重要理论基础或研究方法参照㊂这些经典文献在很大程度上决定着实验语用学的研究议题与发展方向㊂2.5共被引文献的国家(地区)与研究机构分布2.5.1共被引文献国家(地区)分布共被引文献国家分布表明已发表文章的空间与地理分布(Xiao et al.,2021:486)㊂图5显示国外实验语用学领域被引论文的国家(地区)分布图谱,其中较大规模合作网络节点有23个㊂图5㊀共被引文献国家(地区)共现网络该领域共被引文献主要分布在被引120次的美国,被引61次的德国,被引34次的英国,被引33次的法国,被引27次的意大利,被引18次的荷兰,被引16次的加拿大和西班牙,被引14次的比利时,以及被引11次的澳大利亚等10个国家㊂从论文共被引区域来看,英语国家(美㊁英㊁加㊁澳)占主导地位,被引总量高达181次;德㊁法㊁意㊁荷㊁西㊁比次之,六国被引总量169次;欧洲㊁北美洲引领,其共被引论文总量高达365次,亚洲65次,澳洲12次,南美洲五次,非洲一次㊂这种分布说明2000 2022年间国外实验语用学研究重镇分布在欧洲㊁北美地区,但亚洲也开始崭露头角,中国大陆㊁日本㊁韩国分别跻身第13㊁15㊁16位,中国台湾地区㊁马来西亚㊁新加坡和泰国也榜上有名㊂亚㊁澳㊁南美㊁非洲研究人员可向欧洲㊁北美特别是共被引前10位国家的研究人员汲取研究经验㊁谋求合作,以促进本地区㊁国家实验语用学的发展㊂2.5.2共被引文献研究机构分布从图6中我们可以发现九大合作网络:以宾夕法尼亚大学㊁印第安纳大学㊁哈佛大学为中心的合作网络;以芝加哥大学㊁罗特格斯州立大学为中心的合作网络;以伊利诺伊大学㊁麻省理工学院为中心的合作网络;以斯坦福大学㊁普林斯顿大学为中心的合作网络;以奈梅亨拉德堡德大学为中心的合作网络;以洪堡特大学㊁奥斯陆大学㊁巴黎高等师范学院为中心㊃23㊃。

Unit 2 Reading and ThinkingFrom Problems to SolutionsLearningObjectivesBytheendofthisclass,youwillbeabletoknow the process of how Egypt solved the problems of building the Aswan Dam.predict the content of a passage from its title and photos in the passage.express views about the cultural heritage protection and think critically.know the importance of international cooperation in solving difficult problems.Relocation of Abu Simbel TempleWhat do you see in the video?The Egyptian government wantedto build a new dam in the Nile butthey met a big problem. Finally,they managed to solve theproblem and build up the newdam.Prediction FROM PROBLEMS TO SOLUTIONS01 Textual AnalysisThefunction:Tointroducethetopic Economic development is necessary if we want to improve society.There comes a time when the old must give way to the new,and it is not possible to preserve everything from ourpast as we move towards the future.Finding and keeping the right balance between progress and the protection of cultural sites can be a big challenge.general statementFinding and keeping the right balance between progress and the protection of cultural sites can be a big challenge. Big challenges, however, can sometimes lead to great solutions.General statementBig challenges,however,can sometimes lead togreat solutions.In the 1950s,the Egyptian government wanted to build a new dam across the Nile in order to control floods,produce electricity,and supply water to more farmers in the area.But the proposal led to protests.Water from the dam would likely damage a number of temples and destroy cultural relics ꢀthat were an important part of Egypt's cultural heritage.After listening to the scientists who had studied the problem,and citizens who lived near the dam,the govern situation Problem To introduce the problem: the contradiction between building a new dam and protecting the cultural heritage in Egypt.A committee was established to limit damage tothe Egyptian buildings and prevent the loss ofcultural relics.The group asked for contributionsfrom different departments and raised funds withinsolutions the international community.Experts investigatedthe issue，conducted several tests,and then made aproposal for how the buildings could be saved.Finally,a document was signed,and the work beganin 1960.Solutions to the problem.The project brought together governments and environmentalists from around the world.Temples and other cultural sites were taken down pieceꢀbypiece,and then moved and put back together again in a place where they were safe from the water.In 1961,German engineers moved the first temple. Over the next20years,thousands of engineers and workers rescued22temples and countless cultural relics.Fifty countries donated nearly$80million to the project.solutions resultsSolutions: how the temples were moved.too challenging!When the project ended in1980,it wasconsidered a great success.Not only had thecountries found a path to the future that did not evaluation run over the relics of the past,but they had alsolearnt that it was possible for countries to worktogether to build a better tomorrow.evaluation: the problem was solved and it was a success.The spirit of the Aswan Dam project is still alivetoday.Perhaps the best example is shown byUNESCO,which runs a programme that preventsworld cultural heritage sites around the world fromconclusion disappearing.If a problem seems too difficult for asingle nation,the global community can sometimesprovide a solution.Conclusion: we can find a solution between progress and the protection of cultural sites.Para.6Para.5Conclusion ꢀeꢀvaluation ꢀsolutionsolutionPara.4Para.3An ꢀexampleꢀparticularPara.2Para.1ꢀproblemGeneral ꢀ02 Situational Analysis1.What is the main idea of the text?The main idea is to tell readers the process of rescuing the temples to show the challenge between the progress and the protection of cultural relics. 2. What is the relationship involved in the text?Egyptian government, UN, together with governments and environmentalists from around the world.Writing orderFinish ꢀthe ꢀtimeline ꢀwith ꢀthe ꢀinformation ꢀfrom ꢀthe ꢀtext ꢀand ꢀtell ꢀme ꢀhow the ꢀtext ꢀis ꢀdeveloped .Thread:ꢀdifferent ꢀtime ꢀstagesOver ꢀthe ꢀnext ꢀ20ꢀyears1959196019611980ꢀꢀꢀꢀꢀꢀꢀThe ꢀThe ꢀThe ꢀfirst ꢀtemple ꢀis ꢀThe ꢀproject ꢀstarts .The ꢀproject ꢀis ꢀcompleted.temples ꢀand ꢀcultural ꢀrelics ꢀare ꢀbeing ꢀgovernm ent ꢀasks ꢀthe ꢀUN ꢀmoved.for ꢀhelp.rescued.Transition:ꢀthe ꢀprogress ꢀof ꢀrescuing ꢀthe ꢀtemplesꢀtell readers the process of rescuing the temples.Field:______________________________________________.Tenor: _____________________________________________.Egyptian government, UN, together with governmentsand environmentalists from around the world.Mode: _____________________________________________.ꢀin chronological/time order and problem-solution patternTips:语场（field）：指发生的事或正在被谈论的事,进行的社会活动（what's going on）语旨（tenor）：指参加者的身份和他们之间的关系（the role of relationship in the situation in question）语式（mode）：指语言在具体环境中所起的作用,是书面口头的形式,是说明,评论还是劝说等（the means of communication）Topic-related expressions TThere comes a time whengive way toit is not possible to ……can be a big challenge big challengesdamage a number of templesdestroy cultural relics Topic⑤—result①It was considered a big success.②find a path to future③it was possible for countries to work together to build a better tomorrow.Topic④—solutions …were taken down piece by piece, and then moved and put back together again Topic⑥—significanceThe spirit of…is still alive today. The best example is shown by…If a problem seems too difficult for …, …can sometimes provide a solutionwere safe from donate …to the project03 Pragmatic AnalysisꢀPragmatic Analysis1.There are so many cultural relics to be rescued. When we rescue them andhave problems, what can we learn from the passage?If the problem is too difficult for a single nation, we can turn to global community for help. Cultural relics need the protection of the whole world.2.Who do you think are its target readers?Its target readers may be those who are interested in protecting cultural relics.04 Thinking Practice and Application1. A lot of money was spent to protect the temples. Do you think it was worthwhile? Why?I think it was worthwhile to spend money on protecting the temples because their value is priceless in terms of cultural heritage2. Why do you think so many countries contributed funds and offered help to the Egyptian project?I think that many countries helped because Egyptian history and relics are world-famous and are highly valued around the world as part of our shared cultural history.Creative thinking:“If a problem seems too difficult for a single nation, the global community can sometimes provide a solution.” What can you learn from the sentence?From the sentence we can learn that in our daily life we should not hide ourselves from others but find help from our friends or families when we meet a difficult situation.Language ApplicationThe Forbidden City is being badly damaged nowadays. Can you analyze the reasons and find out the solutions to rescue it? You can refer to the following pictures and the above topic-related lexis in this class.HomeworkWrite a passage to introduce the problems of the Forbidden City and the solutions within 80 words.。

US-China Foreign Language, August 2022, Vol. 20, No. 8, 311-316doi:10.17265/1539-8080/2022.08.004 Pragmatic Functions of Discourse System Constructed byNew Media in Public Health Emergencies —TakingShanghai Fabu as an ExampleLI Weining, HU ManUniversity of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaThis paper aims at studying the pragmatic functions of the discourse system constructed by the official version ofWechat, the Shanghai Fabu , when the city was challenged by the outbreak of COVID-19 since 2020. On the basis ofanalyzing the content and word frequency, the article tends to explore the pragmatic functions of the discourse, suchas the emotional function, political function, and behavioural function, so as to provide relevant reference for theeffective construction of discourse system and improvement of the new media ’s role in response to public healthemergencies.Keywords: new media, discourse system, pragmatic function, public health emergenciesIntroductionFrom the perspective of linguistics, the research on news reports in crisis communication mainly focuses on three parts: the application of language in emergency resolution of crisis events, the metaphorical use of public health news reports, and the discourse analysis of crisis news reporting as the process of communication. Discourse analysis was first proposed by Harris, an American structuralist linguist, and later became a method of systemic functional linguistics to study the relationship between discourse and reality in real context. As a research method of linguistics, the combination of discourse analysis and journalism and communication originated from the Dutch scholar Van Dijk. He points out that news is also a kind of discourse. Since then, news analysis has ushered in a new research idea and method. Discourse analysis in crisis communication news reports mainly takes the discourse or some discourse structures of relevant discourses in crisis event news as the research object, analyzes the problems that affect language communication in the process of dialogue with the audience, and puts forward corresponding suggestions for improvement. Taking the contents, rumors, and slogans of the press spokespersons in crisis events as the research objects (Wang & Hou, 2012; Peng, 2020) analyze the potential discourse structures from multiple perspectives.The construction of discourse system by new media and the exertion of pragmatic functions in public health emergencies are of great significance for effective response and management of crisis (Yan, 2023). In the LI Weining, undergraduate student, College of Foreign Language, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.HU Man, Ph.D., lecturer, College of Foreign Language, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China. D A VID PUBLISHINGDPRAGMA TIC FUNCTIONS OF DISCOURSE SYSTEM CONSTRUCTED BY NEW MEDIA312construction of discourse system, the new media platform can make good use of linguistic features of a language and employ various metaphorical methods to disseminate information in real time, and integrate multi-channel information, so as to provide and highlight timely, comprehensive, and accurate information (Ye & Gao, 2023). In light of pragmatic functions, new media plays a role in providing channel for emotional catharsis and emotional support, guiding and monitoring public opinion, promoting the participation and interaction of netizens, so as to help the public bravely face and effectively prevent and control the epidemic.Shanghai Fabu is a new media platform launched by the Information Office of the Shanghai Municipal Government in 2005. It is known to the public as the official WeChat of Shanghai Municipal Government, which aims to provide citizens with authoritative, timely, and convenient government information services. The number of eight million followers brings Shanghai Fabu to the forefront of government new media nationwide. It not only provides the latest policies and news issued by various government departments, but also releases practical information about urban transportation, public services, social life, and other aspects, and answers questions from citizens.Research Content and MethodThis paper collects data from the articles published on Shanghai Fabu during three landmark periods of the Coronavirus pandemic to study the construction of the discourse system of Shanghai Fabu.The first phase is from January 19 to February 20, 2020. At the end of 2019, pneumonia of unknown cause was found in Wuhan, and an outbreak occurred in January 2020. On January 19, Shanghai Press Conference published an article on the epidemic for the first time, which was entitled “Shanghai Should Strengthen the Screening of Suspected Cases and Actively Prevent and Control COVID-19”.The second phase is from March 1 to June 1, 2022. Since March 2022, a new round of COVID-19 broke out in Shanghai. As a public health emergency, it has brought great challenges to Shanghai’s anti-epidemic measures and public opinion environment.The third phase is from December 7 to December 31, 2022. On December 7, 2022, the release of the new ten national epidemic prevention and control measures marked a new phase of China’s epidemic prevention and control policy.A total of 446 articles directly related to the epidemic were collected from the Shanghai Fabu official website through Spyder software, and the data were analysed by means of Origin 2021 and SPSS 26 software. This paper combines the case study with data analysis and word frequency statistics to analyse the features of the discourse system in terms of content and word frequency, and examine the pragmatic functions in light of emotional functions, political functions, and behavioural functions.Features and Pragmatic Functions of the Discourse System Constructed by Shanghai Fabu Features of Discourse System Constructed by Shanghai FabuContent features. Shanghai Fabu divides the content of its articles into different sections with the symbol “[]”, and mostly publishes and disseminates images and texts in different sections highlighted by simple words or phrases, such as “[最新] Latest”, “[便民] Convenience”, “[注意] Attention”, and “[探索] Exploration”. These sections are not fixed; instead the platform would adjust the sections according to the development of the epidemic to maximize its functions and bring convenience to the public as much as possible.PRAGMA TIC FUNCTIONS OF DISCOURSE SYSTEM CONSTRUCTED BY NEW MEDIA313Figure 1. Section frequency distribution of three phases.Through the analysis of 446 articles related to the epidemic released in Shanghai during the three phases, which belong to different sections, a pie chart as shown in Figure 1 is obtained.It can be seen that the top five sections in terms of the number of articles during the first phase are “[提示] Tips”, “[聚焦] Focus”, “[最新] Latest”, “[便民] Convenience”, and “[注意] Attention”. “[聚焦] Focus”, “[最新] Latest”, and “[注意] Attention” directly offer the latest information to the public, while “Convenience” and “Tips”aim at giving help to people who did not have a clear picture of the epidemic.In the second phase, the top five sections are “[提示] Tips”, “[最新] Latest”, “[探索] Exploration”, “[便民] Convenience”, and “[天气] Weather”. During this period, people had experience of fighting against the COVID-19 and the situation in Shanghai was relaxing. The different districts in Shanghai may have flexible policies, which are introduced in the section of “[探索] Exploration”. The section “[天气] Weather” came back, the section irrelevant to the COVID-19, which indicates that the life is coming to normal.In the third phase, the top five sections are “[提示] Tips”, “[最新] Latest”, “[服务] Services”, “[便民] Convenience”, and “[天气] Weather”. During this period of time, people needed medical help from the professionals, so a new section “Services” appeared and introduced the services relating to medical help.It is noteworthy that each section is entitled with a simple word or phrase, such as “[提示] Tips” and “[最新] Latest”. With the help of the simple and understandable vocabulary in the title, readers can quickly capture the key information and click the article to read according to their own needs, which can greatly soothe the people’s anxiety during the special period of time. Each section publishing and dissemination method can improve reader’s reading experience, increase the transmission effect of information, and also improve the readability and operability of information, providing readers with more comprehensive, convenient, and targeted information services.Word frequency. By analyzing the frequency of keywords that appear in the three phases’ articles, we can get in Figure 2.In the first phase, according to the analysis of the “Tips’’ section, the main keywords of the article are “Shanghai”, “epidemic prevention”, “measures”, “policies”, and “guidelines”. S ince the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the COVID-19 has been a major public health emergency with the fastest transmission speed, and the widest range of infection. Therefore, the relevant information at this time is conducive to stabilizingpeople’s minds.PRAGMA TIC FUNCTIONS OF DISCOURSE SYSTEM CONSTRUCTED BY NEW MEDIA314In the second phase, the word cloud map related to “Tips” was extracted. It can be seen that “Tips” contains the most information for “medical institutions”, “epidemics”, “service suspensions”, and “situations”. It can be seen that medical institutions were the most concerned topic at this phase, and social activities were suspended on a large scale, so Shanghai Fabu briefed on this.In the third phase, the words with the most relevant occurrences are “safety”, “good”, and “Shanghai”. The word frequency which has close relation with epidemic prevention decreased significantly. It can be seen that at this phase, the articles published in Shanghai Fabu paid more attention to the guidance of medical services and the adjustment of people’s mentality.Figure 2. Word cloud map of three phase.Pragmatic FunctionsNews reports on the current new coronavirus epidemic not only serve as a dialogue with potential audiences, but also reflect the credibility of the national language and help to build the image of the government. It has achieved very special pragmatic functions, such as policy communication, public opinion collection, public service, interactive communication, publicity and promotion, emergency notice, image building, data support, and other aspects.Roman Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions), according to which an effective act of verbal communication can be described. They are namely about the demonstrative functions, the metalinguistic function, the emotional function, the expressive function, the emotional communication function, and the aesthetic function (Wang, 2015).In real communicative situation, different discourses may be designed and realized for different pragmatic functions. As a platform managed by the government to help people deal with the unexpected emergency, the Shanghai Fabu has deliberately constructed discourses to successfully achieve emotional, political, and behavioral function, which is conducive to strengthening the connection and interaction between the government and the public, and improving government efficiency and public participation.Emotional function. Emotional function refers to the emotional colour and attitude transmitted by the media when reporting public health emergencies, such as sympathy for patients and medical staffs, and worries about the epidemic (Hwang & Matsumoto, 2023). Positive emotional orientation can arouse public attention and resonance, stimulate public sympathy and love, promote social cohesion and centripetal force, and contribute to the response and control of the epidemic. According to the analysis of the discourse system of the three phases of Shanghai Fabu, the emotional orientation of the article is mostly positive or neutral during the epidemic.Example 1: [最新] 穿上白甲，挺身而出，感谢你们在上海战役中筑起坚不可摧的防线。

US-China Foreign Language, ISSN 1539-8080October 2012, Vol. 10, No. 10, 1676-1681The Study of Pragmatics in the InterpretationFrom Chinese Into English ∗ZOU Jian-lingUniversity of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaInterpretation is a cross-cultural communication. Interpreters’ awareness of cultural difference and context plays avital role in conveying faithful and reliable information. Thus it is essential for interpreters to possess somepragmatic ability. It is proposed that pragmatic ability should be obtained from studying the correctness andappropriateness of language expression and linguistic comprehension. This paper lists examples of two kinds ofpragmatic failures committed in the process of interpretation: pragma-linguistic failures and socio-linguisticpragmatic failures, and analyzes the causes of the pragmatic failures from the perspectives of culture and value.The purpose of the paper is to help facilitate oral interpretation in the cross-cultural communication.Keywords: interpretation, communication, pragmatic ability, context, cross-culture pragmatic failure, pragmaticdifference IntroductionWith the development of foreign trade and cultural exchange, interpreting activities are wildly carried on. Interpreter also becomes a very hot occupation. Many English majors and learners are involved in this occupation. However, their oral interpretative qualities are at variance. Judging from interpreting standards, we can find that some interpreters only focus on correctness in linguistic form and fluency in expression but neglect two important factors—cultural difference and context. Consequently, their interpretation will be inappropriate in context and cannot convey the speaker’s true feeling or attitude. Accordingly, interpretation is closely relevant with other disciplines, pragmatics in particular. Firstly, let us analyze the relationship between pragmatics ability and interpretation.Pragmatic ability is a kind of communicative ability, referring to the ability to comprehend context and understand others’ meaning and intention based on contextual knowledge, and to correctly express one’s meaning (HE, 1997). In other words, pragmatic ability is an ability to understand and apply language to different communicative situations. Interpretation is a process of receiving and decoding source language, then recoding it to target language. Therefore, interpreter has to undertake the hard task of decoding and recoding message simultaneously. Faithful and reliable information conveyed by an interpreter depends largely on his/her ∗ Acknowledgements: The paper is funded by University of Shanghai for Science and Technology (USST) of Humanities and Social Sciences (USST 11XSY21). ZOU Jian-ling, lecturer at College of Foreign Language, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology.All Rights Reserved.STUDY OF PRAGMATICS IN THE INTERPRETATION FROM CHINESE INTO ENGLISH1677awareness of context, thus it is essential for interpreter to possess pragmatic ability. How to obtain pragmaticability? We will discuss the question from the perspectives of language expression and language comprehension.Language Expression—Correctness and AppropriatenessCorrectness in expression refers to that words are correct in collocation and sentences are correct in grammar. Its function is to ensure that communication can be smoothly carried out. Appropriateness ofexpression refers to sentences which are not only grammatically correct, but also appropriate and fit in specificsituations. Since interpretation is an oral communication, the appropriateness in context is more important thanthe correctness in grammar. What is more, not all grammatically correct sentences are appropriate. Some of themare pragmatically unacceptable. XIA (1995) gave us the followings (see Examples 1-2).Example (1) A director of a school made a welcome speech for an American teacher. The interpretertranslated his sentences like following:“Ladies and gentlemen, I’m delighted to introduce to you a very pretty girl, Miss Brown. Sheis a very good teacher from the USA…”Although this sentence is grammatically correct, but inappropriate from the angle of pragmatics. Firstly, according to western culture, a grown-up will be unhappy when addressed “girl”, since girl implies beinginexperienced and immature. Secondly, when meeting at the first time, people seldom use subjective words, suchas “pretty”, “good”, etc., to describe a person.Example (2) “Could you possibly help me with the luggage?”All Rights Reserved.If the speaker asks for help to an unfamiliar person, this sentence is undoubtedly very appropriate. But if the speaker talks to his/her intimate friend, it will not be suitable.In a word, correctness and appropriateness are important in cross-cultural communication. Communication is a dynamic process. Interpreters must frequently adjust their codes and make their interpretation fit for culturalcontext in target language.Interpretation is a direct and face-to-face cross-cultural communication. The interpreters’ cultural knowledge on the source language and the target language is vital to the success of interpretation. Therefore, it isof great importance for interpreters to have awareness of cross-cultrue in order to avoid cross-cultural pragmaticfailures. The followings will analyze and study some pragmatic failures frequently committed in Chinese-Englishinterpretation in order to clear up misunderstandings and facilitate communication.Pragmatic failures do not refer to performance errors in selecting words and making sentence, but failures in talking something in inappropriate or incorrect expression, which results in the failure of communication (HE,1997). “The inability to understand what is meant by what is said”, Thomas (1983) believed that there were twokinds of cross-culture pragmatic failures: pragma-linguistic failure and socio-linguistic failure.Trying to Avoid Pragma-Linguistic Failures in InterpretationThomas (1983) pointed out that:Pragma-linguistic failure occurs when the pragmatic force mapped by the speaker onto a given utterance is systematically different from most frequently assigned to it by native speakers of the target language, or whenconversational strategies are inappropriately transferred from language 1 to language 2. (p. 99)1678STUDY OF PRAGMATICS IN THE INTERPRETATION FROM CHINESE INTO ENGLISH Pragma-linguistic failures result from a failure to identify or express meanings correctly. As far as Chinese-English interpretation is concerned, pragma-linguistic failures are committed in the equivalencebetween Chinese and English words according to their literary meaning, which violate linguistic conventions ofEnglish native speakers. People often commit pragma-linguistic failures in the following situations:Finding equivalence from one language to the other language. The typical example is that Chinese people are used to answering some questions with “当然” (“of course” in English) (ZHANG, 2000). When theycommunicate with foreigners, they also bring this habit into English expressions. But in English, “of course”implies “evidently” and “clearly”. Therefore, after hearing the reply, listener will probably feel unhappy: “Doyou think I am foolish?”.For another example: There are many modifiers in Chinese, such as “顺利进行，胜利完成，热烈拥护，积极支持，努力做到，认真贯彻，广泛开展，严肃查处”, etc. (WANG, 2002). But in English, too manymodifiers will appear redundant and malfunction contrarily. Interpreter does not necessarily translate eachmodifier. Moreover, some sentences with modifiers, which seem very correct and appropriate in Chineseexpression, become completely unsuitable when interpreted into English. For instance, when one foreigndelegation visit a company, Chinese like to say to them “请多提宝贵意见” as an end. If an interpreter translatesthis sentence into “Please give us your valuable opinions”, the visitors will feel embarrassed and probably think“How can I know whether my opinions are valuable or not”. On this occasion, they will say nothing. In fact, thebest interpretation is “Your opinions will be appreciated”.All Rights Reserved.Neglecting the cultural difference between Chinese and English and interpret in Chinese way.Influenced by traditional culture with Confucianism as a core, Chinese people regard modesty and implicitnessas virtues and tend to respond in an ambiguous way to show their courtesy. Thus, Chinese people often usevague words in communication, such as “也许、或许、可能、大约、大概、差不多、大体上、基本上”(“maybe, perhaps, probably, about, approximately, almost, nearly, generally, basically”) (WANG, 2002). ButWesterners, especially American people, on the contrary, are more straightforward. They like to go directly totopics. Too many vague words in interpretation will give foreigners the impression of ambiguity and speakingwith their tongues in their cheeks. The vagueness of Chinese expressions also violates one of the standards ofinterpretation—clarity, which may result in pragma-linguistic failures in communication. In addition, Chinesepeople usually use the pet phrase “我尽量…”, which can be translated into “I will do my best…”. In Chinese,this phrase has two connotations: One is to decline, and the other is for the sake of avoiding takingresponsibility. It seems to imply that once they cannot finish task, they may easily find excuse. But in English,this phrase is a positive response, because “I will do my best” means “I will try to overcome difficulties toaccomplish commission”.Trying to Avoid Socio-Linguistic Pragmatic FailuresSocio-pragmatic failures refer to linguistic inappropriateness committed in communication due to the ignorance or neglect of difference in social and cultural background (HE, 1997). Socio-pragmatic failure resultsfrom different cultural norms and pragmatic principles that govern linguistic behaviors in different cultures. It isrelated to the status of communicators, communicative register, and familiarity to topic. In interpretation,socio-linguistic pragmatic failures are showed in the following aspects.STUDY OF PRAGMATICS IN THE INTERPRETATION FROM CHINESE INTO ENGLISH1679Interpreting polite formulas but neglecting cultural difference. With the evolution of culture, each language has its own polite formulas which are accepted through common practice. In oral communication, it iseasy for interpreter to transfer this kind of polite formula into the target language if the interpreter is lack of twolanguages competences (see Examples 3-4).Example (3) In opening ceremony of international academic conference, the key-note speaker usually concludes their ceremonial speech with the sentence “祝大会圆满成功！祝与会代表身体健康，家庭幸福”,“家庭幸福” as a kind of polite formulas. But in Westerners’ view, it is ridiculous to wish family happy in seriousinternational academic conference. Therefore, interpreters may not translate these words literally but replacethem with English expressions, such as “I wish the conference a great success and wish you good health and ahappy stay in… (the name of city holding conference)”.Example (4) Chinese people often say some polite formulas to foreign guests, such as “招待不周”, “准备工作做得不好”, etc.. If we interpret them literally to foreigner, they will surely be confused, and even causemisunderstandings. Another example: When guests extend their thanks to Chinese hosts, Chinese hosts oftenrespond with the sentence “这是我们应该做的”. We cannot translate it into “It’s our duty” according to the literalmeaning, which will result in misunderstanding. Instead, we should say “With pleasure” or “ It is my pleasure”.Pragmatic failures committed due to the neglect of value. As far as some political phenomena and propagandas are concerned, we had better translate in details and make complementary or explanatory translation(see Examples 5-8).All Rights Reserved.Political terms. There are a lot of political terms which are abbreviated into simple phrases in utterances, because they are so frequently quoted that Chinese people are very familiar with their exact meaning. In thecross-cultural communication, interpreters should give expanded explanations to the political terms rather thantranslate their abbreviations.Example (5) “三个代表”“Three represents” theory (The Party should always represent the development needs of China’s advanced social productive force, always represent the onward direction of china’s advanced culture, and always representthe fundamental interests of the largest member of the Chinese people).Example (6) “两手抓，两手硬”We must give equal importance to economic development on the one hand and to the development of socialist culture as well as ideology on the other hand.Example (7) “三讲教育”“Three emphases” education (to stress theoretical study, political awareness and good conduct).Example (8) “直接三通和双向交流”Three direct links (mail, air, and shipping service and trade) and bilateral exchange.Propaganda.Propaganda is a typical cultural phenomenon with Chinese characteristics. Some propaganda cannot be translated into English according to their literary meaning (see Examples 9-11).Example (9) “高高兴兴上班去，平平安安回家来”If we express it in English according to its literary meaning, “Go to work happily, and come back safely!”, the foreigner will be at a loss and ask “So what?”. In fact, we only say “Good luck” to express the wish clearly.1680STUDY OF PRAGMATICS IN THE INTERPRETATION FROM CHINESE INTO ENGLISH Example (10) “当好东道主，热情迎嘉宾”“Act as a good host, Warm welcome guests”. This kind of interpretation will surely result in confusion and misunderstanding. We can simply express “You are warmly welcome”.Example (11) “向文明游客学习，向文明游客致敬”“Learn from Civilized Tourists! Salute to Civilized Tourists!”. Any foreigner reading it will wonder that we foreign tourists are civilized, so are your domestic tourists barbarous. It is unnecessary to interpret this kind ofpropaganda.Linguistic Comprehension—Contextual AppropriatenessLanguage should be uttered in a certain context. How to choose appropriate expression is decided by dynamic context or communicative situation. Context and topics involved in interpretations range widely fromreception, ceremonial speech, tourism, business negotiation, conference address, publicity and presentation, tointerview, cultural exchange and science report, etc.. Different interpretation requires different expressionsespecially in style and genre. Interpreters must use appropriate language to match with topic and context.Diplomacy is an important part of state policy, so its language should be formal and appropriate. MEI (2000)gave the following diplomatic examples, each of which has two different translations (see Examples 12-14).Example (12) “今天晚上，我有机会在这里设宴款待来自斯里兰卡的尊敬客人，感到十分高兴”A: I’m very happy to have the chance to give a banquet to our distinguished Sri Lanka guests.B: It gives me great pleasure this evening to have the opportunity of hosting this banquet for All Rights Reserved.our distinguished guests from Sri Lanka.Example (13) “请来宾们就坐”A: Our guests, would you please find your seats and sit down.B: Distinguished guests, you are kindly requested to take your seats.Example (14) “在这个问题上，我们的态度没有变”A: We have not changed our view on this issueB: On this issue, our position remains unchanged.From these examples, we can find choices B are more appropriate and meet the requirements for formal diplomatic situation.Linguistic comprehension is closely related to the consciousness of pragmatic differences. Pragmatic differences caused by Chinese and English cultural factors exist in the following aspects: number, color, time,idiomatic expression, value, etc.. Interpreters should keep these differences in mind, and when necessary, makesome adjustment to achieve pragmatic equivalence. The same image has different meaning in different culture.For instance, “she is a cat” does not say “她是一只馋猫”．It means “她是个心地恶毒的女人”. Here somespecific examples are listed out in color and idiomatic expression.The Pragmatic Difference in ColorDifferent nations have different preference for colors. Culture differences are also reflected in color.Interpreter should know those differences in order to facilitate his/her interpretation. Green is a taboo color inBrazil, so is yellow in Japan, red in Thailand, blue in Belgium, and black in Europe. Let us see Examples 15-17.STUDY OF PRAGMATICS IN THE INTERPRETATION FROM CHINESE INTO ENGLISH1681Example (15) “青衣”“红茶”“青玉” cannot be interpreted to “blue dress, red tea, and blue jade”, but “blackdress, black tea, and gray jade”.Example (16) Since he was made manager, the company had been running in the black.“In the black” means “盈利”; “in the red” means “亏损”.Example (17) “黄色书刊” cannot be interpreted into “yellow books and magazines”. It refers topornographic, obscene, and vulgar books or magazines.Pragmatic Difference in Idiomatic ExpressionBecause of its preciseness and vividness, idiomatic expressions are very common in both English and Chinese language. But even the same meaning can be conveyed by different expressions in both languages. Wehave to be flexible in the translation of the two languages. FENG (1997) listed some examples as followings (seeExamples 18-20).Example (18) 亡羊补牢 Look the stable door after the house has been stolen. The Chinese “羊” isreplaced by “horse” (马) in the English idiom.Example (19) 杀鸡取卵Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs. The Chinese “鸡” is replaced by “goose”(鹅) in the idiom.Example (20) 无风不起浪 No smoke without fire. The Chinese “风” and “浪” are replace by “smoke”(烟) and “fire” (火).From these examples, we can see that it is very hard to find equivalent English idioms when translating All Rights Reserved.Chinese idioms into English. We have to change some images to reach cultural equivalence. As an oralinterpreter, he/she must have linguistic comprehension ability and rich knowledge on source language and targetlanguage in order to interpret fluently, correctly, and appropriately.ConclusionsThe job of an interpreter is to reproduce orally in another language what has just been said. In other words, it is oral translation on the spot. Undoubtedly, the requirement for interpreter is very strict. In addition to a goodcommand of the source and target language, wide-ranging knowledge is indispensable, including thecross-cultural awareness and contextual knowledge. Interpreters should have some pragmatic knowledge and tryto improve pragmatic ability, which will be conducive to the success of interpretation.ReferencesFENG, Q. H. (1997). Practical translation course. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.HE, Z. R. (1997). Pragmatics and English learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.MEI, D. M. (2000). An advanced course of English-Chinese interpretation. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.Thomas, J. (1983).Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91-112.WANG, T. (2002). On cross-cultural pragmatic failures committed in interpretation. Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, 15(1), 19-21.XIA, J. M. (1995). English communication skill: The analyses of misunderstanding examples between Chinese and foreigners.Guangzhou: Sun Yat-Sen University Press.ZHANG, X. H. (2000) Pragmtic failures committed in the English translation of social language: Survey and ananlysis. Foreign Language Education, 21(3), 15-19.ZHOU, H. M. (1999). Pragmatic ability and oral interpretation. Chinese Science and Technology Translators Journal, 12(2), 29-32.。

第40卷第3期Vol.40㊀No.3重庆工商大学学报(自然科学版)J Chongqing Technol &Business Univ(Nat Sci Ed)2023年6月Jun.2023C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态张铭洋重庆工商大学数学与统计学院,重庆400067摘㊀要:在光子晶体平板中,连续谱束缚态关于C2和C6旋转对称的依赖性已经在数值上进行了广泛研究,但是缺少严格的理论分析过程,此外还缺少对C4旋转对称的研究,鉴于此,构建了系统分析连续谱束缚态关于所有旋转对称的依赖性的理论,并且重点研究了C4旋转对称的情况;首先,通过分析具有旋转对称的结构中麦克斯韦方程组特征解的性质,将连续谱束缚态的存在性问题转变为旋转矩阵的特征值是否与一个简单代数方程的解相同的问题;其次,给出了C4旋转对称的结构中连续谱束缚态存在时所对应的条件;然后,证明了破坏C4旋转对称保持C2旋转对称时,连续谱束缚态依然存在;最后,利用有限元软件FreeFEM 进行了大量的数值验证;上述理论可适用于所有旋转对称的情况,深入揭示了旋转对称对连续谱束缚态存在的重要性,深入揭示了高阶旋转对称性与低阶旋转对称性之间的依赖关系,为连续谱束缚态的实际应用提供了理论指导㊂关键词:光子晶体;旋转对称;连续谱束缚态中图分类号:O436㊀㊀文献标识码:A㊀㊀doi:10.16055/j.issn.1672-058X.2023.0003.09㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀㊀收稿日期:2022-05-13㊀修回日期:2022-06-20㊀文章编号:1672-058X(2023)03-0064-07基金项目:重庆市自然科学基金面上项目(CSTC2019JCYJ -MSXMX0717).作者简介:张铭洋(1997 ),女,重庆忠县人,硕士研究生,从事光子晶体㊁麦克斯韦方程组数值计算研究.引用格式:张铭洋.C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态[J].重庆工商大学学报(自然科学版),2023,40(3):64 70.ZHANG Mingyang.Symmetry-protected bound states in the continuum in C4rotationally symmetric photonic crystal plates J .Journal of Chongqing Technology and Business University Natural Science Edition 2023 40 3 64 70.Symmetry-protected Bound States in the Continuum in C 4Rotationally Symmetric Photonic Crystal Plates ZHANG MingyangSchool of Mathematics and Statistics Chongqing Technology and Business University Chongqing 400067 ChinaAbstract The dependence of bound states in the continuum BICs on C2and C6rotational symmetry in photonic crystalplates has been extensively studied numerically.However a rigorous theoretical analysis process is lacking and there is alack of studies on C4rotational symmetries.In view of this a theory of systematic analysis of the dependence of BICs on all rotational symmetries was constructed and the case of C4rotational symmetry was mainly studied.Firstly by analyzingthe characteristic solutions of Maxwell s equations with rotationally symmetric structure the problem of the existence of BICs was transformed into the question of whether the eigenvalue of the rotation matrix was the same as the solution of asimple algebraic equation.Secondly the conditions for the existence of BICs in C4rotationally symmetric structures weregiven.Then it was proved that the BICs still existed when C4rotation symmetry was destroyed and C2rotatory symmetrywas maintained.Finally the finite element software FreeFEM was used to do a lot of numerical verifications.The abovetheory can be applied to all cases of rotational symmetries revealing the importance of rotational symmetry for the existenceof BICs.The dependence between high-order and low-order rotational symmetries was revealed providing theoretical guidance for applying BICs.Keywords photonic crystal rotational symmetry bound states in the continuum第3期张铭洋,等:C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态1㊀引㊀言光学连续谱束缚态(bound states in the continuum, BIC)是指位于连续谱中的导模,其不能与辐射场耦合,没有能量辐射,被完美地束缚在结构中[1-3]㊂数学上,光学连续谱束缚态是指开结构中麦克斯韦方程组的一类频率位于连续谱内的平方可积特征解㊂通常,导模(即平方可积特征解)的特征频率位于连续谱外㊂1929年冯诺依曼等[4]从数学模型上发现在一些特殊的结构中存在特征频率位于连续谱内的导模㊂直到1985年文献[5]才构造出具有连续谱束缚态的真实物理系统㊂2008年,文献[3]研究了光子晶体结构中的连续谱束缚态㊂此后,连续谱束缚态受到广泛关注,与之有关的研究快速发展㊂目前,连续谱束缚态的概念和研究已推广到水波㊁声波等其他波动现象[1]㊂连续谱束缚态可看成为品质因子为无穷大的共振,只存在于若干离散的频率上㊂连续谱束缚态由共振模式所包围㊂通过扰动波矢,可在连续谱束缚态附近找到任意大小品质因子的共振模式[6]㊂此性质使得连续谱束缚态在光学㊁光子学等领域都拥有广阔的应用前景㊂目前,连续谱束缚态已在波导㊁光栅㊁光子晶体及超材料等结构中被广泛研究[7],光子晶体中的连续谱束缚态现在已经被用于传感器,激光器和滤波器的设计当中[8-10]㊂通常,共振模式的品质因子与波矢之差的平方成反比㊂文献[6]证明了存在特殊的连续谱束缚态使得附近共振模式的品质因子与波矢之差的四次方和六次方成反比,并给出了两类特殊连续谱束缚态的条件㊂从实际应用角度来讲,在这些特殊的连续谱束缚态附近更容易构造出高品质因子的共振模式㊂连续谱束缚态可以大致分为两类:对称保护的连续谱束缚态[11-15]和非对称保护的连续谱束缚态[2,16-19]㊂对称保护的连续谱束缚态(Symmetry Protected Bound states in the continuum,SPBIC)的机理是:在对称结构中,布洛赫模的对称性与结构中辐射场的对称性不相容,从而与辐射场不耦合,变成一个连续谱束缚态[3]㊂而非对称保护连续谱束缚态的存在机理是:共振模式的辐射场之间发生干涉相消现象,造成没有辐射,成为连续谱束缚态[3]㊂连续谱束缚态的存在性与结构的对称性具有密切联系㊂早期研究结果都是在对称结构中研究连续谱束缚态,学术界一度认为连续谱束缚态只存在于对称结构中㊂目前数学上还没有非对称保护连续谱束缚态的存在性理论㊂非对称保护连续谱束缚态关于结构对称性的依赖关系非常复杂㊂文献[20-23]从数值和实验上演示了破坏二维结构的C2旋转对称性后,连续谱束缚态演化为共振模式㊂这间接说明了结构的对称性对非对称保护连续谱束缚态的存在性具有重要影响㊂但是破坏对称性后连续谱束缚态是否一定会演化为共振模式并没有明确的结论㊂最近,文献[24-26]证明了只要引入足够多的结构扰动参数,连续谱束缚态可以连续存在于非对称的结构中,且对于不同类型的连续谱束缚态,所需要引入的最小参数的数量是不同的㊂上述结论表明,非对称保护连续束缚态可以存在于非对称结构中,只要结构的自由参数足够多㊂对称保护连续谱束缚态只存在于对称结构中㊂光子晶体平板可具有四类旋转对称性:C2㊁C3㊁C4和C6旋转对称性,即分别旋转180㊁120㊁90和60度后结构不变㊂文献[11-12]首先从数学理论上证明了在具有C2旋转对称的二维介质结构中对称保护连续谱束缚态的存在性,在非对称结构中一定不存在对称保护连续谱束缚态㊂研究对称保护连续谱束缚态对上述四种不同类型对称性的连续依赖性具有十分重要的意义㊂文献[21]研究了C6旋转对称性对具有拓扑电荷为q=-2的对称保护连续谱束缚态存在性的影响㊂通过数值计算发现破坏C6对称保持C2对称,对称保护连续谱束缚态依然存在,但是变成拓扑电荷q=-1;破坏C6对称保持C3对称,对称连续谱束缚态演化为共振模式,而且会产生两个非对称保护连续谱束缚态㊂上述研究结果给出了一种产生非对称保护连续谱束缚态的方法㊂目前,对于拓扑电荷为q=-1或q=1的对称保护连续谱束缚态关于结构对称性的依赖关系没有进行系统讨论,缺乏严格系统的依赖性理论㊂研究C4旋转对称结构中对称保护连续谱束缚态关于对称性的依赖关系㊂建立了严格数学理论证明破坏C4对称保持C2对称,对称保护连续谱依然存在㊂并利用有限元软件FreeFEM进行数值验证㊂相比于以前的研究,研究既有严格的数学理论,又有数值验证㊂研究成果具有一般性,可推广到分析对称保护连续谱束缚态关于C6对称性的依赖性,有利于深入理解连续谱束缚态关于对称性的依赖关系,为其实际应用提供理论指导㊂2㊀连续谱束缚态考虑一个在x与y方向为周期,在z方向上厚度有限的光子晶体平板㊂光子晶体平板通过在平板上构造正方形空气柱晶格所构成㊂设平板厚度为2D,晶格常数为L,平板的介电常数为ε1,空气的介电常数为ε0= 1㊂记整个结构的介电常数为ε(r),其中r=(x,y,z),则z>D时有ε(r)=1,且ε(r)满足ε(r)=ε(x+mL,y+nL,z)(1)其中,m与n为任意整数㊂设光子晶体平板是无磁性㊁各向同性的,由麦克斯56重庆工商大学学报(自然科学版)第40卷韦方程组可知,具有时间依赖e -iwt 的时谐波的电场E 满足如下的控制方程:∇ˑ∇ˑE -k 2εE =0∇㊃(εE )=0其中k =ωc为真空中的波速,ω为角频率,c 为真空中的光速㊂光子晶体平板中的布洛赫模(即麦克斯韦方程组的特征解)可写成:E (r )=Φ(r )e ik ㊃r其中,k =(α,β,0)为布洛赫波矢,实数α与β分别为x 与y 方向的布洛赫波速,Φ(r )满足周期条件式(1)㊂由于在z >D 时,结构是均匀的,由傅立叶展开式与分离变量法可知,满足向外辐射条件的布洛赫模可以展开为[18]E (r )=ð+ɕm ,n =-ɕd ʃm ,neik ʃm ,n㊃r ʃz >D (2)其中,常数向量d ʃm ,n满足d ʃm ,n ㊃k ʃm ,n =0,k ʃm ,n=(αm ,βn ,ʃγm ,n ),αm =α+2m πL ,βn =β+2n πL,γm ,n =k 2-α2m -β2n ㊂若结构是无耗散的,即ε(r )为非负实函数,则布洛赫模可以分为三类:导模㊁共振以及连续谱束缚态㊂(1)若k 为实数,则布洛赫模为导模㊂可以证明k 为实数等价于E (r )满足lim z ңɕE (r )=0,即没有能量辐射,没有能量损失㊂当波速和布洛赫波矢满足条件0<k <α2+β2时,导模关于α与β连续存在㊂在上述条件下,γm ,n 的虚部都大于0,所以展开式(2)中每一个平面波都在无穷远出衰退到0,即E (r )自动满足lim z ңɕE (r )=0,从而是一个导模㊂(2)若k 为复数,则布洛赫模为共振模式㊂共振模式的波速k 满足[Re(k )]2-[lm(k )]2>α2+β2㊂由于共振的波速k 为复数且满足向外辐射条件,共振满足条件lim z ңɕE (r )=ɕ,即在空间上是无限增大,但随时间指数衰退㊂共振波速k (或共振频率ω)的虚部小于零,即lm(k )<0,它表示共振随着时间衰退的速度㊂共振的品质因子Q 定义为Q =-12Re(k )lm(k ),表示共振模式的振幅衰退到原来的e -1时所需要的振荡周期㊂共振模式关于α与β也是连续存在的㊂(3)若k 为实数且满足k >α2+β2,则布洛赫模是一个连续谱束缚态㊂连续谱束缚态可以看成是一个Q 因子为无穷大的共振,只在离散的(α,β)点上存在,在连续谱束缚态的附近,通过调整α与β可以获得任意大小Q 因子的共振㊂由于k 为实数等价于条件limz ңɕE (r )=0,在展开式(2)中,若lm(γm ,n )ȡ0,则e ikm ,n㊃r可向z ңɕ辐射能量,(m ,n )是对应一个开放的辐射通道㊂若lm(γm ,n )<0,则eik ʃn ,m ㊃r在z ңɕ时衰退到零,对应一个关闭的辐射通道㊂若Re(k )>α2+β2,则至少有lm(γ0,0)ȡ0,即(0,0)处辐射通道是开放的㊂记Z 0表示所有开放的辐射通道,即Z 0=(m ,n )lm(γm ,n )ȡ0{},则条件lim z ңɕE (r )=0等价于d ʃm ,n=0,∀(m ,n )ɪZ 0(3)式(3)是布洛赫模的一个附加条件,在一般情况下,连续谱束缚态不容易存在㊂3　对称保护连续谱束缚态当光子晶体平板具有旋转对称性时,可能存在对称保护连续谱束缚态㊂下面给出具有C n 旋转对称的光子晶体平板中对称保护连续谱束缚态的定义,并分析其关于对称性的依赖关系㊂利用旋转对称性下布洛赫模的性质,将连续谱束缚态的存在性问题转变为旋转矩阵的特征值是否与一个简单代数方程的解相同的问题;其次,给出了C4旋转对称的结构中连续谱束缚态存在时所对应的条件;然后,证明了破坏C4旋转对称保持C2旋转对称时,连续谱束缚态依然存在;具有C n 旋转对称性结构的介电函数ε(r )满足条件ε(r )=ε(T -1r )其中,T =cos φ-sin φ0sin φcos φ0001éëêêêùûúúú表示旋转矩阵,φ=2πn ,只考虑n =2与n =4的情况㊂其理论可推广到n =3与n =6的情况㊂C n 旋转对称光子晶体平板中的布洛赫模具有以下性质[24]:若E (r )=Φ(r )e ik ㊃r 是一个对应于波矢k =(α,β,0)和波速k 的布洛赫模,则TE (T -1r )是一个对应于波矢Tk 和波速k 的布洛赫模㊂特别地,取α=β=0,即k =(0,0,0),有Tk =k ,此时E (r )与TE (T -1r )是对应同一个波矢与波速的两个布洛赫模㊂若特征值问题是非退化的,则E (r )与TE (T -1r )线性相关,即存在常数τ使得:TE (T -1r )=τE (r )(4)由于任何结构旋转n 次2πn角度(即2π)后都不变,有T n=I ,其中I 表示单位算子㊂所以有τn=1,即τ=e i 2πn j,j =0,1,2, ,n -1㊂更具体地,当n =2时,τ=ʃ1;当n =4时,τ=ʃ1,ʃi ㊂注意到τ的取值对应于C n 点群的不可约表示的特征㊂设布洛赫模的波矢为k =(0,0,0)且频率满足0<Re(k )ε0<2πL,即只有(0,0)处辐射通道是开放的,则当n =2时,对应于τ=1以及当n =4时,对66第3期张铭洋,等:C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态应于τ=ʃ1的布洛赫模一定是连续谱束缚态,称为对称保护连续谱束缚态㊂在上述条件下,布洛赫模是一个连续谱束缚态的充要条件是d ʃ0,0=0㊂下面证明当n =2时,τ=1以及当n =4时,τ=ʃ1,有d ʃ0,0=0㊂将展开式(2)代入条件式(4)得:Td ʃ0,0=τd ʃ0,0(5)令,d ʃ0,0=d ʃx ,d ʃy ,d ʃz []T ,T ^=cos φ-sin φsin φcos φéëêêùûúú,d ʃʅ=d ʃx ,d ʃy []T 表示d ʃ0,0的x 与y 分量所构成的向量㊂由d ʃ0,0㊃k ʃ0,0=0且α=β=0,知d ʃz k =0,即d ʃz =0㊂所以d ʃ0,0=0等价于d ʃʅ=0㊂由式(5)得:T ^d ʃʅ=τd ʃʅ若τ不是T ^的特征值,则必有d ʃʅ=0㊂当n =2时,T ^=-100-1éëêêùûúú,T ^只有一个特征值-1㊂所以当τ=1时,有d ʃʅ=0㊂当n =4时,T ^=0-110éëêêùûúú,此时T ^的特征值为ʃi ㊂所以当τ=ʃ1时有d ʃʅ=0㊂由上面的证明过程可知,条件d ʃ0,0=0是由C n 对称性所保证的㊂在具有C4旋转对称的结构中,对称保护连续谱束缚态对应的τ=1或-1㊂注意到无论是τ=1还是-1,都有τ2=1,即这些连续谱束缚态也同时由C2旋转对称所保护㊂有以下结论:具有C4旋转对称结构中的对称保护连续谱束缚态都是由C2旋转对称所保护的,即破坏C4旋转对称,保持C2旋转对称,这些连续谱束缚态依然存在㊂4㊀拓扑电荷连续谱束缚态对应于动量空间中辐射场的漩涡,因此其存在性与拓扑性质有关㊂前面提到了布洛赫模是一个连续谱束缚态的充要条件是d ʃ0,0=0,通过d ʃ0,0的x 与y 分量可以计算得到辐射场的极化角㊂极化椭圆的长轴与y 轴的夹角称之为极化角度,记为θ㊂θ可以看成是α与β的函数,即θ=θ(α,β)㊂在αβ平面上,任意给定一条曲线Γ,让(α,β)沿着Γ绕一圈重新定义θ,使其为连续函数㊂拓扑电荷的定义为q =12πɥΓd θ=12πɥΓ∇θ㊃ n d s拓扑电荷q 表示αβ上的一点绕Γ走一圈后,极化角度旋转了q 圈,q 是一个整数㊂若Γ所围区域内无圆极化与连续谱束缚态,则q =0;若Γ所围区域内有且仅有一个连续谱束缚态则q =ʃ1,ʃ2,ʃ3, ;若Γ所围区域内只有一个圆极化,则q =ʃ12㊂需要注意的是圆极化和连续谱束缚态是αβ平面中的一个极化奇点㊂5㊀数值实验由于辐射边界条件下的特征值问题定义在无穷区间上,无法用数值方法来计算㊂所以在实际计算连续谱束缚态的时候,可以用完美匹配层的方法来将无穷区域截断为有限区域㊂用完美匹配层截断后的特征值问题是原特征值问题的一个近似,它们之间的误差关于完美匹配层的参数σ∗㊁H 2-H 1(即完美匹配层的厚度)指数衰退到零㊂所以只需要选择合适的σ∗与H 2-H 1,便可以得到足够精确的特征解,即可以计算得到连续谱束缚态的频率㊂相对于拟周期边界条件,在有限元方法中周期边界条件更容易实现㊂用有限元方法求解偏微分方程最重要的是弄清楚解空间和变分形式㊂在用有限元求解时,变分问题被近似为下列代数方程的特征值问题:A Φ=k 2B Φ其中,A 与B 为矩阵㊂考虑如图1所示的具有正方形晶格空气柱的光子晶体平板,其俯视图如图2所示㊂平板是由空气所包围的㊂平板的厚度为2D =0.5L ,介电常数为ε1=4,空气中的介电常数ε0=1㊂空气柱体横截面参数分别为w =0.2L ,a =w2㊂若h 1=h 2,则结构具有C4旋转对称性㊂若h 1ʂh 2,则结构只有C2旋转对称性㊂为了验证前面得到的理论,用完美匹配层[27]的方法将无穷区域上的特征值问题转化为有限区域上的特征值问题,并用有限元[28]的方法求解㊂数值计算时,需要用完美匹配层方法将z 方向截断为-H 2,H 2[],如图3所示㊂取完美匹配层的厚度为H 2-H 1=L ,σ∗=18ˑm +1β0(H 2-H 1)[29],β0=k 20ε0-α2-γ2,m =3㊂其中H 1-D 表示完美匹配层的远近㊂采用基于FreeFEM 软件的有限元方法来数值求解特征值问题,以计算对称保护连续谱束缚态的频率㊂计算时在平板的每个边界的离散点个数取N =10,PML 层的离散点个数也取N =10㊂考虑如此复杂结构的原因是为了避免其他对称性(例如镜面反射对称)对结果的影响㊂ε=ε0ε=ε0z =D z =-Dzxy图1㊀光子晶体平板结构图Fig.1㊀Structure diagram of photonic crystal plates76重庆工商大学学报(自然科学版)第40卷h 2h 1h 1h 2L Lαωωxy图2㊀光子晶体平板结构的俯视图Fig.2㊀Top view of the photonic crystal flat plate structurez=H2z=H1z=D z=-Dz=-H1z=-H2ε=εε=εzxy 图3㊀PML截断后的计算区域Fig.3㊀Computation region after PML truncation 若取h1=h2=0.15L,这时结构具有C4旋转对称性㊂通过数值计算,可以找到5个TM-Like模式下(即E z是z变量的奇函数)的对称保护连续谱束缚态,其频率如表1的第2列所示㊂图4(a) 图8(a)分别是SPBIC1-SPBIC5在具有C4旋转对称的结构中log10Q 关于α与β的值㊂可以通过观察得到当(α,β)ң(0, 0)时,Q的值趋近于无穷大㊂图4(c) 图8(c)分别是SPBIC1到SPBIC5在C4旋转对称结构中的磁场z分量H z在z=0时的场图㊂从下面的场图可以观察得到, SPBIC1与SPBIC5对应于τ=1,其他3个对称保护连续谱束缚态对应于τ=-1㊂表1的最后一列表示为对称保护连续谱束缚态的拓扑电荷㊂若保持h1=0.15L,令h2=0.1L,参数扰动后结构的C4旋转对称性被破坏,但保持了C2旋转对称性㊂通过数值计算表明,SPBIC1-SPBIC5在扰动后的结构中依然存在,其频率如表1的第三列所示,可以发现两种结构下连续谱束缚态的频率近乎相等㊂图4(b) 图8(b)分别是SPBIC1到SPBIC5在具有C2旋转对称的结构中log10Q关于α与β的值㊂可以通过观察得到当(α,β)ң(0,0)时,Q的值趋近于无穷大,并且可以发现两种结构下,log10Q关于α与β的值很相近㊂图4(d) 图8(d)分别代表的是扰动后SPBIC1-SPBIC5在C2旋转对称结构中的磁场z分量H z在z=0时的场图㊂从下面的场图可以观察得到,SPBIC1与SPBIC5仍然对应于τ=1,其他3个对称保护连续谱束缚态也依旧对应于τ=-1㊂通过对比,可以发现两种结构下的场图几乎一模一样,并且可以发现结构扰动不改变对称保护连续谱束缚态的拓扑电荷㊂表1㊀C4与C2旋转对称结构中对称保护连续谱束缚态的频率ωL2πc的值Table1㊀Value ofωL2πc the frequency of symmetrically protected bound states in the continuum in the rotationallysymmetric structure of C4and C2C4C2q SPBIC10.61590.6101+1 SPBIC20.63670.6282-1 SPBIC30.85690.8485-1 SPBIC40.93830.9338-1 SPBIC50.95140.9492+10.05-0.05-0.0500.05βL/(2π)Q f a c t o rαL/(2π)8640.05-0.05-0.0500.05αL/(2π)864βL/(2π)Q f a c t o r㊀㊀(a)(b )0.5-0.5-0.500.5y/LR e/H zx/L0.5-0.5-0.500.5R e/H zx/L㊀㊀(c)(d)图4㊀SPBIC1的Q因子图和场图Fig.4㊀Q factor diagram and field diagram of SPBIC10.05-0.05-0.0500.05βL/(2π)Q f a c t o rαL/(2π)8765430.05-0.05-0.0500.05αL/(2π)βL/(2π)Q f a c t o r876543㊀㊀(a)(b)86第3期张铭洋,等:C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态0.50-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L㊀㊀(c )(d )图5㊀SPBIC2的Q 因子图和场图Fig.5㊀Q factor diagram and field diagram of SPBIC20.010-0.01-0.010.01βL /(2π)Q f a c t o rαL /(2π)8765430.010-0.01-0.0100.01αL /(2π)βL /(2π)Q f a c t o r76543㊀㊀(a )(b )0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L㊀㊀(c )(d )图6㊀SPBIC3的Q 因子图和场图Fig.6㊀Q factor diagram and field diagram of SPBIC30.010-0.01-0.010.01βL /(2π)Q f a c t o rαL /(2π)76540.010-0.01-0.0100.01αL /(2π)βL /(2π)Q f a c t o r7654㊀㊀(a )(b )0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L㊀㊀(c )(d )图7㊀SPBIC4的Q 因子图和场图Fig.7㊀Q factor diagram and field diagram of SPBIC40.020-0.02-0.0200.02βL /(2π)Q f a c t o rαL /(2π)8640.020-0.02-0.0200.02αL /(2π)βL /(2π)Q f a c t o r6543㊀㊀(a )(b )0.5-0.5-0.50.5y /LR e /H zx /L0.5-0.5-0.500.5y /LR e /H zx /L㊀㊀(c )(d )图8㊀SPBIC5的Q 因子图和场图Fig.8㊀Q factor diagram and field diagram of SPBIC5经过数值计算,从扰动前后不同结构下对称保护连续谱束缚态的频率以及对比分析它们的Q 因子图和场图可以观察得到具有C4旋转对称结构的光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态都是由C2旋转对称性所保护的㊂即若破坏C4旋转对称但保持C2旋转对称,原有的对称保护连续谱束缚态依然存在㊂进一步反映了C4旋转对称与C2旋转对称之间的依赖关系㊂6㊀结束语构建了系统分析连续谱束缚态关于旋转对称性的依赖理论,并且重点研究了C4旋转对称的情况,分别从理论和数值两个方面证明了具有C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态都是由C2旋转对称性所保护的㊂即破坏C4旋转对称但是保持C2旋转对称性,原对称保护连续谱束缚态依然存在㊂虽然只考虑了C4旋转对称光子晶体平板中的对称保护连续谱束缚态,但提出的理论和数值分析方法都可以用于研究具有C6旋转对称的光子晶体平板,不过由于此结构同时具有C2与C3旋转对称性,对称保护连续谱束缚态与对称性的依赖关系可能会更加复杂㊂提出的理论分析方法也可以适用于所有旋转对称的情况㊂由于是从麦克斯韦方程组出发,没有引入模型近似,并且分析过程根据严格㊂研究结果有利于深入理解对称保护连续谱束缚态的性质,为其理论分析和实际应用提供指导㊂96重庆工商大学学报(自然科学版)第40卷参考文献References1 ㊀HSU C W ZHEN B STONE A D et al.Bound states in thecontinuum J .Nature Reviews Materials 2016 1 9 1 13.2 ㊀HSU C W ZHEN B LEE J et al.Observation of trappedlight within the radiation continuum J .Nature 2013 4997457 188 191.3 ㊀MARINICA D C BORISOV A G SHABANOV S V.Boundstates in the continuum in photonics J .Physical Review Letters 2008 100 18 1 4.4 ㊀NEUMANN J WIGNER E P.Über 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英语课堂中的联想教学法2009年《和田师范专科学校学报》(汉文综合版)Ju1.2009第28卷第六期总第62期英语课堂中的联想教学法王喻(宿迁高等师范学校外语系江苏宿迁223800)L捅费J英语联想教学法是通过相关,类似对比联想来有效地激发学生对英语学习的兴趣.促进学生对知识的理解与巩固,并在此过程中培养学生的创造性思维能力.本文探讨了联想教学法的概念和相关的理论依据,并具体阐述了联想教学法在英语词汇和语法教学中的应用.L关键词J联想教学法;英语教学引言心理学家布鲁纳认为”学习是主动的过程,对学生学习内因的最好刺激就是对所学材料的兴趣……”联想教学法正是基于这一理念,通过相关联想使得教学内容变的直观有趣,有效激发学生的思维活动,使新旧知识融会贯通,让学生的知识产生有效迁移,加深了学生对新知识的理解并使之内化.联想法自由,灵活,多样,富有启发意义,对人们熟悉问题,思考问题,创造性地解决问题,有着明显的积极作用.爱因斯坦说:”联想比知识更重要,因为知识有限,而联想可以概括世界的一切……”在英语教学中由于英汉文化差异的存在,联想教学法更是能起到化繁为简,点石成金的效果,不断帮助学生突破理解上的瓶颈,培养学生的逻辑思维能力.一,联想教学法的概念思维科学认为:联想是一种创造性的心理机制,联想技巧中的关键要素是”焦点”.所以,美国思维专家怀廷称其为”焦点法”(focuso~ectmethod).即指人们将所要熟悉所要解决的问题作为“焦点”,然后通过联想的形式,把若干其他对象集中到这个焦点上,以便形成新的观念,或寻求到解决问题的最佳方法等等.因此,我们要熟悉到,联想并不是无目的,无规律的胡思乱想,而是根据事物发展的联系性特征和动态性特征,运用具体思维技巧的科学的思考.心理学的研究表明联想主要是凭借形象思维,通过有形的物象之间的内在联系,架起一座”桥梁”,使人们在认识,反映事物时由此及彼,由表及里,同时联想还是一种创造性的思维活动,它是在观察的基础上,调动以往的生活经验,接通思路,对事物进一步认识分析后创造出来的艺术想象.它通过相关,类似,对比联想等方式有效激发学生对英语学习的兴趣,促进学生对英语知识的理解,族情感,等等,这也是造成文化差异的重要因素.这些差异导致了中英民族对相同或相似的事物持迥然不同的态度.有些词语的内涵和外延在这两种语言中并不是对等的,不了解这些差异就不能判断出交际对方的言语行为是什么意思.宗教信仰造成的文化差异宗教对各民族的历史发展有着重大影响,所以许多习语带有深厚的宗教色彩.例如相对于基督教而言,佛教在的中国历史较为悠久,汉语中有着较多关于佛的习语,而西方则有着很多关于上帝的习语.如果一个外国人对一个打喷嚏的中国人说”Godblessyou”,如果不了解西方的文化,就会造成社交语用失误.另外各国都有一些J』j史典故,这些习语结构简单,但是意义深远,不能从字面意义上理解和翻译例如”cityuponah圳”,源自圣经中对耶路撒冷的比喻. 1989年,里根总统在他的离职演说,甚至把这个理念上升为”a shiningcityuponahill”,更突出反映了这个信念在美国的根深蒂固.如果不了解西方文化,在交流中遇到类似问题就会造成语用失误,导致交流无法顺利进行.传统的英语教学方法已经不适合当前社会发展和对人才需求的要求,传统英语教学必将让路与能提高学生综合语言运用能力的教学方法.通过在大学英语教学中引入语用学,切实培养学生的听说能力,在能够进行正确语言解码的前提下用语用学理论来指导交流. 让学生能够理解不同语境中相同话语的不同含义,明白言外之意,在交流中遵守合作原则并意识到不同文化背景下相同话语的不同含记忆及运用,并在此过程中培养主动思维及创新能力.列宁曾深刻指出:”要想真正熟悉事物,就必须把握研究它的一切方面,一切联系和中介.”联想法,正是这样一种把握,研究事物联系的思维技巧,同时也是一种有效的教学和学习技巧.二,联想教学法的理论依据(一)哲学思想客观世界既是运动发展着的,又是互相联系着的,世界上没有绝对孤立存在的事物.而各种联系着的事物,又必然反映到人的头脑中,并由此形成各种动态的联想形式.这是辩证唯物主义的发展观.学习,可以是有系统的,也可以是无序的.在学校的学习,是有系统的学习,是一种理性的熟悉;在工作和生活中,碰到什么就了解什么,这是无序的学习,是一种感性的熟悉.马克思主义认为:“理性熟悉依靠于感性熟悉,感性熟悉有待于发展到理性熟悉.”这是辩证唯物主义的熟悉论.联想教学法,就是基于对这些哲学思想的有效运用,在教学中,针对各种联系着的事物,通过动态的联想形式,将已有的感性熟悉提升到理性熟悉之上.(二)学习理论我们都知道,人与动物的根本区别在于,人具有学习能力.学习,是一个认知的过程,需要用已有的知识,去学习新的知识.而“联想”,正是学习新的知识的桥梁.我们在教授--f]新课程时,总是从基本的概念说起.要让学生学习,理解这些基本的概念,往往要通过举例来说明.举例,就是一种联想,就是将已知事物和新事物的本质特征,通过某些相同或相似之处的比较,参照,将彼此联系在一起.由此,学生就可以通过对己知事物的熟悉,去学习,理解未知的新事物.因此,联想法是学习理论的有效方法之一.(三)教学理论在教学中,假如仅仅是单一地教授新的知识,那么,学生在面对全新事物时,会因为没有己知事物的比较,参照,从而不能准确地把握它们的.因此,我们为了有效地向学生传授新的知识,经常采用”温故知新”和”巩固提高”等方法.1.温故知新.孔子曾说:”温故而知新,可以为师矣.”所谓温故,是指回顾已经学习和了解了的知识的过程.所谓知新,是指在复习已学知识,回顾己知理论的过程中,进一步归纳,总结和提炼出新的观点,然后再扩充,延伸,从而去学习新知识的过程.这里所提到的”复习”和”回顾”,就需要通过联想来实现.因此,联想是温故知新的重要基础.2.巩固提高.所谓巩固提高,是指通过回忆,复习等方法,不义,以实现话语信息的顺利传达,实现交流的成功进行.参考文献:[1]George,YPragmatics[MI.ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,2000.[2]Thomas,J.Cross?culturalpragmaticfailurelJ].AppliedLinguisties,1983(4),P9l～l12.[3]何自然,陈新仁.当代语用学[.外语教学与研究出版社,2004.[4]何兆熊.语用学概要[M].上海外语教育出版社,1989.[5]姜望琪.语用学——理论及应用[劬.北京大学出版社,2000.[6]潘红.英汉国俗词语例话[M].上海外语教育出版社,2005. OntheNecessityandApplicationMethodsofPragmaticsinCollegeEnglishTeachingAbslract:Fromabroadsense,pragmaticsstudiesrelationsofsignstointerpreters andithasbecomeanessentialbranchoflinguistics.Pragmaticsstudiesthepractical implicationandruleofthelanguageusageandthespecificinterpretationofsame paroleindifferentcontext.TheongoingcollegeEnglishteachingaimstoimprovethe comprehensiveimplicationoflanguageofcollegestudents,anditisconsistentwiththe essenceofpragmaticsThispaperdiscusSesthenecessityofapplyingpragmaticsin collegeEnglishteachingandanalyzeshowtoguidecollegeEnglishteachingbypragmaticsKeyWords:collegeEnglishteaching;pragmatics;necessity作者简介:罗晓霞(1981一),女,河南漯河人,商丘师范学院外语学院助教,研究方向:英美文学,英语教学.收稿日期:2009.O5.141162009年《和田师范专科学校学报》(汉文综合版)Ju1.2009第28卷第六期总第62期断地强化已学的知识,进而不断地增长新知识的过程.只有这样,生对定语从句形成初步的认识.才能将已经形成的技能,长期地保存在记忆中.从而,使学生能更在举例的基础上教师可以带领学生一起总结一下定语从句的基加准确地把握,运用已学的这些知识.这个过程也需要通过联想来本结构,简单让学生自己归纳一下定语从句的基本概念,关系代词实现.的位置和作用,然后设置一个情景让学生进行定语从句运用.地点;三,联想教学法在英语教学中的运用一个生产玩具的工场(可以在教室简单的布置)人物:参观的学生(一)词汇教学和外教,内容:学生向外教介绍一下工厂的概况,让学生在小组的1.音形联想力量下展开想象的翅膀.检测:让学生表演,检测学生运用定语从音形联想,即根据读音规则记忆单词.英语是拼音文字.根据句的情况.这—特点,使语音与单词中的字母有机的结合,以增强单词的记忆.实践证明通过运用情景联想,学生可以在交际过程中自然地体就是利用英语国际音标来识记单词.国际音标是标识标记英语语音会和使用语法,交流中有思想的碰撞还有快乐的想象,学生学习起的符号系统.如果熟悉并掌握国际音标及规则字母,字母组合的发来乐此不疲.音,就可以根据音标来直接拼写英语单词,尤其是一些比较长又难2.首字母联想.在生活中我们会见到很多的名词或是单位名称于识记的单词.比如:newspaper,就可以根据其音标来正确书写单使用首字母缩写来帮助记忆,如wTO,CCTV,U.S.A,UFO,KFC词.单词的读音与字母及其组合的发音之间又有着密切的联系.例等,在教学中,采用首字母联想记忆的方法,同样可以使学生对于如:read,peach,eat,meat等词中的字母组合ea都发这个音:cake,语法规则的记忆得到加强.例如,在讲到哪些动词后可以接动名词these,nine,those等词中的元音字母都发该字母名称音等.英语单作宾语时,教师可以让学生先记住”霉咖啡不是”这样一个古怪的词之间有时候读音完全相同或极为相似,这样一来,我们可以通过中文短语,一般地说,短语内容越是古怪就越是容易被记住.通过比较,观察,找出它们的同异之处,进一步加深印象,增强记忆效这一短语他们就能很快地记住”ME,K/CA,FI,PS”这样一些字果.如:sun和son,too和two,sea,see,right~write等等.因此,母.这些字母分别是mind/miss,enjoy/excuse,keep(0n)/can’thelp,教师必须帮助学生详细地总结,熟记和使用字母及字母组合的发音avoid/admit,finish/fancy,imagine/involve,practise/postpone,规则,进行音形联想记忆,就可以节省大量的记词时间,而且效果suggest/stop这些单词或短语的第一个字母,通过先记住这些字母,较为持久,既增强了兴趣,信心,又增加了成功感,为进一步学习学生就可较容易地记住这些使用时后边要接动名词的单词和短语.英语打下坚实基础.英语中有很多可以带t0的动词不定式,我们也不妨也用上述记2.意义联想.英语中的许多单词在意义上都存在着密切的联系,忆首字母的办法来处理.教师可以让学生记住这样一个短语:a找出词与词之间的相关联系不仅可以加深学生对词义的理解,还能children’Splay(一部儿童剧),短语的每个字母分别代表了以下这提高记忆效率,激发学生的学习热情.比如waiter一词就和wait,些单词的开头字母:aSk,choose,hope,intend,learn,decide,refuse,waitress相关,walter~P可理解为站在一旁等待的人;同样secretary和expect,neglect,start,pretend,love,agree,yearn.这些单词不能secret相关,secretary可理解为保守秘密的人.再比如teach与teacher,涵盖所有带t0动词的不定式的动词全部,但就常用词而言,至少是sing~singer等.在列举完一些类似的相关词汇之后教师还可以把这占了相当大的一部分.些单词之间的联想归纳为词根的意义联想;另外一种意义联想可以在虚拟语气中有这一规则即在有些动词后用that~l导的宾语从归纳为合成词的相关意义联想,比如week,end和weekend,weekend句中动词要用(should)+动词原形的形式,should可以省略.为了即可根据前两个词的意义理解为一周的末尾.更好地记住那些动词,学生可记住CASIODRUM这一短语,组成3.归类联想.英语词汇极其丰富,如果能把单词分门别类地进这一短语的字母正好分别是这些动词的首字母:command,advise,行记忆,按其性质,用途等来分类,使之条理化,系统化,就容易suggest,insist,order,demand,require,urge,move(提议).CASIO巩固记忆,如按颜色,学习用品,交通工具,食品,生活用品等种是日本电子产品的商标,drum在英语中是”鼓”的意思,通常学生类归纳,还可以按科目名称,时问,数字,季节,动植物,职业名记住CASIODRUM这一短语这一规则就不难记住了.称,场所地点名称图名等归类等.采用归类联想,在学习一个新单此外还有一条类似的虚拟语气的语法规则:在Itis/was+(某词时,可一并学习与之相关的同类词.例如:颜色(white,black,些)形容词+that引导的主语从句中主动词也要用(should)+动词red,yellow,pink,br own,grey,orange,blue,green……),学原形的形式,其中的should也可以省略.同样,学生可记住这一个习用具(pen,ink,pencil,ruler,eraser,notebook……),交通工短语riversideinn(河畔旅店),接着再告诉学生,组成该短语的字具(train,bike,tram,bus,ship,subway,taxi,car……),再比母分别是那些符合此规则的形容词的开头字母.它们是:right,如在中英文当中对亲戚的称呼存在着文化上的差异,学生时常感到important,vital,essential,ridiculous,strange,imperative,desirable,困惑,一些单词如姑,姨,外甥和侄子在中文当中是不同的单词,impossible,necessary,natural(riverside最后的一个字母e没有对应在英语中却是相同的单词,教师可以利用归类联想法把家族成员之的单词).间的关系用树的形象展现出来,学生就会一目了然获得直观的理解.大量的课堂实践表明首字母联想的确是一种快捷,有效的记忆(二)语法教学方法,只要教师在日常教学中不断思考,勤于发掘和总结就一定能英语是一种精准的语言,无论在意义还是形式上都追求逻辑上帮助学生更好地提高学习效率,减轻学生的记忆负担.的严谨,而汉语是一种模糊语言,意会的成分居多,因此汉语中的四,小结语法远不及英语中的语法现象复杂.学生接触到大量的英语语法往综上所述,我们可以发现联想教学法的运用可以使学生在面对往会觉得晦涩难懂,如果教师在教学中只注重对语法概念的传输,新知识的学习时,有效摆脱生疏感,迅速找到轻松入门的捷径,增进行机械的语法训练,语法课堂就会显的枯燥沉闷,学生就会产生加学习的主动性,提高学&gt;---j效率,优化学习效果.至于联想教学法厌学情绪,对英语语法望而生畏.和英语课程的具体结合还有待教学者在实践中不断总结发现,跳脱l_情景联想.英语语法现象中有些是与日常生活中的情景分不固定的思维模式,时时研究和反思以怎样的切入点来启动相关联想开的.而生活中的情景,往往是学生较熟悉,且印象较深刻的东西.才能最有效地提高教学实效,从而使联想教学法得到不断的完善和建构主义学习理论认为:”学&gt;-j不应该被看成是对于教师授予知识推广.的被动接受,而是学习者以自身已有的知识和经验为基础主动的建参考文献:构活动.”也就是说,学生学习过程是在教师创设的情境下,借助[1]周远清.深化教学改革.提高教学质量[N]_中国教育报,2006—12.已有的知识和经验,主动探究,积极交流,从而建立新的认知结构作者简介:王喻,江苏宿迁人,宿迁高等师范学校讲师.的过程.如教师在教学定语从句时,可以先举身边的一些事例让学收稿日期:2009.07.09l17。

《当代语言学》第10卷2008年第3期246-256页,北京实验语用学研究综述刘思 亚利桑那大学提要　本文从三个方面综述了新兴的实验语用学研究领域:主要理论和不同观点,研究方法,主要研究成果。

首先探讨其主要理论,即新/格莱斯和关联理论的基本观点,它们对“隐意”、等级含意的各种推论及争论焦点———“所说的话”的语用推理和认知机制。

然后叙述其采用的心理语言学的实验方法。

最后介绍实验语用学发展前期和近期的主要研究成果,涉及言语行为、隐喻、隐意、等级含意等方面的研究。

关键词　实验语用学　心理语言学　新/格莱斯　隐意　等级含意1.引言实验语用学涉及语言学、哲学、心理学和认知科学,是语用学与实验心理语言学相结合的一个新兴的跨学科研究领域;采用实验方法研究人类对语言意义的认知机制问题。

尽管20世纪60年代就出现了涉及语用问题的心理学实验(W as on1961),真正对语用学有影响的还要算20世纪七八十年代的研究。

这个时期的心理学研究涉及指示、言语行为、隐喻等的认知处理过程(详见411)。

心理语言学家,H.Clark和Lucy(1975),H.Clark (1979),Gibbs(1979,1986),Glucksberg等(1982),称得上实验语用学研究的先驱。

到了1999年,“实验语用学”(Experi m ental Prag matics)这个术语才正式用在了《认知》(Cognition)杂志发表的研究报告的题目上(N icolle and B.Clark1999:165)。

迄今,“实验语用学高级国际研讨会”已召开了四届(第一届和第二届分别于2001年和2004年在法国里昂和意大利米兰召开)。

第三届③于2005年4月由英国国家研究院剑桥大学“艺术、社会及人文科学研究中心”赞助,剑桥大学英语系主持召开,主题为“实验语用学:探究会话的认知基础”(Experi m ental p rag matics:Exp l oring the cognitive basis of conversati on)。

PragmaticsI. 名词解释1.（武汉大学2002，同济大学2000年考题）Compare and contrast the terms: illocutionary act and perlocutionary act考点分析：比较行事行为和取效行为的异同。

Answer: J.L. Austin suggests three basic senses in which in saying something one is doing something. They are locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act perform ed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Take the sentence You have left the door open.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker’s me ssage and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.II. 判断正误1.（上海外国语大学2000年考题）The Cooperative Principle, an important pragmatic principleproposed by P. Grice, aims to explain we mean more than we say.考点分析：合作原则的实质Answer: T2. (上海外国语大学2000年考题)A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.考点分析：考查句子和语句的区别Answer: T3. (上海外国语大学2000年考题) According to Searle’s classification of speech acts, “request”, “order”, “suggest”and “advice”all belong to the same general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.考点分析：考查某些词是否属于同一类言语行为。

- 39 -校园英语 / 高等教育研究Pragmatic Failure and English language Teaching咸阳师范学院教育科学学院/李玲 雷宏友【Abstract 】The pragmatic failures made by the Chinese English learners in their daily communications with the English native speakers and the ways how to reduce the occurrence of the pragmatic failures are addressed in the paper. Additionally, some suggestions about the avoidance of pragmatic failure are proposed in English language teaching.【Key words 】pragmatic failures; cultural context; language teachingPragmatic failure was first proposed by Jenny Thomas and its nature is that the hearers can not understand the implications of the speakers ’ utterances, even the cultural conflict happened. He Ziran indicated that pragmatic failures were not caused by the abuse of the grammar rules but the ways of the conversation which violate the native speakers ’ expressing habits as well as thinking modes and the speaker can not express his intended meanings at the apposite time and context.Thomas (1983) classified pragmatic failures into pragmaticlinguistic failures and sociopragmatic ones.Pragmalinguistic failures refer to the communicating failures caused by the lack of pragmatic knowledge as well as the negative transfer of the learners ’ mother language. In addition to this, the non-native speakers ’ comprehending the communicative contexts based on their stereotyped ideas cultivated in mother tongue context will definitely make such troubles.Example ：(In an office, a foreign businessman shows his thanks to a Chinese secretary.)Foreign businessman ：Thanks a lot, that ’s a great help.Chinese secretary ：Never mind. It ’s my duty to do so.The Chinese secretary embarrassed the foreign businessman. “Never mind ” is used to response to the apology from the speaker and not suitable for accepting other ’s appreciation. “Duty ” means that the speaker does not want to do something. Instead, she should say “Don ’t mention it. It ’s a pleasure.”Sociopragmatic failures relate to the failures that occurred in the dialogues when the people do not have a clear idea on the cultural differences between the East and the West.Example ：(Xiao Hong asked a foreigner to help her take photos and told him the operation instructions. Before starting, the foreigner made sure how to operate it.)Foreigner ：Shall I push this button ？Xiao Hong ：Of course.For Chinese people, “Of course ” sounds quite right,because it is a close correspondence with the Chinese phrase “当然”, showing that the speaker are sure of something. While the foreigner thought that the student laughed at his ability of operating the camera and doubted his intelligence as well. Due to the cultural difference, “of course ” implies that the speaker has explained the instructions clear enough, and any normal intelligent person can understand it. The proper way should be “Exactly ”, or “Yes ”.Negative transfers come up when the L2 learner ’s habit thinking modes from his mother tongue are transferred into the target language and the target language speakers perceive that it is different from what the learners desire to express. Teachers should make great efforts to set up real-life situations to help the students minimize the negative transfers of mother tongue.Language is both the carrier and the main expressional form of culture. Teachers can exploit contrastive analysis method to promote the students pragmatic competence by intentionally letting the students find out how the request is performed differently among the Chinese and the English in their inter-communication. Such contrastive analysis can arouse students ’ awareness of the language difference and remind them of some possible problems in their use of the target language.Pragmatic Competence calls for the learners to communicate in terms of concrete context. In order to help the students eliminate the pragmatic failures, the teachers should offer the proper teaching materials to improve their communicative competence, utilize the multi-media equipments to help them obtain the “authentic ” linguistic materials, design proper exercises to foster their linguistic competence, encourage them to read more foreign publications. References ：[1]Thomas,J.Cross-cultural Pragmatic Failure.Oxford:Applied Lingustics,1983(2).[2]Zhang Jianzhong,Brief English teaching method,Guangzhou: Guangdong education publisher 1990.[3]何自然.语用学概论[M].长沙:湖南教育出版社,1988.【基金项目】陕西省教育厅项目“地方高校大学生EFL学习者文化身份焦虑研究”(16JK1810)；咸阳师范学院科研基金项目(15XSYK007)。

中国语用学研究会第二届年会论文摘要汇编目录Distinctions Between pragmatic presuppositions and activated propositions Bai Huiling（白会凌）5巴塞尔姆小说语言的语篇特征曹路漫6汉语篇章中的间接否定昌薇6模糊数字的顺应性分析陈琳霞7范畴的模糊性与意义理论---话语意义的认知解读陈善敏7布農族人和閩南人在拒絕時語言使用的比較--以兩個不同族群的農業村落為例陳葚慈8论语用的真实性陈新仁9语用预设与教师话语陈艳清9Pragmatic Analysis of Indirectness in Listening Comprehension 陈玉红王晓晨9规范与原则——社会文化语用学与认知语用学之整合陈治安万敏10概念系统和语言操作程琪龙11Study on English Euphemisms From a Pragmatic Perspective 崔桂华12关联理论在幽默文本翻译中的运用戴光荣12Promotion-to-Subject in Communication，A Pragmatic Consideration 邓隽13从联结主义看格赖斯循环董成如14语码混用现象的语用分析段廷婷14从《伟大的盖茨比》看Ｇrice会话含意理论的语用意义甘阳14The Complementarity of Politeness Principle and Tenor 高燕红15语用意识的培养对中国英语学习者习得―请求‖语言表达式的影响国庆祝付海燕15特殊自我指示―NP＋我‖与―我＋NP‖研究郭圣林16溯因推理对话语含意的推导能力——国内语用溯因推理研究概述韩晓方温美昕16大学英语教学中的语用意识郝雁南16Constructing a Cultural Context- A Methodological Consideration of Cultural Pragmatics He Gang,Yang Liru 17―的话‖的语用学研究贺文丽18模因与言语交际模式何雪林18语言中的模因何自然19Methodologies In Cross-Cultural Pragmatics Research Hong Gang（洪岗）20 Contextualizing context in Pragmatics: The dynamics of meaning Leo Francis Hoye 20国际交流语用学论纲胡庚申21试论体裁的历时变化----基于《人民日报》元旦社论的实证研究黄莹22英汉委婉语语用功能比较黄育才22试论省力原则姜望琪23语际语用学的课堂研究——恭维语与恭维语回应的可教性探析江晓红24The Influence of Interlocutors‘ Social Distance on Topic Shifts: An Empirical Study on Chinese Two-party Conversations Ying Jiang (姜颖)24她真的不会说话吗？——论刘姥姥语用策略焦爱梅25元语否定与提及分析景晓平25Bilingual Pragmatics: An Intercultural Perspective Istvan Kecskes 26从―缺省预设‖看话语理解Ke Xianbing(柯贤兵)26认知语境观与外语交际能力的关系李冬梅27语用缓和现象初探李海辉27国内关于中国英语学习者外语语用能力研究评述李怀奎28从社会关系和交际场合看汉语反问句的语用特点李捷29论王蒙话语幽默的语用前提李军29广告语篇的指称性用法分析李军宋彦妮30关联理论与阅读理解教学李玲君30汉语口语话语中指示代词的话语-语用功能探讨李巧兰31功能语法的语境观与叙事语篇的语义层次分析黎清群32语际语用学近年来研究概述李秋梅32Telephone Conversation Openings in China 李圣平33布什演讲中的预设分析李祥坤杨柳33Lexical Narrowing and Broadening 李欣34语义压制的转喻理据李勇忠34否定的语用认知分析梁晓波35从顺应论角度看文化语境对翻译中词义选择的制约廖开洪李锦35法庭互动话语中的formulation现象研究廖美珍35再评―目的—意图原则‖—兼与褚修伟和霍永寿先生商榷林大津虞秋玲36从社交语用对比研究看翻译的异化与归化林晓琴37英汉―许诺‖言语行为适切条件的相对性林晓英37语境的四类要素有机合成——关于语境构成的重新理解刘伯奎38Philosophical, Semantical and Pragmatical Approaches to Definite Descriptions 刘存伟39 Pragmatic Analysis of the First and Second Person Pronouns in L2 Writing 刘东虹39The Pragmatician‘s Self-fashioning Liu Yameng（刘亚猛）40饭店英语中的礼貌语用原则――培养学生的服务意识刘茵40活―零‖活现，话―零‖的演绎——―零‖的语用推理卢俊燕41英译《红楼梦》幽默话语翻译的语用推理--《红楼梦》英译本幽默话语等值效果分析吕世生王英虹41To Contextually Understand an Utterance 吕细华42预设投射问题的认知解释马国玉42Politeness in Cyber-chat 马海芳43从模因论到规范论——论切斯特曼翻译规范论的理论来源马萧43汉英感叹词语用对比研究梅美莲43语篇语用学：句法结构的语篇视角苗兴伟44推理照应的认知语用研究莫爱屏44汉俄―水‖、―火‖成语之象征寓意牟萍45作格句的语用机理研究牛保义45―面子论‖与―主观性和主体‖论----对中国学生常见英语语用失误例案分析潘翠琼46语用研究中社会文化模式与认知模式的结合潘永樑46Cognitive Context and Text Comprehension 潘震47从礼貌用语看汉、英语言文化的价值差异裴飞娟48从关联理论看英语新闻标题的关联性秦小锋48A Study on Pragmatic Failure of Greetings Qu Jing（曲晶）Tang Ying 48礼貌与肯定回答方式----「好/行/可以」的区别--- 全香兰49话语理解中词义的语用收窄、语用扩充以及语用特指冉永平50The Pragmatics of Interpretation 任蕊51A Multicultural Approach to Discourse Shi Xu 51What Pragmatic Rules for Chinese Learners of English? Song Li(宋莉)51语用学与大学英语教学粟为农52跨文化交际语用中的身体隐喻词汇联想孙芳琴52英汉代词系统社交指示功能对比研究孙飞凤53Trends in Pragmatic Research Sun Jianrong 54论反语的本质属性涂靖55试论广告语篇的语用策略王长安56通过言语行为教学提高学生英语口语语用能力王传经王莹56从顺应理论的角度看间接言语行为的使用王红57论英语语用指示语的指示与非指示用法王宏军57从宏观和跨文化的角度探讨语言应用汪建峰58语用意义转换所涉及的因素王森林58Politeness in Inviting: considering the influence of culture Wang Shu‘e(王淑娥)58指示现象的认知研究王义娜59―物质过程‖的评价价值王振华59英语隐喻解读与语用翻译策略韦忠生60从―小姐‖的命运看称谓的语用问题文旭60优选论和英语语篇回指的确认翁依琴60Intercultural Studies of Communication Styles and Communication Functions Wu Cuiyu(吴翠玉)61语辞反讽理解的认知语用过程吴萍61关联理论与大学英语听力教学吴琼62面子与礼貌补救策略吴雁62WELL在英译汉中的语用功能缺失现象初探吴勇63语用学研究的几点思考向明友64从韩礼德的―元功能‖、―语域‖理论看翻译研究中语用取向思想的萌芽肖家燕张东平64 (不)礼貌1与（不）礼貌2：批评与思考谢朝群65顺应理论研究在中国——近15年来我国语用学顺应理论研究的回顾与评述谢少万66 从合作和礼貌原则看依阿高的会话成功幸君珺66缺损推理初探熊学亮66非常规间接前指照应的释义策略许宁云67语用推理的逻辑属性徐盛桓67语用前提的类别、性质及形式化探讨徐以中68Ad hoc Conception Construction and Metaphor Interpretation 徐章宏69语用学的形式化研究杨平69广告语码转换的语用分析杨涛70句型教学结合语用分析的构想杨翼70汉语―可以‖与日语―いい/よい‖的对比研究叶方侠71动态语境新论曾方本71词汇语用学：原则、方法、对象和发展现状曾衍桃72关联性：阅读理解的核心----关联理论对阅读理解及其教学的启示曾衍桃蔡蔚72也谈布朗和列文森礼貌原则的缺陷詹全旺73会话合作原则与谎言的辩证关系章礼霞73Convention and Lexical-Pragmatic Processes 张韧75The Functional Approach In Teaching Listening Comprehension Course Zhang Shujun(张树筠)75英语詈语的语用功能探究章小画76论庭审提问的顺应策略与顺应过程张新红胡海娟76礼貌：会话含义的解读张翼76网上聊天语言特点初探张云辉77交际中梯级推理研究概述赵德全龚卫东77Online Voice-based Chatroom: A New Approach to Interlanguage Pragmatics 赵福利77 Interpretation of Utterance Meaning and Speech Act Based on Analysis of Utterance Members 郑道俊78网络言语行为分析——从语用角度透视网络聊天郑燕芳78从连贯论到关联论的话语联系语研究周大军80Cultural Adaptation-----an Essential Condition to Overcome Pragmatic Failure in Cross-cultural Communication 周光亚80话题转换的语用学研究周海燕81The Analysis and Comparison of Four Perspectives on Learners‘ Pragmatic Development 朱斌谊81语境、语用、阅读与英语综合素质的培养朱风云82汉语表示不确定零头的―多‖的用法及其解释——兼论汉语―量‖的表达的灵活性宗世海张鲁昌82语用语境在大学英语课堂教学中的运用左尚君83摘要正文Distinctions Between pragmatic presuppositions and activated propositionsBai Huiling （白会凌）Foreign Languages Institute, Guizhou Normal University Abstract: Although it is widely recognized that differences in focal accent represent what are in some sense differences in what is given and what is new, there remains considerable confusion in the literature as to what the relevant notion of ‗given‘ is. This paper argues that when one distinguishes ‗given‘ in the sense of ‗presupposed‘ from ‗given‘ in the sense of ‗activated‘ (in the mind of the hearer), it becomes clear that it is the latter rather the former which characterizes the complement of focus. While there is literature that assumes this position, there is considerable body of literature that assumes that the relevant notion is in fact presupposition and little explicit argumentation that it is not presupposition. In addition, some of the literature that recognizes the relevance of activation mistakenly assumes that something that is activated is necessarily presupposed. The reason for this is that much of the literature ignores the distinction between propositions, which are mentally represented, and propositions that are believed.This paper has attempted to sort out some of the confusion surrounding the pragmatics associated with the non-focus in simple focus sentences. Despite frequent claims that non-focus involves presupposition, careful examination of the data shows that this is not so, at least in the strict sense of presupposition as involving propositions which are part of the common ground of propositions the speakers assumes that they and the hearer both believe.One of the central points of this paper is that the activation status and the belief status of propositions are independent parameters, something that seems to have been widely overlooked: there are not only activated beliefs and non-activated beliefs, but also activated propositions that are not believed. This raises questions about the relationship of propositions to other sorts of discourse entities likes individuals and events. It is not clear whether there is a distinction in the case of individuals that corresponds to the distinction between activated propositions that are shared beliefs and those that are not. One might suggest that activated propositions that are not shared beliefs are analogous to individuals like Santa Claus when such individuals are activated in discourses in which neither interlocutor believes in their existence. But there are important differences. Both activation and shared belief operate independently as relevant parameters in different syntactic constructions, and in some cases, as argued by Prince, constructions require that a particular proposition be both activated and a shared belief.In conclusion, it is activation and not presupposition that is relevant to the pragmatics of the simple focus sentences. Much work in pragmatics has taken truth-conditional semantics as its starting point, and the evolution of ideas about pragmatic presupposition reflects a set of phenomena, which proved difficult to handle within a purely semantic theory. The notion of activation represents one step further from truth-conditional semantics, in that it involves a cognitive relationship between individuals and propositions that is independent of whether those individuals believe that the propositions are true or not, and illustrates the extent to which phenomena that are traditionally thought of as pragmatic must go well beyond semantic notions and make direct reference to cognition.Key words: pragmatic presuppositions；activated propositions；focus巴塞尔姆小说语言的语篇特征曹路漫南阳师院外语学院摘要：语篇分析理论是一门新兴学科，上个世纪七十年代有了长足发展。

第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语用学的定义；语法分析与语用学的区别；微观语用学中的基本概念；宏观语用学中言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则；实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。

The concept of a crosscultural stage in English composition refers to the integration of different cultural elements,perspectives,and experiences into the writing process.This approach not only enriches the content of the essay but also provides a broader understanding of the world and its diverse cultures.Here are some key elements to consider when crafting a crosscultural English composition:1.Cultural Awareness:Begin by acknowledging the different cultures involved in your topic.This could be through the inclusion of characters from various backgrounds,the exploration of cultural events,or the comparison of cultural practices.2.Respectful Representation:It is crucial to portray all cultures with respect and accuracy. Avoid stereotypes and generalizations,and instead,strive for a nuanced understanding of each cultures unique characteristics.nguage and Diction:The use of language can reflect cultural nuances.Incorporate idiomatic expressions,proverbs,or phrases from different languages to add depth and authenticity to your writing.4.Cultural Conflict and Resolution:Many crosscultural stories involve some form of conflict or misunderstanding between cultures.Addressing these conflicts can provide a compelling narrative and an opportunity to explore themes of understanding and reconciliation.5.Historical Context:Provide historical context where necessary to help readers understand the roots of cultural practices or beliefs.This can add depth to your composition and help explain why certain cultural elements are the way they are.6.Personal Experiences:Drawing from personal experiences can make your composition more relatable and authentic.Share anecdotes or reflections that illustrate crosscultural interactions or learning experiences.7.Cultural Celebration:Highlight the beauty and richness of different cultures through the celebration of festivals,art,music,or food.This can help readers appreciate the diversity and vibrancy of the worlds cultures.8.Dialogue:Use dialogue to showcase the interaction between characters from different cultures.This can be an effective way to demonstrate cultural differences and similarities.9.Reflection and Analysis:Encourage critical thinking by including reflection and analysis of crosscultural experiences.This can involve questioning assumptions,examining biases,or considering the implications of cultural exchange.10.Inclusive Language:Use language that is inclusive and welcoming to all cultures. Avoid terms that may be offensive or exclusionary.11.Research:Conduct thorough research to ensure that the cultural elements you include are accurate and wellrepresented.Consult reliable sources and,if possible,speak with individuals from the cultures you are writing about.12.Global Perspectives:Consider how your topic might be viewed from different cultural perspectives.This can lead to a more comprehensive understanding and a richer narrative.By incorporating these elements into your English composition,you can create a piece that not only educates but also bridges cultural gaps,fostering a greater appreciation for the worlds diverse cultures.。

geometric analysisGeometric analysis is a branch of mathematics that applies geometric methods to solve problems in analysis. Itis a field of study that combines the insights and techniques of geometry, topology, and analysis. This area of mathematics addresses a diverse range of topics, including the geometry of surfaces and manifolds, the study of partial differential equations, and the development of new tools and methods for analyzing complex systems.One of the key strengths of geometric analysis is its ability to provide insights into the structure and behavior of complex systems. This is achieved by employing geometric techniques that allow researchers to visualize and analyze mathematical objects in new and insightful ways. For example, the study of minimal surfaces and harmonic maps has provided a wealth of insights into the geometry of surfaces and their relationship with complex systems like fluid dynamics and computational modeling.Another important area of geometric analysis is the study of partial differential equations. These equations describe the behavior of many physical systems, such as the flow of fluids, the behavior of electromagnetic waves, and the propagation of heat. The methods of geometric analysis have provided powerful new tools for analyzing these equations and gaining insights into the underlying structure and behavior of such systems.Overall, geometric analysis is a rich and diverse field that plays an important role in modern mathematics andscience. Its insights and techniques are crucial for advancing our understanding of complex systems and for developing new tools and methods for solving problems in mathematics, physics, and engineering.。

Editors' Choice Article:Root Cause AnalysisTracing a Problem to Its OriginsIn medicine, it's easy to understand the difference between treating symptoms and curing a medical condition. Sure, when you're in pain because you've broken your wrist, you WANT to have your symptoms treated ?now! However, taking painkillers won't heal your wrist, and true healing is needed before the symptoms can disappear for good.But when you have a problem at work, how do you approach it? Do you jump in and start treating the symptoms? Or do you stop to consider whether there's actually a deeper problem that needs your attention?If you only fix the symptoms ?what you see on the surface ?the problem will almost certainly happen again?which will lead you to fix it, again, and again, and again.If, instead, you look deeper to figure out why the problem is occurring, you can fix theunderlying systems and processes that cause the problem.Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and often-used technique that helps people answer the question of why the problem occurred in the first place. It seeks to identify the origin of a problem, and then uses a specific set of steps, with associated tools, to find its primary cause.This helps you:∙Determine what happened.∙Determine why it happened.∙Figure out what to do to reduce the likelihood that it will happen again.RCA assumes that systems and events are interrelated. An action in one area triggers an action in another, and another, and so on. By tracing back these actions, you can discover where the problem started and how it grew into the symptom you're now facing.You'll usually find three basic types of cause:∙Physical causes ?Tangible, material items that have failed in some way (for example,a car's brakes stopped working).∙Human causes ?People did something wrong?or did not doing something that was needed. Human causes typically lead to physical causes (for example, no one filled the brake fluid, which led to the brakes failing).∙Organizational causes ?A system, process, or policy that people use to make decisions or do their work is faulty (for example, no one person was responsible for vehicle maintenance, and everyone assumed someone else had filled the brake fluid).Root Cause Analysis looks at all three types of causes. It involves investigating the patterns of negative effects, finding hidden flaws in the system, and discovering specific actions that contributed to the problem. This often means that RCA reveals more than one root cause.You can apply Root Cause Analysis to almost any situation. Determining how far to go in your investigation requires good judgment and common sense. Theoretically, you could continue to trace root causes back to the Stone Age, but the effort would serve no useful purpose. Be careful to understand when you have found a significant cause that can, in fact, be changed.The Root Cause Analysis ProcessRoot Cause Analysis has five identifiable steps.Step One: Define the Problem∙What do you see happening?∙What are the specific symptoms?Step Two: Collect Data∙What proof do you have that the problem exists?∙How long has the problem existed?∙What is the impact of the problem?You need to analyze a situation fully before you can move on to look at factors that contributed to the problem. To maximize the effectiveness of your Root Cause Analysis, get together everyone ?experts and front line staff ?who understands the situation. People who are most familiar with the problem can help you to a better understanding of the issues.A helpful tool at this stage is CATWOE. With this process, you look at the same situation fromdifferent perspectives: the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the solutions, the Transformation process that's affected, the World view, the process Owner, andEnvironmental constraints.Step Three: Identify Possible Causal Factors∙What sequence of events leads to the problem?∙What conditions allow the problem to occur?∙What other problems surround the occurrence of the central problem?During this stage, identify as many causal factors as possible. Too often, people identify one or two factors and then stop, but that's not sufficient. With RCA, you don't want to simply treat the most obvious causes ?you want to dig deeper.Use these tools to help identify causal factors:∙Appreciation ?Use the facts and ask "So what?" to determine all the possible consequences of a fact.∙ 5 Whys ?Ask "Why?" until you get to the root of the problem.∙Drill Down ?Break down a problem into small, detailed parts to better understand the big picture.∙Cause and Effect Diagrams ?Create a chart of all of the possible causal factors, to see where the trouble may have begun.Step Four: Identify the Root Cause(s)∙Why does the causal factor exist?∙What is the real reason the problem occurred?Use the same tools you used to identify the causal factors (in Step Three) to look at the roots of each factor. These tools are designed to encourage you to dig deeper at each level of cause and effect.Step Five: Recommend and Implement Solutions∙What can you do to prevent the problem from happening again?∙How will the solution be implemented?∙Who will be responsible for it?∙What are the risks of implementing the solution?Analyze your cause-and-effect process, and identify the changes needed for various systems.It's also important that you plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution. This way, you can spot potential failures before they happen.One way of doing this is to use Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA). This tool builds on the idea of risk analysis to identify points where a solution could fail. FMEA is also a great system to implement across your organization; the more systems and processes that use FMEA at the start, the less likely you are to have problems that need Root Cause Analysis in the future.Impact Analysis is another useful tool here. This helps you explore possible positive andnegative consequences of a change on different parts of a system or organization.Another great strategy to adopt is kaizen, or continuous improvement. This is the idea that continual small changes create better systems overall. Kaizen also emphasizes that thepeople closest to a process should identify places for improvement. Again, with kaizen alive and well in your company, the root causes of problems can be identified and resolved quickly and effectively.Key PointsRoot Cause Analysis is a useful process for understanding and solving a problem.Figure out what negative events are occurring. Then, look at the complex systems around those problems, and identify key points of failure. Finally, determine solutions to address those key points, or root causes.You can use many tools to support your Root Cause Analysis process. Cause and Effect Diagrams and 5 Whys are integral to the process itself, while FMEA and Kaizen help minimize the need for Root Cause Analysis in the future.As an analytical tool, Root Cause Analysis is useful for performing comprehensive,system-wide reviews of significant problems, as well as for identifying the events and factors leading to them.。