Effects of gas and soot radiation on soot formation in a co ow laminar ethylene diffusion ame

Analyzing the Properties of CarbonDioxideCarbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas that makes up a small fraction of the Earth’s atmosphere. Despite its small presence, it plays a crucial role in regulating the planet’s temperature and supporting life on Earth.Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, meaning it traps heat in the atmosphere and contributes to the warming of the planet. This effect is often referred to as the greenhouse effect. While carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere, human activities such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation have significantly increased its levels, leading to concerns about its impacts on the environment.One of the unique properties of carbon dioxide is its ability to dissolve in water. When it does so, it forms carbonic acid, which can have a range of effects on the environment. For example, increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can lead to increased levels of carbonic acid in the ocean, which can harm marine organisms and disrupt the balance of ocean ecosystems.Another key property of carbon dioxide is its density. At standard temperature and pressure, carbon dioxide is denser than air, meaning it can collect in low-lying areas and pose a risk to human health. In high concentrations, carbon dioxide can displace oxygen in the air and lead to asphyxiation.Carbon dioxide also has unique properties when it comes to its role in plant growth. Plants use carbon dioxide as a raw material for photosynthesis, the process by which they produce energy from sunlight. Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can therefore lead to increased plant growth, which can have both positive and negative effects on ecosystems. While more plant growth can help absorb carbon from the atmosphere, it can also lead to changes in the types of plants that grow in an ecosystem, potentially disrupting the balance of the ecosystem as a whole.Finally, it is worth noting that carbon dioxide is not a toxic gas in small concentrations. In fact, our own bodies produce carbon dioxide as a byproduct of respiration. However, as concentrations rise, the gas can become hazardous to human health. This is why it is important to monitor levels of carbon dioxide in indoor spaces, particularly in office buildings and other enclosed areas where people spend long periods of time.Overall, carbon dioxide is a fascinating gas with a range of important properties. While it is a crucial component of the Earth’s atmosphere, human activities have led to increased concentrations that can have negative impacts on the environment. Understanding the properties of carbon dioxide is therefore essential for addressing the challenges of climate change and building a sustainable future for our planet.。

Effects of photo-chemical smog on urban airAbstract:Summary: along with the sustained and rapid development of China's economy, fuel consumption is increasing. Atmospheric carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and the emissions of pollutants such as hydrocarbons are also growing rapidly, these are raw material for formation of photochemical smog. Photochemical smog, once formed, affected a wide range. Its dangers have been on the urban environment, human health, and ecological balance causing great threat. Carry out energy-saving emission reduction policies, it is imperative to control emissions of air pollutants. This article is about the production of photochemical smog, and briefly describes the hazards and prevention measures.I. The production of photochemical smogOf atmospheric nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to form photochemical smog, UV irradiation. The atmosphereNitrogen oxides are mainly from fossil fuel combustion and incineration of the plant, and the transformation of agricultural soils and animal waste. Among them, with automobile exhaust gas as the main source. [1]Formation of photochemical smog:1. The condition of pollutionIndustrial emissions, vehicle exhaust emissions such as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.2. Meteorological conditions2.1 strong lightNO2 photolysis is a 290~420nm ' light, therefore, likely to in summer than in winter, around noon in the day light most likely to smoke.2.2 low winds, low humidity, weather temperature inversion.3. Geographical conditionsSolar radiation is one of the main conditions, intensity of solar radiation, depending on the height of the Sun, solar radiation angle with the ground and atmospheric transparency. Therefore, the concentration of photochemical smog, except under the influence of the diurnal variation of solar radiation, but also by the latitude, altitude, season, weather and other conditions influence. Studies have shown that at 60 ~ North latitude 60 between some major cities, smog can occur. [2] II.Second, the harm of photochemical smogPhotochemical smog is strongly oxidizing, stimulate the eyes and the respiratory tract Mucosa, injuries, accelerated ageing of rubber plant leaves, and reduced visibility. Harmful to human, animal and plant and materials is mainly ozone, PAN and secondary pollutants such as Acrolein and formaldehyde. Ozone, PAN can cause rubber products such as ageing, embrittlement, makes dyes fade, and damage to paint and coatings, textile fibers and plastic products. [3]Harmful effects is mainly manifested in the following aspects:1. The risk to human and animal health:Major injury to human and animal eyes and mucous membrane irritation, headache, respiratory disorders, abnormal lung function deterioration of chronic respiratory diseases, children and so on.Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent. In 0.1ppm concentrations, it has a special smell. And can achieve deep stimulation under the mucosa of the respiratory system, causing chemical changes, it acts as a radiation, chromosomal abnormalities, red blood cell aging. PAN, formaldehyde, Carolina and other products for people and animals such as eye, throat and nose have a stimulating effect. Their domain is0.1ppm. Photochemical smog in addition can help asthma patients asthma attack, it can cause deterioration of chronic respiratory diseases, respiratory disorders, damagethe lungs and other symptoms of long-term inhalation of antioxidants can reduce the human cell's metabolism accelerate aging. PAN was reagents may cause skin cancer. In the 1943 United States Los Angeles the first event has attracted more than 400 people dead.2. Effects of plant growth:Ozone affect the permeability of plant cells. High performance can lead to good qualities disappear, even the loss of plant genetic ability. Ozone damage to plants, skin fade at the beginning was wax-like pigment changes over time reddish-brown spots appear on the leaves. Back of PAN leaves silver gray or bronze effect plant growth and reduce the plant's resistance to pests and diseases.3. Material quality:Contributes to formation of acid rain caused by photochemical smog rubber ageing, embrittlement, makes dyes fade paint buildings and machinery from corrosion and damage coatings, textile fibers and plastic products.4. Reduce the visibility:Photochemical smog is one of the most important characteristics of atmospheric visibility--visual range is shortened. This is mainly due to the formation of photochemical smog pollution in the atmosphere caused by aerosol. The aerosol particle size within the General 0.3~1.0 μ m. Due to the size of particles is not easy because gravity deposition can actually migrate long distances suspended in the air for a long time they are consistent with Visual wavelength and scatter sunlight, thus significantly reducing the atmospheric visibility. Thus impaired the car with the safe operation of aircraft, and other transport, leading to increased traffic accidents.5. Other hazards:Photochemical smog will accelerate the aging of rubber products and cracking, corrosion of buildings and clothing and shorten its life. [4]III.The mechanism of photochemical air pollution treatmentFirst of all, to understand the cause of photochemical smogMechanism of formation of photochemical smog: [5](1) The formation of photochemical smog conditions is the presence of nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, atmospheric temperature is low, and there is strong sunlight, this will be a complex series of reactions in the atmosphere, generating some secondary pollutants, such as aldehydes, PAN, H2O2 and O3.Photochemical smog is a chain reaction, in which the key reactions can be simply divided into 3 groups: (1) formation of NO2 photolysis of O3: Chain initiation reaction of NO2 photolysis, reaction is as follows:NO2 +HV→NO +O O +O2 +M→O3 +M NO +O3→NO2 +O2(2) Hydrocarbons (HC) oxidation activity of free radicals, such as HO, HO2, RO2. In photochemical reactions, free radical reaction plays an important role, the free radical reaction is mainly caused by NO2 and resulting from formaldehyde photolysis:NO2 + HV→NO +O RCHO + HV→RCO +HThe presence of hydrocarbons is the root cause of transformation and proliferation of free radicals:RH +O→R +HO RH + HO→R +H2O H + O2 →HO2 R + O2→RO2 RCO+O2→[RC(O)O2]Where: r-n;RO2-alkyl peroxide; RCO-acyl;[RC ((O) O2]-benzoyl peroxide.(3) Through the above channels generated HO2, RO2, [RC ((O) O2] oxidation of NO to NO2.NO +HO2 →NO2 +HO NO +RO2→NO2 +RO RO +O2 →HO2 +RCHO NO + RC(O)O2→NO2 + RC(O)O RC(O)O→R +CO2Where: RO-alkoxy;RCHO-aldehyde①main pollutants of photochemical pollution from internal combustion engineCar ownership in the world has more than 500 million vehicles, vehicle output of more than 50 million vehicles a year. In the advanced industrialized countries, car exhausts constitute the main cause of air pollution. China's rapid growth in recent years, car production, without effective ways to control vehicle exhaust emissions on atmospheric formation of great harm. NOx is the formation of photochemical smog and acid rain pollutants in the atmosphere.Vehicle exhaust is a great mobile pollution sources, management is difficult. Currently recommended is using the method of exhaust gas purification system, it is the use of catalysts reduce exhaust gas phase activation energy in the process, improve the reaction speed. Especially for NOx control. Even though the installation of electronic-controlled air compensation device, also appears cold starts, fill valve not working, slow, prolonged idling, resulting in excessive emissions [6] in response to this situation, many scholars with an atmospheric pressure non-equilibrium plasma method to eliminate pollutants in automobile exhaust NOx. Atmospheric pressure non-equilibrium plasma is fast developing interdisciplinary disciplines, it has great potential and attractive prospects. [7] Japan set Fang Zhengyi, Xiao Tian Zhezhi, Shui Yezhang have been engaged in research on non-equilibrium plasma discharge pollutants, and certain progress has been made. East and tengjingkuanyi reported by discharge plasma beam control automobile exhaust, Ox removal rate of up to 29.2%.[8]Therefore, I think that the governance of photochemical smog pollution in the atmosphere, first of all, it is necessary to control Pollutants in automobile exhaust.Internal combustion engine exhaust contains a number of components, the basic ingredients are carbon dioxide (C02), water vapor (H20), excess oxygen (02) andkeep left nitrogen (N2), which is the result after the complete combustion of the fuel and air. In addition to these basic ingredients, exhaust also contains incomplete combustion products and combustion reaction intermediates include carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HQ), Secretary of nitrogen oxides (Ox), Sulphur dioxide (S02), solid particles and aldehydes. Total quality of these components in the exhaust gas of diesel engine as a proportion of the not less than 1% of the total emissions in a diesel engine, sometimes up to about 5% in a gasoline engine, and most of them are harmful, or has a strong pungent odor, and some still have carcinogenic effects. Exhaust of harmful components, see table 2-1:Table 2-1: all kinds of harmful exhaust componentsInternal combustion engine emission pollutants nitrogen oxides (n Ox), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) air pollution is mainly caused by substances, these pollutants on human and environmental hazards are as follows [9]1. A nitric oxide (n Ox)Nitrogen oxides in the combustion chamber under high temperature and high pressure, nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen oxides in the exhaust (n Ox) includes NO, N02, N203, N20, N205, and N03 and so on. After combustion, the fuel discharged from the exhaust pipes of the nitrogen oxides in about 90%-95% NO, few N02, NO is a colorless gas that is highly unlikely after the encounter with the oxygen in the atmosphere will be further oxidized to N02. N02 Brown has a strong pungent odor, n Ox react in the atmosphere to form aerosols, oxygen phthalocyanine based nitric acid, nitric acid, nitrous acid, Nitro hydrocarbons as well as highly carcinogenic nitrosamines, directly harm to humans, animals and plants, and the environment. N Ox is the main cause of photochemical smog formation in the ground.2. Carbon monoxide (CO)Carbon monoxide is a product of incomplete combustion of fuel, seriously affecting the combination of hemoglobin in human blood and oxygen, life-threatening, and participate in various chemical reactions in the atmosphere, has an important role in the formation of smoke and methane.3. Hydrocarbon (HC)Hydrocarbons, including unburned hydrocarbons and incomplete combustion of fuel, lubricating oil and its pyrolysis and partial oxidation products, such as alkanes, alkenes, aromatics, aldehydes, ketones, and hundreds of compounds. Some hydrocarbons do not react, such as methane, ethane, propane, carbon and hydrogen and other reaction (NRHC) and so on. The percentage of non-methane hydrocarbons (total hydrocarbon 100%, minus the percentage of methane is non-methane hydrocarbon ratio), the smaller the better. HC contains benzene is considered to be a carcinogen if inhalation of gaseous benzene would reduce the red and white blood cells, reducing the number of platelets, in people exposed to large amounts of benzene can cause leukemia. Of these pollutants, HC, CO and n-Ox is a major exhaust pollutants. CO and HC can improve the structure of internal combustion engine for combustion and EGR and after treatment technology is effectively controlled,advanced countries have reached discharge standards. N Ox oxidation of N2 in the temperature in the cylinder is formed only by machine processing, cumbersome and difficult to governance, become the main object of study.Second common method of controlling internal combustion engine exhaust gasIn general reduce harmful ingredients in the exhaust gas of internal combustion engines, can be solved by two ways: one is the internal purification, the other is discharging to the exhaust pipe of the cylinder exhaust gas after treatment.1. The internal purificationInternal purification consists of the following measures:⑴improved combustion chamber design, compression ratio and spray nozzles, spray to improve the efficiency of combustion.B suction system air intake preheating temperature.C ignition system delayed ignition, after shortening the flame burning time.⑷firing system using lean combustion and high energy ignition.⑸using exhaust gas recirculation system to reduce n Ox.Services implementing secondary air combustion technology of exhaust pipes.2. Treatment after purificationInternal combustion engine exhaust gas purification technology is of NO x, HC, CO gas phase emission purification, usually using oxidation and reduction methods, with the help of catalysts to convert these harmful gases into N2, H20, CO2, this purification technology has been applied to gasoline engines. In addition to the gas in a diesel engine harmful ingredients, there are made up of solid-phase soluble hydrocarbons and soot particles, these substances are not in real time in the exhaust system catalyst for purifying, suitable particulate filter must be placed in the exhaust tube collection device, when soot particles as the main body to collect micro-particles to a certain number of heaters can be used to burn.Post-processing method in internal combustion engine are described as follows: [10] ①the exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation EGR for short) is a fraction of the combustion emissions from exhaust pipes to introduce pipe mixed with fresh air, then burn. Exhaust gas recirculation through the following three aspects lower engine combustion temperatures, decrease the formation of n-Ox:A. improving the heat capacity of the heat capacity of the gas because the CO2 is 1.5 times of the O2, more of the mixture of exhaust gas heat capacity is higher.B. reduced O2 concentration in the mixture as part of the air are replaced by exhaust gas, mixture of O2 content was reduced accordingly.C. low combustion rate above two effects that reduce engine combustion speed, increase the heat of combustion chamber, reducing the maximum burning temperature.Ternary Catalysis II [11] such an approach can also purify the three main pollutants in the exhaust of gasoline engine C0, HC and n Ox. Three-way catalytic converter, is mounted in the exhaust system is the most important machine cleaning device, it can exhaust emission of CO, HC and n Ox and other harmful gases by oxidation and reduction into harmless carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. Dang high temperature of car exhaust through purification device Shi, ternary catalytic device in the of purification agent will enhanced CO, and HC and n Ox three species gas of activity, prompted its for must of oxidation-restore chemical reactions, which CO in high temperature Xia oxidation became colorless, and nontoxic of carbon dioxide gas; HC compounds in high temperature Xia oxidation into water (H20) and carbon dioxide; n Ox restore into nitrogen and oxygen. Three types of harmful gases into harmless gas, purification of vehicle exhaust gas.IV. ConclusionThe World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States, and Japan and many other countries have ozone and photochemical oxidant levels serve as one of the air quality index, and photochemical smog warning was issued. Environmental protection has become an important subject in sustainable economic development, harm has drawn great attention of photochemical smog. While the world's growing environmental awareness, resistance to photochemical air pollution, prevent the occurrence of photochemical smog, is conducting a worldwide reduction of energy and automobile exhaust pollution cleaning revolution.Urban air pollution is closely linked to levels of economic development, and that China is in a period of rapid development, urban air pollution has become a major environmental problem. In order to prevent outbreaks of photochemical smog, in addition to the above methods, the means of interference of executive order must also be taken in order to have better results.V、Reference[1] Kang Xihui, Liu Meiqing, principles and applications of photochemistry, Tianjin: Tianjin University Press, 1984,1~21[2] Zhang Li; Analysis on photochemical smog pollution, Shandong: 1001-3644 (2005)04-0074-03[3] the voyage, Shao kesheng, Tang Xiaoyan, Li Chin; urban photochemical smog pollution in China [j]; Journal of Peking University (natural science Edition), 1998, Z1[4] The State environmental protection administration. Ozone layer damage [DB/OL]./ztbd/gjcyr/jbcs/200408/t20040830_60877.htm, 2004-08-30[5] The concise course of Biochemistry in early Xia Jian, Beijing: higher education press, 1992,56~601[6] Wan Junhua Xia Y unqing combustion theory based Harbin ship Engineering Academy Publishing House, 1992[7] Guo Guangyong. Experimental study on dielectric barrier discharge treatment of internal combustion engine exhaust gas NOx [d]. Dalian Maritime University, 2002.[8] Li Meng. Japan is how to control air pollution [j]. Legal persons, 2014 (4): 27-30.[9] zhoulongbaoliuchangjungaozongying internal combustion engine mechanical industry publishing house, 1999.[10] Guo Guangyong. Experimental study on dielectric barrier discharge treatment of internal combustion engine exhaust gas NOx [d]. Dalian Maritime University, 2002.[11] The Chen Chong. Catalytic converter structure and performance evaluation [j]. Journal of Sichuan industrial Institute, 2001, 20 (4): 1-3.。

Synthesis and evaluation of biochar-derived catalysts for removal of toluene(model tar)from biomass-generated producer gasPushpak N.Bhandari a,Ajay Kumar b,*,Danielle D.Bellmer b,Raymond L.Huhnke ba Agricultural&Biological Engineering,Purdue University,West Lafayette,IN47907,USAb Biobased Products and Energy Center,Department of Biosystems&Agricultural Engineering,Oklahoma State University,Stillwater,OK74078,USAa r t i c l e i n f oArticle history:Received2July2013Accepted17December2013 Available online11January2014Keywords:BiocharActivated carbonBiomass gasificationTarToluene a b s t r a c tChallenges in removal of contaminants,especially tars,from biomass-generated producer gas continue to hinder commercialization efforts in biomass gasification.The objectives of this study were to synthesize catalysts made from biochar,a byproduct of biomass gasification and to evaluate their performance for tar removal.The three catalysts selected for this study were original biochar,activated carbon,and acidic surface activated carbon derived from biochar.Experiments were carried out in afixed bed tubular catalytic reactor at temperatures of700and800 C using toluene as a model tar compound to measure effectiveness of the catalysts to remove tar.Steam was supplied to promote reforming reactions of tar. Results showed that all three catalysts were effective in toluene removal with removal efficiency of69 e92%.Activated carbon catalysts resulted in higher toluene removal because of their higher surface area (w900m2/g compared to less than10m2/g of biochar),larger pore diameter(19A compared to15.5A of biochar)and larger pore volume(0.44cc/g compared to0.085cc/g of biochar).An increase in reactor temperature from700to800 C resulted in3e10%increase in toluene removal efficiency.Activated carbons had higher toluene removal efficiency compared to biochar catalysts.Ó2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionGasification is a thermochemical conversion process in which carbonaceous materials(such as natural gas,naphtha,residual oil, petroleum coke,coal and biomass)react with a gasification me-dium(such as air,oxygen and/or steam)at high temperatures (600e1000 C)to produce a mixture of gases called producer gas[1e4].The major components of producer gas are carbon monoxide(CO),carbon dioxide(CO2),nitrogen(N2),and hydrogen (H2).Producer gas also contains methane(CH4),water,some higher hydrocarbons,various inorganic and organic contaminants like char,ash,tar,ammonia(NH3),hydrogen sulfide(H2S),sulfur diox-ide(SO2),and nitrogen dioxide(NO2)[1,5,6].The impurities in producer gas can cause serious problems with downstream appli-cations of the gas by clogging the process lines,deactivating cata-lysts,and acting as precursors for toxic emissions[7,8].Tar can be defined as all organic contaminants having molecular weights higher than benzene[9,10].Tar contents in producer gas are as high as0.22kg/kg biomass[13].Scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators are effective in reducing the levels of tars.However,these techniques are inefficient because they result in reducing the gas energy content and require disposal of solvents.Catalysts offer a more cost-efficient and an equally effective approach to removal of contaminants[11,12].Biochar is naturally produced during biomass gasification. Adding value to low-value biochar by using it in applications such as soil amendment,carbon sequestration and gas upgrading has shown researching interest in recent times.Studies have shown that low-cost biochar is a potential catalyst for tar removal[1].The surface area of biochar is generally low;ranging from5m2/g to around65m2/g depending on the type of biomass and gasification operating conditions[14e18].Effectiveness of the biochar to remove tar can be drastically increased by increasing its surface area and improving its chemical properties.Several studies suggest that increasing surface area of catalyst is critical to efficient tar removal.Seshadri and Shamsi[19].concluded that a char and dolomite mixture and calcined dolomite were not as active as ze-olites and other catalysts evaluated for tar conversion in coal gas streams due to their low surface acidity and low surface area. Donnot et al.[20].found that the residence time for efficient tar removal is inversely proportional to char surface area.They also investigated the carbon deposition phenomena on the char catalyst and found that at temperatures below750 C,a decrease in activity*Corresponding author.Tel.:þ14057448396.E-mail address:ajay.kumar@(A.Kumar).Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Renewable Energyjournal ho me page:www.elsevier.co m/locate/renene0960-1481/$e see front matterÓ2013Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved./10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.017Renewable Energy66(2014)346e353occurs after a short time due to coking.Hence,to understand the effect of coking in our study,experiments were carried out at two temperatures:700and800 C.Activated carbon is a highly porous material with high surface area.Generally,activated carbon can be synthesized by either chemical activation,physical activation,or a combination of chemical and physical activation of a carbon precursor[21].This activation process gives rise to a highly porous carbon material with high adsorptive properties.The carbon precursor can be any ma-terial with carbon as its primary constituent.Various agricultural waste precursors like wheat[22],rice husks[23],sugarcane bagasse [23],corn stover[24],hazelnut[25],tobacco stems[30]and biochar [14]have been used to synthesize this activated carbon.Little data is available in literature on the properties and use of biochar,a by-product from gasification of switchgrass,for the production of activated carbon.Also,activated carbon remains untested as a po-tential catalyst for tar reduction.Azargohar and Dalai[14]carried out a study to synthesize activated carbon from biochar derived from fast pyrolysis of wood.For this study,we evaluated biochar derived from gasification of switchgrass as a precursor for the synthesis of activated carbon.The effect of ultrasonic impregnation of potassium hydroxide(KOH)onto biochar on the change in the properties of the activated carbon product was also studied. Further,the activated carbon was evaluated for removal of toluene (model tar compound).Previously,a review of carbon-based cata-lysts for removal of various producer gas contaminants such as ammonia,H2S,tar,and CO2was made[26].Based on the review,it was concluded that increased surface area of carbon-based cata-lysts may improve the catalyst performance for removal of con-taminants.To validate some of thefindings of the review, performance of selected biochar-based catalysts for toluene(model tar compound)removal was evaluated in this study.No studies have been reported previously for synthesis of acti-vated carbon from biochar derived from gasification of switchgrass. Also,in the present paper,we are investigating the synthesis of activated carbon from biochar using ultrasonication to improve the surface area of the synthesized catalysts.Ultrasonication helps in synthesis of high surface area catalysts[26]and also helps improve particle dispersion[27].We hypothesize that acidic surface catalyst may help react with a basic contaminant in the producer gas,such as ammonia.However,the acidic surface should not decrease tar removal efficiencies.Acidic surface activated carbon,previously untested for toluene removal,was evaluated in this study.The three synthesized catalysts(biochar,activated carbon,and acidic surface activated carbon)are characterized and evaluated for toluene (model tar compound)removal infixed-bed reactor experiments. Finally,the effect of reaction temperatures(800 C and900 C)and reaction gas medium(N2and producer gas)on toluene removal is also included in this paper.The specific objectives of this study were to a)synthesize acti-vated carbon from biochar precursors derived from switchgrass gasification and evaluate the effect of ultrasonic potassium hy-droxide(KOH)impregnation onto biochar for change in the prop-erties of the activated carbon,b)compare the activated carbon synthesized using biochar fromfluidized bed gasification and downdraft gasification,and c)evaluate the effectiveness of biochar and biochar-based activated carbon and acidic surface activated carbon catalysts on the removal of toluene as a model tar compound.2.Material and methodsThe experimental design for catalyst synthesis and selection is shown in Fig.1.Biochar was synthesized in downdraft gasifier and fluidized bed gasifier from gasification of switchgrass.The biochar from both the gasifiers was impregnated with KOH,with and without ultrasonication,and further carbonized to form activated carbons.Biochar and activated carbon derived from downdraft gasifier were selected for further studies because of their higher surface areas than those of biochar and activated carbon derived fromfluidized bed gasifier.Further,the activated carbon from downdraft gasifier was coated with dilute ascorbic acid to syn-thesize acidic surface activated carbon.Finally,the three downdraft gasifier derived catalysts i.e.biochar,activated carbon,and acidic surface activated carbon,were evaluated for their toluene removal efficiency infixed-bed reactor experiments.2.1.Catalyst preparationBiochar was generated in a downdraft gasifier[16]andfluidized bed gasifier[17]using switchgrass as a biomass feedstock.The details of the gasifier have been described elsewhere[16,17].The procedure for the synthesis of the activated carbon was based upon a previous study by Azargohar and Dalai[14].The biochar was sieved to get the sample with particle size between150and 600m m.Ten grams of sieved biochar was mixed with10g of KOH pellets(Fisher Scientific,Hampton,NH)and100mL distilled water to obtain1:1mass ratio of KOH to biochar.A1:1mass ratio of KOH to biochar is used based upon promising results obtained previ-ously[14].This mixture was stored overnight to allow sufficient time for KOH to access biochar pores.To synthesize activated car-bon using an ultrasonication method,the mixture was sonicated (Fisher Scientific550Sonic Disembrator,Pittsburgh,PA)for0.25 and0.5h at30%power.The mixture was then dried at110 C overnight in an oven(Vulcan3-550,Neycraft).The biochar was carbonized[14,28,29]in a tubular catalytic reactor made of quartz glass with22mm inner diameter and914mm length(schematic shown in Fig.2)with nitrogenflow.The temperature of the reactor bed was raised from25to200 C at3 C/min and held for1h.This was followed by ramping up the temperature at10 C/min to700 C and held at that temperature for2h.The reactor temperature was controlled by a heating jacket(Carbolite furnace model TVS12/600, WI,USA).The bed temperatures were monitored using thermo-couples and a constant temperature zone was identified before carrying out any experiments.The inlet lines of the reactor were heated and kept at200 C using heat tapes(model STH051-020, Omega Engineering INC,Stamford,CT)to preheat the nitrogen gas supply.After carbonization,the bed temperature was decreased from700 C to25 C overnight under nitrogenflow in the reactor. The cooling procedure was done to prevent combustion of biochar upon immediate exposure to air.The heat treatment was followed by washing with distilled water and further with0.1M HCl,to help develop the pore structure.The samples were dried overnight at 120 C.Activated carbon derived from downdraft gasifier biochar was selected for synthesis of acidic surface activated carbon due to its higher surface area.Acidic surface activated carbonwas Fig.1.Design of experiments for catalyst development.Gray blocks indicate catalysts selected for toluene removal study.P.N.Bhandari et al./Renewable Energy66(2014)346e353347synthesized by stirring the activated carbon with10%dilute citric acid(1:1volumetric ratio).The coated activated carbon was further dried at110 C for4h in a furnace oven to give acidic surface activated carbon.2.2.Catalyst characterizationCharacterization was carried out on downdraft gasifier biochar and downdraft gasifier activated carbon.The downdraft gasifier catalysts were selected for characterization and testing because they had a higher surface area than those offluidized bed gasifier catalysts.The catalysts were characterized before and after use in the catalytic reactor experiments.Analysis of Brunauer e Emmett e Teller(BET)surface area and pore diameter and volume was done using a surface area analyzer(Quantachrome model1-C,Boynton Beach,FL).Nitrogen isotherms were measured at77K for relative pressure(P/P0)values ranging from0.1to0.3.The catalysts samples were outgassed for24h at300 C before calculating their surface areas.Temperature programmed oxidation(TPO)was carried out using5%O2in helium gas;whereas chemisorption experiments were carried out using CO2gas using the same Quantachrome equipment.X-ray diffraction(XRD)imaging was performed using Bruker D-8Advanced X-ray powder diffractometer(Bruker AXS, Madison,WI).Scanning electron microscopy(SEM)images were captured using a JEOL JSM-6360and FEI Quanta600F Scanning Electron Micrographs at magnifications of100e1000Â.The cata-lysts were placed in the multi-specimen holder of the scanning electron microscope without gold sputtering.Different magnifica-tions were used at accelerating voltages of15kV and20kV.Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS)spectra were taken using EVEX EDS(Princeton,NJ)at different magnifications with accelerating voltages of20kV.2.3.Toluene removal with catalystsToluene was selected as a model tar compound because toluene is the largest component of the tar(13%w/w of tar)other than benzene and has been used previously as a model tar compound[28,29,31].Biochar and synthesized activated carbon catalysts derived from downdraft gasifier were evaluated for their effectiveness to decompose toluene in a high-temperature tubular reactor.Based on the surface area results obtained(Sec-tion3.1),three catalysts were selected as catalysts for toluene removal(Fig.1).The catalysts selected were downdraft gasifier biochar,activated carbon derived from downdraft gasifier bio-char,and acidic surface activated carbon,because their surface areas were greater thanfluidized bed gasifier biochar andfluid-ized bed gasifier biochar-derived activated carbon respectively. The reactor(Fig.2)consisted of a stainless steel reactor tube (0.0127m inner diameter,0.91m length).This tube was placed in the tube furnace used for carbonization.Experiments were car-ried out in two sets.Thefirst set of experiments consisted of toluene in nitrogenflow to observe gas formation and reactions. The second set of experiments was carried out with gas mixture with a composition similar to producer gas(5.15%H2,7.49%CH4, 16.79%CO2,19.30%CO,and balance N2)so as to observe the effect of producer gas components on the toluene removal process.The temperature of the bed was monitored using a K-type thermo-couple placed in the middle of the catalytic bed.Liquid syringe pumps(KD Scientific,Holliston,MA)were used to inject toluene into the reactor.The toluene was vaporized before mixing with the gas stream.Gas samples were collected in syringes and analyzed using gas chromatograph(Agilent5890Series II,Santa Clara,CA)calibrated for all the producer gas components using various calibration mixture cylinders purchased from Stillwater Steel Inc.(Stillwater,OK).The analysis was carried out using two columns in series:HP Plot Q(Agilent Technologies,Santa Clara, CA)and HP Molsieve column.The gases were detected using two detectors i.e.aflame ionization detector(FID)used to detect toluene and methane and a thermal conductivity detector(TCD) to detect the remaining gases.Argon was used as the carrier gas; air and hydrogen were used for the FIDflame.Proper operation of the GC was ensured using a column isolation technique.One gas sample was taken every20min.Toluene removal efficiency was defined asX¼ðC inÀC outÞC inÂ100where,X is the percent removal of toluene,and C in and C out are the concentrations of toluene(%volume)at the inlet and outlet, respectively.The gas residence time,s(kg m3hÀ1),was defined as s¼wv0where,w is the weight of the catalyst(kg)and v0is theflow rate of the gas mixture at the catalyst bed(m3/h).The gas residence time was approximately0.035kg h mÀ3for biochar and0.123kg h mÀ3 for activated carbons.Quantities of catalysts used for the experi-ments were1g of biochar obtained from downdraft gasification of switchgrass and0.35g of activated carbon and acidic surface acti-vated carbon,synthesized using ultrasonication from the same downdraft gasifier char as used in these experiments.A lower quantity of activated carbon was used since activated carbon has lower density than biochar.Different catalyst quantities were used to ensure same bed height(0.014m)and bed volume (4.39Â10À8m3)for all the experiments.2.4.Statistical analysisStatistical analysis of the data was carried out with the help of SAS9.3(Carey,NC)statistical software.Surface area data was643To GCN2TI PI2 Toluene178TIPI95Producer gas6Fig.2.Process schematic of reactor(1.Ball valve;2.Rotameter;3.Temperature indi-cator;4.Pressure indicator;5.Heated line;6.Catalyst bed;7.Tubular reactor;8.Tubular furnace;9.Water condenser).P.N.Bhandari et al./Renewable Energy66(2014)346e353 348analyzed using two-sample t-test assuming a¼1%.Quality of data obtained from toluene removal with catalysts experiments was confirmed by checking normality of data from comparison of data histogram with a normal probability curve.A bell-shaped curve was obtained for the data.General linear model(GLM)procedure was used to analyze the data further.Post-hoc multiple comparisons were performed using LSD and Duncan’s tests.Finally,correlations among the variables were also evaluated.3.Results and discussion3.1.Synthesis and surface characterization of fresh catalystsThe area e volume e pore size summaries of activated carbon and biochar derived from the two types of gasifiers are shown in Table1. The biochar obtained from the downdraft gasifier had a higher surface area(900m2/g)than that obtained from thefluidized bed gasifier(200m2/g).This is primarily due to the different configu-rations of the two gasifiers which result in differences in gasifica-tion conditions[16e18].A significant increase in surface area(p<0.01)was observed upon ultrasonication of the biochar obtained from downdraft gasifier(Table1).Also,the increase in surface area with increase in ultrasonication time was found to be significant(p<0.01).On the other hand,very little increase in surface area was observed (Table1)for the activated carbon synthesized using ultrasonication fromfluidized bed gasifier compared to that without using ultra-sonication(p>0.01).Ye at al.(2004)reported that ultrasonication resulted in homogeneous dispersion of catalyst particles[32]which may have played a role in improving contact of catalyst with the gas stream.Increase in contact of contaminants with the catalyst sur-face may lead to increase in tar removal efficiencies.3.2.Surface characterization of used catalystsThe surface characteristics of used catalysts(Table2)show a significant decrease(p<0.01)in surface area.A decrease of25.6% was observed in surface area of the used activated carbons(about 700m2/g)as compared to that of the fresh activated carbon(about 900m2/g).The pore radius decreased from15to18A to around 11A for all the catalysts.There was an88%decrease in the pore volume of biochar,possibly due to coking of the catalyst.Coke formation usually occurs due to deposition of graphitic carbon on the surface of biochar-based catalysts and is well documented in literature[33e36].These decreases in pore radius and pore volume may prove to be a barrier for commercialization of biochar as cat-alysts.Regeneration of the catalysts might be needed to improve its performance over longer time on stream[37].The decrease in surface area of activated carbons(25.6%)was comparatively lesser than that of biochar(75%)when used as catalyst for toluene removal.3.3.Proximate and elemental analyses of catalystsElemental analysis(Table4)shows that biochar obtained from thefluidized bed gasifier contained low amounts of total carbon (1.4%)and total nitrogen(0.05%);whereas biochar from the downdraft gasifier contained high amount of total carbon(64.8%). Both the activated carbons contained high amounts of total carbon (64e73%)and nitrogen(0.7e0.8%)because the ash content was lowered due to several wash cycles during their synthesis.These results imply that not all biochar generated from biomass gasifi-cation may be suitable for use in specific applications such as producer gas contaminant removal or as gasification in-bed cata-lysts.Biochar consists of ash(minerals)and char(carbon)as its primary constituents;generally,high carbon content seems promising for tar removal as ash has been found to be ineffective for tar removal[38].Hence,only biochar and activated carbon from downdraft gasifier(with much lower ash content)were selected for further study on toluene removal.X-ray diffraction(XRD)images(Fig.5)show that silica was the only easily identifiable element in fresh biochar(2Q¼28.8 ); whereas several elements were identifiable in used biochar due to its higher mineral content.In fresh activated carbon,not many el-ements can be easily identified due to its low ash content after several wash cycles.However,silica oxide was identified in the used activated carbon due to its lower carbon content(2Q¼21.6 ).Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy(EDS)spectra were ob-tained for fresh and used catalysts.The elements observed in the samples(Table5)showed that silica content was the highest in fresh biochar catalyst(82.5%).Minerals such as magnesium,po-tassium were not as easily identified in the used biochar sample as compared to those in the used activated carbon.This may be a result of the high silica content in the fresh biochar to begin with. Silica,calcium,potassium,and iron were the major elements found in activated carbon samples.3.4.Microscope analysis of catalystsAs shown in Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM)images of fresh catalysts(Fig.3),biochar consisted of background materials, which were possibly the solid residues present in the biochar sample.Solid residues may contain unburnt biomass particles during the gasification process.Also,the ends of the biochar par-ticles were observed to be closed and not porous.On the other hand,the activated carbon showed clear pore developments that may have resulted in larger surface area.When the volatiles from the char leave the char particle,they generate pores in the carbonTable1Effect of ultrasonication on surface and pore characteristics of activated carbons obtained from downdraft andfluidized-bed biochars.Gasifier Catalyst BETsurfacearea(m2/g)Averageporeradius( A)Total porevolume(cc/g)Downdraft gasifier Biochar6415.50.09 Activated carbon88918.90.42 Activated carbon(15min ultrasonication)91118.90.44 Activated carbon(30min ultrasonication)94419.10.45Fluidizedbed gasifier Biochar215.00.02Activated carbon20018.90.43Activated carbon(15min ultrasonication)21019.00.42Activated carbon(30min ultrasonication)20719.00.43Table2Surface and pore characteristics of downdraft-gasifier derived catalysts after use infixed-bed reactor experiments.Catalyst BET surfacearea(m2/g)Pore radius(A)Pore volume(cc/g)Used biochar16.711.20.01Used activatedcarbon702.411.20.39Used acidic surfaceactivated carbon632.811.10.35P.N.Bhandari et al./Renewable Energy66(2014)346e353349particle.These can clearly be observed in the images of activated carbon.The thermal treatment and several wash cycles of biochar cause the solid residues to volatilize or wash out and hence,no background matter was observed in the images of activated carbon.Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)images of the used cata-lysts (Fig.4)show high amount of coking in the biochar as evident from the round structures blocking the pores of the carbon fila-ment.Images of the used activated carbons show changes in catalyst structure.This could also be the result of coking of the catalysts.Decreases in surface area,pore volume and pore diameter of the activated carbon were observed (Table 2)due to blocking of the pores also seen from the SEM images.3.5.Toluene decomposition study3.5.1.Toluene in nitrogenToluene removal ef ficiencies of both activated carbon catalysts were signi ficantly higher than that of biochar at 800 C (Table 3).The toluene removal ef ficiencies for both activated carbons were not signi ficantly different at 700 C.Also,at 700 C,activated car-bon showed the highest toluene removal ef ficiency (86.3%),whereas at 800 C,acidic surface activated carbon showed the highest removal ef ficiency (92.1%)among all the catalysts.Biochar showed the highest average standard deviation of toluene removal ef ficiency among all the catalysts indicating that biochar perfor-mance was variable during the 4h experiment,possibly due to coking of the catalyst.It was observed that toluene removal ef fi-ciencies decreased with time on stream (results not shown)for all the catalysts at 800 C.This was con firmed by observing the ana-lyses of covariances plot that had a decreasing linear trend as well as from the Pearson ’s correlation coef ficient ‘r ’that was À0.27at 800 C.The Pearson ’s value (r ¼À0.27)at 800 C indicates thatthere is weak negative correlation between time on stream and toluene removal ef ficiency.This further implies that the catalysts deactivate slowly during the time period the catalysts were tested.Toluene removal ef ficiencies were as high as 92.1and 86.3%for activated carbons and biochar,respectively.These values are com-parable with those of commercial catalysts such as fluid catalytic cracking catalysts and transition metal (Ni)based catalysts reported in previous studies [38,39].The commercial catalysts are more expensive and are easily deactivated [43]by coking and poisoning by other gasi fication contaminants such as H 2S.Gases evolved during the tests (results not shown)indicate that concentration of CO,CO 2,and H 2were the highest at 800 C for activated carbon among the three catalysts.The methane concen-tration remained relatively constant for all catalysts and tempera-tures.Formation of methane indicates that methane reforming reactions may be occuring [35].The reaction mechanism for methanation is as follows:CO þ3H 24CH 4þH 2OThe gas concentration for biochar did not change with tem-peratures;whereas an increase in gas evolution with temperature was observed for the two activated carbons.3.5.2.Toluene in producer gasNo signi ficant difference was observed in the toluene removal ef ficiencies for the two activated carbons at both 700and 800 C in producer gas medium (Table 3).However,the toluene removal ef-ficiency of biochar was signi ficantly different than those of acti-vated carbon catalysts.Activated carbons exhibited better performance (79e 88%)in toluene removal ef ficiency from pro-ducer gas (Table 3)compared to biochar.For all the catalysts,the toluene removal ef ficiencies in the presence of producer gas were lesser than those obtained in the presence of nitrogen gas.This indicates that producer gas components decrease toluene removal ef ficiency possibly due to their adsorption on the catalysts [36].Also,the toluene removal ef ficiency of acidic surface activated carbon (about 79%)was less than that of activated carbon (about 82%)at 700 C;although the mean toluene removal ef ficiencies of the two catalysts were not signi ficantly different.The removal of other producer gas contaminants,such as NH 3which are basic inTable 4Elemental analysis of biochar and activated carbon derived from fluidized bed gasi fier (FBG)and downdraft gasi fier (DDG).Element Unit FBG biochar DDG biocharDDG activated carbon FBG activated carbon Totalnitrogen %db a 0.050.690.820.69Totalcarbon %db a 1.3864.8073.1064.10P %0.040.270.030.03Ca %0.13 2.810.060.11K %0.170.730.030.05Mg % 2.650.450.060.15Na %0.030.130.010.01S %0.010.040.010.01Fe %0.780.290.040.09Zn ppm 79.497.8 4.7 5.9Cu ppm 5.78.8 2.8 2.6Mn ppm 130.1394.512.871.3Ni ppm 303.7 4.6 1.3 1.8Alppm426.01408.080.2675.3adb ¼dry basis.Table 5EDS spectra findings for fresh and used catalysts.Elements Fresh biochar Used biochar Fresh activated carbon Used activated carbon Mg (%wt)0.50.770* 2.19Si (%wt)82.5563.5756.6845.58K (%wt)13.8413.7413.69 4.66Ca (%wt) 3.1111.629.6327.83Fe (%wt)0*10.320*14.43Weight percent values are relative to total elements observed.0*:Elements that are not identi fied.Table 3Mean toluene removal for biochar and activated carbon catalysts at toluene flow rate of 2ml/h and N 2/producer gas flow rate of 1scfh,(standard deviation for 2experiments).CatalystMean Toluene removal*(%)Toluene with N 2Toluene with producer gas 700 C800 C700 C800 C Biochar78.65a *Æ12.0581.01b *Æ11.8369.18b$Æ11.8978.83b *Æ4.74Activated carbon86.28a$Æ7.791.69a *Æ4.982.08a&Æ7.7388.55a$Æ6.62Acidic surface activated carbon80.78a$Æ7.792.09a *Æ8.479.13a$Æ7.7888.14a *Æ7.89*Means followed by same letter (a or b)within a column or followed by same symbol (*,$or &)within a row are not signi ficantly different (a ¼0.05).P.N.Bhandari et al./Renewable Energy 66(2014)346e 353350。

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ASTRONOMY天文学astronomical 天文的astronomical observatory 天文台astronomical instruments 天文仪器astronomical telescope 天文望远镜astronomical observation 天文观测astronomical unit 天文单位astronomical almanac (yearbook) 天文年历planetarium 天文馆astronomer 天文学家astrophysics 天文物理学astrophysicist 天文物理学家astro photo graph 天体摄影影图astrology 占星学pseudoscience 伪科学hidebound 包紧的；思想狭隘的pinnacle(peak; summit; apex) 巅；顶峰infinite 无限的cosmic 宇宙的cosmic force 宇宙力cosmic dust 宇宙尘cosmic noise 宇宙噪声cosmic radiation 宇宙辐射cosmic rays 宇宙射线cosmic speed 宇宙速度celestial 天的celestial body (heavenly body) 天体celestial map (sky atlas) 天体团celestial sphere 天球celestial globe 天球仪terrestrial … 地球仪celestial mechanics 天体力学celestial navigation (astronavigation)天文导航stellar 星的nebula (复数nebulae 或nebulas) 星云nebular(nebulous)星云的；星云状的dwarf (dwarf star) 矮星quasar 类星体；类星射电源constellation 星座planisphere 平面天球图,星座图cluster 星团solar 太阳的solar system 太阳系solar corona 日冕solar flare 日辉；太阳耀斑solar prominence 日珥solar eclipse 日食solar radiation 太阳辐射planet 行星planetoid (asteroid) 小行星revolve 旋转；绕转twinkle 闪烁naked eye 肉眼Mercury 水星Venus 金星Earth 地球Mars 火星Jupiter 木星Saturn 土星Uranus 天王星Neptune 海王星Pluto 冥王星orbit 轨道spin 旋转satellite 卫星lunar 月球的lunar eclipse 月蚀lunar probe 月球探测器lunar astronaut (lunarnaut) 登月宇航员lunar excursion module登月舱lunar rover (lunar roving vehicle; moonrover) 月面车lunarscape (moonscape) 月面景色phase 月相；阶段meteor 流星meteor shower 流星雨meteoroid 流星体meteorite 陨石space capsule 宇宙飞船座舱；航天舱spacelab 太空实验室spaceman (astronaut; cosmonaut) 宇航员；航天员space suit 宇航服；航天服space shuttle 航天飞机space telescope 空间望远镜2. GEOGRAPHY地理geographer 地理学家hemisphere 半球northern and southern hemispheres 北半球和南半球eastern and western hemispheres 东半球和西半球meridian 子午线；经线parallel 平行圈；纬线latitude 纬度high latitudes 高纬度地区low latitudes 低纬度地区temperate latitudes 温带地区longitude 经度horizon 地平线equator 赤道Tropics 热带地区Arctic 北极Antarctic (Antarctica) 南极expedition 探险zone气候带plateau (highland) 高地lowland 低地basin 盆地cavern (cave) 洞穴terrain 地域subterranean (underground) 地底下coastland 沿海地区island 岛屿continental island 地陆岛volcanovolcanic island 火山岛… eruptioncoral island 珊瑚岛islet 小岛peninsular 半岛continent 大陆continental shelf 大陆架ranges 山脉valley 峡谷canyon (谷底有溪涧流过的)峡谷海峡altitude 高度remote-sensing 遥感的terrestrial 地球的；陆地的globeterrestrial heat (geothermal; heat of theearth’s interior) 地热terrestrial magnetism地磁(geomagnetism) 地磁3.GEOLOGY地质学geologist (geologician) 地质学家geological (geologic) 地质学的geologic age (geological time) 地质时代geologic map 地质图geological survey地质调查continental crust 大陆地壳oceanic crust 海洋地壳layer (stratum; 复数strata) 地层mantle 地幔core 地核plate 板块plate tectonics 板块构造论fault 断层fault plane 断层面fault zone 断层带rift (crack; split)断裂disintegration (decomposition)分解erosion侵蚀fossil化石rock 岩石igneous rock火成岩sedimentary rock沉积岩metamorphic rock变质岩quartz石英limestone石灰岩marble大理石granite花岗岩lithogenqus岩石成的lithosphere岩石圈1word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.magma岩浆prospect勘探sounding测探mine采矿mineral矿物ore矿石deposit矿床platinum白金；铂copper黄铜aluminum铝tin锡lead铅unleadedzine锌nickel镍mercury (quicksilver)汞；水银gem宝石diamond钻石emerald绿宝石glacial epoch (age, period)冰川期glacial drift冰碛iceberg冰山(ice)sheet 冰原；冰盖frigid(refrigerated; freezing)寒冷的plummet (气温)急剧下降thaw (melt) 融化retreat后退extinct volcano死火山dormant volcano休眠火山eruption火山喷发crater火山口lava火山岩浆scoria火山渣volcanic火山的volcanic dust火山尘volcanic ash火山灰magnitude震级epicenter震中hypocenter (focus)震源(earthquake; seismic; shock)wave地震波cataclysm灾变4. ECOLOGY 生态学ecological 生态的ecological condition生态环境ecological disaster生态祸害ecosphere(biosphere)生态圈ecocide生态灭绝preservation（对自然区等的）保护fauna 动物群flora植物群rain forest雨林afforestation 植树造林environmental pollution环境污染environmental protection环境保护environmental sanitation环境卫生(environmental)sanitary engineers环卫工人（工程师）environmentalist环境保护主义者acid rain 酸雨greenhouse effect温室效应infrared radiation 红外线辐射ozone layer (ozonosphere)臭氧层紫外线辐射污染控制air pollution空气控制pollution elimination污染消除pollution index污染指数pollution indication organism污染指示生物air pollution空气污染water pollution水污染noise pollution噪音污染soil pollution土壤污染pollution-free无污染pollutant污染物noxious (toxic)有毒的fumes(有毒)废气waste废物waste heat废热waste water废水solid waste固体垃圾sewage(wastewater)污水domestic sewage生活污水sewage purification污水净化sewage disposal污水处理sewage plant污水处理工厂decibel（噪音）分贝abate (reduce) 减少abound 大量存在补充：air monitoring空气监测air pollution空气污染alternative n.二中择一, 可供选择的办法,事物adj.选择性的, 二中择一的atmosphere 大气, 空气, 气氛balance (of nature) 自然界生态平衡burning of coal and oil 煤油燃烧carbon 碳, (一张)复写纸carbon dioxide release二氧化碳排放dioxide 二氧化物clean up 清除干净climate 气候, 风土, 思潮climatic change长期的气候变化coal .煤v.加煤coalification煤化deforest滥伐森林desertification沙漠化deteriorate 恶化disposal废物处理drought干旱ecologist 生态学家ecosystem 生态系统el Niño厄尔尼诺现象emission(汽车废气的)排放energy conservation保护能源energy source 能源资源solar energy太阳能tidal energy潮汐能fuel-efficient节能型的nonrenewable不可再生的Environmental Awareness Clubexhaust fumes废气fauna 动物群flora 植物群food chain食物链flood洪水fossil fuel 矿物燃料fuel-efficient节能型的fumes （有毒）废气garbage垃圾, 废物gas 气体, 煤气, 毒气, 汽油, [矿]瓦斯global warminggreenhouse effect 温室效应ice-cap 冰帽industrial sewage工业污水infrared radiation 红外线辐射litter/trash garbage垃圾long-term climatic change长期的气候变化melt 融化noise pollution 噪音污染non-renewable 不可更新的noxious (toxic) 有毒的offshore spillage 近海岸溢出ozone layer (ozonosphere) 臭氧层pollute/pollutant 污染物pollution control 污染控制pollution污染pollution-free 无污染preservation 保存process of photo synthesis光合作用purify净化rain forest 雨林recycle回收利用recycling center再循环利用中心recycling再循环resource 能源rise in sea level 海平面上升rush hour 高峰期sewage (wastewater) 污水sewage disposal污水处理sewage purification 污水净化sewage污水soil pollution 土壤污染solar energy太阳能solid waste固体废物soot烟尘tidal energy潮汐能traffic jam交通堵塞trash bag垃圾袋ultraviolet radiation 紫外线辐射upper atmosphere上层大气2word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.waste 废物wastewater废水water pollution 水污染water shortage 水源缺乏wildness 野生/天然zero emission 零辐射species物种specimen 样本，标本natural selection自然选择biological vacuum生物演变真空期survival生存thwart (block; obstruct)阻碍reverse逆向；倒退degeneration (devolution) 退化alga(复数algae)藻类invertebrate无脊椎动物aquatic (life)水生动物reptile爬行动物amphibian(amphibious animal)两栖动物dinosaur恐龙bird鸟类extinction灭绝mammal哺乳动物primates灵长目动物class 纲order 目family 科genus 属suborder 亚目species 种insect 昆虫antenna (复数antennae) 触须larva 幼虫，幼体camouflage 伪装pest 害虫worm 虫，蠕虫hibernate 冬眠lizard 蜥蜴chameleon 变色蜥蜴regeneration 再生turtle 龟beast 野兽domesticate 驯养predatory (carnivorous ) 食肉的predator 捕食者prey （动词）捕食（名词）被捕食的动物scavenger 食腐动物migrate 迁移wing 翅膀，翼bill （鸟）嘴beak （鹰等的）嘴nest 筑巢dolphin 海豚whale 鲸鱼bat 蝙蝠gorilla 大猩猩chimpanzee 黑猩猩habitat 栖息地rodent 啮齿动物（如松鼠）primate 灵长动物plankton 浮游生物mollusk 软件动物coelenterate 腔肠动物（如珊瑚）shrimp 小虾prawn 对虾lobster 对虾crab 螃蟹clam 蛤蜊sponge 海绵coral 珊瑚starfish 海星canary 金丝雀chirp (鸟，虫的叫声)唧唧squeak （老鼠等）吱吱porpoise 海豚sloth 树懒slothful 懒惰的hygiene 卫生sanitation 卫生parasite 寄生虫moth 蛾caterpillar 毛虫hordes (昆虫等)群swarms (昆虫等)群flock （鸟，羊等）群herd 兽群bunch （花等）束，捧beaver 海狸community 动物的群落或人的部落monogamous 一夫一妻的polygamous一夫多妻的，一雄多雌的polyandrous 一妻多夫的，一雌多雄的trapper 诱捕动物者rhinoceros 犀牛niche 小生态环境vestige 退化器官，遗迹oyster 牡蛎fertilizer 使…受精larvae 幼虫tentacle 触角homotherm 恒温动物poikilotherm 变温动物metabolism 新陈代谢baboon 狒狒breed (名词)品种，（动词）繁殖multiply （reproduce）繁殖hatch 孵spawn (鱼、虾、蛙等)孵offspring (young) 解剖学anatomy 解剖学appetite 食欲creature 生物microbe 微生物herbivorous 食草的carnivorous 食肉的杂食的antennae)触须compound eye复眼thorax 胸部wing翅膀larva幼虫；幼体camouflage伪装beneficial有益的pest害虫pesticideworm虫；蠕虫flatworm扁虫（低等蠕虫）roundworm蛔虫；线虫segmented (worm)分节的adder小毒蛇rattlesnake响尾蛇cobra眼镜蛇venom毒液fang毒牙molt蜕皮coil盘绕caterpillarregeneration再生crocodile鳄鱼alligator美洲鳄驯养domesticationpre’datory (carnivorous) 食肉的prey（动词）捕食；（名词）被捕食的动物scavenger食腐动物falcon隼migrate迁移wing翅膀；翼bill（鸟）嘴beak（鹰等的）嘴nest筑巢nestleperch（鸟）飞落；暂栖flock to habitatmolt （鸟）脱羽毛dolphin海豚whale鲸鱼bat蝙蝠chimpanzee黑猩猩baboonprimitive(men)原始的civilized (men)文明的diversity品种多样gregarious (social)群居的habitat栖息地breed（名词）品种；（动物）繁殖reproduce繁殖, 复制, 使...在脑海中重现multiply (reproduce)繁殖mating交配hatch孵spawn（鱼、蛙等）产卵后代botanical (botanic) 植物的3word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.plant植物seed plant种子植物garden plant园艺植物…ing toolstropical plant热带植物grassland plant草原植物tundra plant冻原植物desert plant沙漠植物alpine plant高山植物marsh plant沼泽植物aquatic plant水生植物parasitic plant寄生植物host plant root 根stemmeshwork网状结构canopy树冠层；顶蓬foliage (leaf)叶leaflet小叶rosette(叶的)丛生stem茎stalk杆leafstalk叶柄shoot (sprout)嫩芽；抽枝flower花bud花蕾blossompetal花瓣wilt, fade 枯萎，凋谢flesh果肉stone果核core果心kernel果仁peel (skin)果皮shell (硬)果壳husk (干)果壳；（玉米）苞叶trunk树干branch树枝bough大或粗树枝twig小树枝bark树皮jungle丛林blade (of grass) 一片草叶tuft一丛草lawn草坪meadow草地；牧场prairie 大草原shrub (bush)灌木cluster 一簇（灌木）vine藤liana藤本植物fern蕨类植物herb芳草herbal teaphotosynthesis光合作用symbiosis共生autotrophic自养的heterotrophic异养的wither (shrivel; fade)凋谢wiltdieback顶死；回枯pollen花粉pollinate传授花粉pollination传粉；已授粉状态bacterium(pl.bacteria)细菌disinfection消毒enzymes酵母fermentation发酵inflection传染(感染)microbe微生物microorganism微生物sterilization灭菌toxin毒素氨基酸carbohydrate 碳水化合物carbon dioxide二氧化碳glucose 葡萄糖organism 有机物oxidation氧化protein 蛋白质civilized文明的brute-like野蛮的community社区；社会organization(association)组织institution 机构settlement定居；居民点custom风俗习惯incumbent 现任monarchy君主制abhorrence憎恶；讨厌empire帝国anarchism无政府主义federal system联邦制presidential system总统制Congress美国国会House of Senate 参议院ethnic(racial)种族的ethic 道德的poll民意调查pollster民意调查人questionnaire问题单；调查表respondent民意调查对象census人口调查（普查）protocol（外交）礼节courtesy有礼貌的举止manners (conduct)举止；礼貌office manners办公室礼仪solitude孤独isolationcompanion伙伴sociable善于交际ethics(morality)道德observe(abide by)遵守violate(breach)违反；破坏报答富裕的poverty贫困inequality不平等discontent不满grumbling(complaint)抱怨enmity(hatred) 仇视slander污蔑libel诽谤rebellion 反叛conflict(clash)冲突crash=collidediscord(disagreement)不和harmony和睦stability稳定交通与通信traffic signal 交通信号traffic marking 交通（道路）标线traffic regulation 交通规则traffic emergency 交通紧急情况traffic congestion(jam) 交通阻塞transport (动词)运输transportation (名词)运输；运输工具vehicle 交通工具；车辆prototype 原型wagon(carriage) 马车；篷车vessel 船；容器automobile (auto; car) 汽车taxicab (cab; taxi) 出租汽车bus 公共汽车truck 卡车van 运货车motorcycle 摩托车bicycle (bike) 自行车pedal 脚蹬；踏板handbar 车把gear 齿轮；（排）档engine 引擎；发动机gasoline engine 汽油发动机diesel engine 柴油发动机internal combustion 内燃cylinder 汽缸piston 活塞tank 油箱lubrication 润滑brake （名词）闸；（动词）刹车exhaust （名词和动词）排气emission 散发；排出（动词emit）fume 废气assemble 装配4word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.service (maintenance) 维修mechanic 机修工garage 车库license 执照parking 执照parking停车parking lot停车场（收费机）toll通行费driveway私人车道interchange交换道cloverleaf四叶式立体交叉intersection道路交叉口lane车道avenue(thoroughfare) 马路；街passenger 乘客crosswalk（穿马路）人行横道sidewalk（马路旁）人行道subterranean(underground)地底下platform站台locomotive火车头switch扳道；道岔car车厢commuter（来往于市郊之间）旅客haul拖；拉；运送freight 货物；货运container集装箱subway 地铁token专用辅币turnstile旋转栅门canoe 独木舟ship船；舰sailing航海；张帆航行Viking 斯堪的纳维亚人；北欧海盗cargo 货物barge驳船tanker油船steamboat汽船；轮船ocean liner远洋轮submarine潜水艇ferry渡船oar桨paddle（名词）短浆；（动词）用桨划row划船steer掌舵；驾驶bow(prow)船首stern船尾port左舷starboard右舷deck甲板on board(aboard)在船上；在汽车、火车、飞机上navigate航行（海、河、空中）log航海日志wreck沉船；残骸supersonic超音速jet喷气式飞机jet lag时差综合症runway机场跑道pilot飞行员crew全体机务人员；全体船员helicopter直升飞机vertical垂直的rotor旋翼hover空中盘旋rescue营救inaccessible难以到达（进入）的compass 指南针aeronautical航空的gesture手势printing印刷postal邮政的postage邮资postmark盖邮戳telegraph电报code密码decode 解密transmitter发报机cable电缆telephone(phone)电话telephone exchange电话局pager (beeper)拷机；BP机handset耳机；听筒dial拨电话operator接线员phonograph 留声机digital数字的；数字显示式videotape录像带telex电传broadcasting电台广播frequency频率entertainment娱乐dis jockey (DJ)音乐唱片节目播音员newscast新闻节目talk show访谈节目host (访谈)节目主持人；（女主持人hostess）announcer节目报告员；时事评论员；比赛讲解员walkie-talkie步话机remote control遥控studio播音室；演播室soundproof隔音control panel控制盘收费电视closed-circuit television闭路电视direct——broadcastsatellite(DBS)system卫星直播telecast (动词)电视广播；（名词）电视广播节目live现场直播relay转播zoom（可变焦距镜头）推近或拉远piecemeal零碎地；一个个地screen屏幕antenna天线confines(boundary)限制；边界linger延续；逗留8. PSYCHOLOGY心理学applied psychology应用心理学psychologist心理学家psychiatrist 精神病医师, 精神病学家psychological心理的psychological test心理测试psychological moment心理最佳时刻psychological warfare心理战psychotherapy 心理疗法conformity 一致；符合；从众majority 多数人mental 精神的minority 少数人physical 躯体的，物质的，物理的mental 心理的spiritual 精神的；心灵的subject受实验物件；学科threshold judgment （心理学）初始性behavioral pattern行为模式deportment (demeanor)行为举止；风度factor因素elementcause起因aspect方面motive动机modify (动词)矫正；修改negative displacementpositive …modification (名词)矫正overt 公开的extrovertedcovert 隐蔽的introverted 内向的, 含蓄的, 闭关自守的learning学习cognitive认识过程的；认识能力的empirical经验的；以经验为依据的conditioning条件作用association联想；观念的联合retarded智力迟钝的intelligence quotient (IQ)智商arithmetic 算术, 算法mental age智力年龄；心理年龄chronological age实龄chronicle .编年史v.编入编年史voluntary 自愿的5word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.6word 版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.involuntary 本能的；非自愿的 behaviorism 行为主义；行为主义心理学派unconscious 潜意识的 subconscious 下意识； instinct 本能psychiatric 精神病学的 mentally ill 精神疾患mental disorder 心理紊乱（失调） (psychopathology)变态心理学 耶洗别 jezebel 无耻放荡的女人，恶毒的女人 irrational 不合情理的 neuro-sis 神经机能病neurotic 神经官能症患者psychosis 神经错乱 psychotic 患精神病的insane(mad; lunatic)精神失常insane asylum(mental hospital)精神病院 flying over cockoo’s nest delusion 妄想；错觉 hysteria 歇斯底里；癔病 phobia 恐惧症 mania 狂躁paranoia 妄想；多疑 diffusion of responsibility9. PHYSIOLOGY 生理学physiologist 生理学家anatomy 解剖学；人体结构autopsy (postmortem examination)（尸体）解剖dissect (anatomize)解剖 scalpel 解剖刀 cell 细胞 tissue 组织 organ器官saliva 唾液intestine (bowel)肠 small intestine 小肠 large intestine 大肠 abdomen 腹部 anus 肛门 excrete 排泄 pancreas 胰腺 bile 胆汁skull 头颅 rib 肋骨spine 脊椎 muscle fiber 肌纤维voluntary muscle 随意肌；横纹肌 involuntary muscle (smooth muscle)平滑肌contract 收缩windpipe 气管 lung 肺 exhale 呼气 inhale 吸气arteriosclerosis 动脉硬化 (blood)vessel 血管artery 动脉 vein 静脉capillary 毛细管 plasma 血浆 liver 肝脏urinary bladder 膀胱 kidney 肾脏 puberty 发育期 egg 卵sperm 精子uterus (womb)子宫 fertilize 使受精chromosome 染色体pregnant 怀孕gene 基因 genetically embryo 胚胎 fetus 胎儿hormone 荷尔蒙 neuron 神经细胞；神经元 reflex 条件反射neuroscience (neurobiology)神经系统科学（神经生物学）10. FOOD 食品food chain 食物链health food (green foodstuff)保健食品（绿色食品）convenience food方便食品 edible 可食用的 inedible 不可食用的 diet 日常饮食 dietary 饮食的FDA (the Food and Drugflour 面粉 bread 面包 pastry 面点心pista 面条类食品yeast (leaven; ferment)（名词）酵母；（动物）发酵 fruit 水果(beef) steak 牛排；鱼排ground beef (hamburger) 绞牛肉；牛肉酱 pork 猪肉 mutton 羊肉cheese 奶酪 cream 奶油ice cream 冰淇淋 粉）；糖类glucose 葡萄糖 fructose 果糖 maltose 麦芽糖 starch 淀粉 fat 脂肪fat-free 不含脂肪的the least fattening, of course protein 蛋白质 vitamin 维生素 calorie 卡（路里）nourishing (nutritious) 有营养的 malnourished 营养不良preserve 保存 additive 添加剂 packaging 包装快餐部 coffee shop 咖啡馆；小吃店 cafeteria 自助餐馆 menu 菜谱bar 酒吧beverage 饮料 wine 葡萄酒 liquor 烈性酒alcoholic 含酒精的buffet (meal)自助餐7word 版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.egg （鸡）蛋fried egg (sunny-side up; over)荷包蛋（单煎一面；煎两面） scrambled egg 炒鸡蛋 poached egg 水煮荷包蛋ham and eggs(bacon; sausage)火腿蛋（熏咸肉；香肠） appetizer 开胃食品 course 一道菜dessert 甜食refreshments 茶点；点心spice (seasoning)香料；调味品 spread 涂抹食品的酱 dressing 填馅；调料 icing 蛋糕糖衣bake 烘（糕点等） roast 烤（肉等） barbecue 烧烤broil (grill)（在烤架等上面）烤 toast 烤（面包） stew (simmer)炖；焖 gourmet 美食家 connoisseur 鉴赏家11. PERSONALITY 个性character 性格characteristic(trait)特性；特征；特点 disposition(nature)性情；性格 temperament 气质；禀性 introvert 内向的 extrovert 外向的jubilant(exultant; rejoiced)喜悦的；喜气洋洋的ardent(fervent; passionate)热忱的 enthusiastic(warmhearted; zealous) 热心的；热情的sociable(social) 爱交际的 courteous 有礼貌的cordial(hearty; genial)热诚的；友善的 sincere(earnest; genuine)认真的；真心的 candid (frank; straightforward) 坦率的；直截了当的trustworthy(reliable; dependable)可信任的ingenuous 单纯的；天真无邪的amiable (amicable; affable)和蔼的；温柔的 considerate(thoughtful)体贴的；考虑周到的hospitable 殷勤好客的charitable(bountiful; generous)慈善的；慷慨的lenient(merciful; tolerant)宽容的；仁慈的 altruistic(unselfish)利他（主义）的 sympathetic(compassionate)同情的；怜悯的benevolent(humane; philanthropic)仁shrewd(sharp-minded)精明的 humorous 幽默的witty 机灵的；爱说风趣话的versatile (many-sided; multifaceted)多才多艺的competent(qualified)有才能的；够资格的prodigy(talent) 天才（尤指神童） assiduous(diligent; arduous; laborious)勤奋的；努力的ingenious(clever)心灵手巧的 judicious(wise; sensible)明智的frugal(thrifty; economical)勤俭节约的 intrusive(obtrusive)打扰人的；闯入的 impetuous(hasty)急躁的；鲁莽的 impulsive(rash)动的；莽撞的whimsical(odd; eccentric)多怪念头的；古怪的fanatic 狂热的vigilant(alert; watchful; wary)警觉的 incredulous(unbelieving)不轻信的 cautious (careful; prudent)谨慎的 scrupulous(discreet)严谨的 reticent (quiet; silent)缄默的composed (cool; calm; self-controlled)镇静的抑郁的；沉闷的depressed(dejected)压抑的 frustrated(disappointed)沮丧的 disillusioned 失望的；幻想破灭的 dispirited(down-hearted)情绪低落的 remorseful(regretful)悔恨的 pessimistic 悲观的忧虑的 dependent 依赖的docile(obedient)顺从的humble(unpretentious)谦恭的 sluggish(inactive; inert)无生气的tardy(unpunctual)行动缓慢的；不准时的adamant(dogged; insistent; unbending)坚定不移的indomitable(tenacious)不屈不饶的 undaunted(dauntless; intrepid)大无畏的 defiant(disobedient; challenging)公然不服从的conceited(proud)骄傲的 haughty(arrogant; supercilious)高傲的 dominant(governing)支配的；统治的 domineering(overbearing; tyrannical)盛气凌人的；专横的presumptuous(daring; audacious)放肆的；胆大妄为的imprudent (indiscreet; heedless)鲁莽的；厚颜的hostile(unfriendly)敌视的 sadistic 虐待狂的impertinent (rude; insolent)粗鲁的；无理的offensive (irritating; annoying)冒犯的；恼人的bad-tempered(ill-humored)坏脾气的 relentless(unrelenting)无情的 reckless(heedless)不顾后果的fraudulent (deceitful; dishonest)欺诈的；骗人的volatile(fickle; capricious; frivolous)多变的；反复无常的spiteful(hurtful, malicious)恶毒的avaricious(rapacious; greedy)贪婪的 stingy(miserly)吝啬的 snobbish 势利的clumsy(awkward)笨拙的ignorant(uninformed) 无知的incompetent(incapable; unfit)无能的；不胜任的irresponsible(untrustworthy; unreliable)不负责任的；不可靠的不冷不热的 placid(mild)温和的；宁静的apathetic(indifferent; unconcerned)冷漠的 detached(impartial)不偏不倚的 disinterested(fair; unbiased; unprejudiced)公正的12. MEDICINE 医学medicinal 药的；药用的 medicinal herb 草药medical 医学的；内科的medical care (treatment)医疗medical examination (checkup)体格检查 medical certificate 医生证明remedy(therapy)疗法injection注射anesthetic (narcotic)麻醉剂hypnosis催眠术surgery外科手术antibiotic抗生素antiviral抗病毒药antitumor drug抗肿瘤药；抗癌药sulfa磺胺类药analgesic (pain-killer) 镇痛药tranquilizer镇静剂opiate 镇静剂；麻醉剂contraceptive避孕药tonic补药lotion药水ointment药膏elixir (panacea; cure-all)万灵药euthanasia (mercy killing)安乐死administer服用（药物）pediatrician儿科医生dentist (dental surgeon)牙科医生gerontologist老年病医生dietician营养学家therapist (某种疗法制)治疗专家radiologist放射科医生anesthetist麻醉师pharmacist (druggist) 药剂师practitioner （私人）开业医生dispensary (pharmacy) 药房急救afflict 使受（疾病）之苦symptom症状coma (unconsciousness; faint)昏厥indigestion消化不良nauseate (vomit)呕吐diarrhea泻肚injury(cut; wound)受伤bruise淤伤；青肿hemorrhage (bleeding)出血disabled (handicapped)残废deformity (malformation; misshape)畸形cripple (limp; lame)跛足myopia (nearsightedness)近视眼AIDS 爱滋病syphillis梅毒cancer癌症carcinogen致癌物benign良性malignant恶性epidemic流行病endemic地方流行的（病）incidence发病率toll伤亡；死亡influenza (flu)流感measles麻疹malaria疟疾cholera霍乱contagious（接触）传染的contaminate污染；感染inflammation炎症microorganism(germ; bacteria)微生物；细菌virus病毒susceptible 易患（某种）疾病chicken pox水痘mumps腮腺炎tuberculosis肺炎hepatitis 肝炎polio脊髓灰质炎；小儿麻痹症血吸虫病hypertension (high blood pressure)高血压heart attack心力衰竭；心脏病发作stroke中风electrocardiograph心电图arthritis关节炎rheumatism风湿病diabetes糖尿病bronchitis支气管炎anemia 贫血insomnia失眠症obesity肥胖症allergy过敏asthma气喘；哮喘appendicitis阑尾炎chronic慢性inspect（食品等的）检查immunization免疫vaccination疫苗complication并发症incubator（婴儿）恒温箱13. MATHEMATICS数学pure mathematics纯粹数学applied mathematics应用数学calculator计算器abacus算盘numeral数字sum和total (sum total)总和；总数aggregate总计fraction分数；小数decimal 十进位；（十进）小数digit数字；数位percentage 百分比addition加法plus加以subtraction减法minus减去multiplication乘法multiplication table乘法表multiply乘以times（介词）乘以power乘方square平方division除法divide除以over(介词)除以denominator分母numerator分子quotient商unknown quantity未知数（量）equation方程式；等式formula (复数formulas formulae)公式root根square root平方根平面几何solid geometry立体几何geometric几何的dimension维parallel （形容词）平行的；（名词）平行线perpendicular (vertical) 垂直的quadrilateral四边形square正方形area面积rectangle (oblong)长方形；矩形polygon多边形rhombus菱形；菱形六面体trapezoid 梯形cube立方形volume体积sphere球形circle圆形ellipse (oval)椭圆形cone圆锥形circumference圆周diameter直径equilateral triangle等边三角形angle角right angle直角acute angle锐角obtuse angle钝角degree （角）度8word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.9word 版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.微分学 integral calculus 积分学statistics 统计 tabulating 列表quantitative 量的；数量的 qualitative 质的；质量的 summarization 总结；归纳sample 抽样random 随机的；任意的 logic 逻辑deduction (inference) 推论；演绎 induction 归纳hi-tech (high tech; high technology)高科技sophisticated (advanced)先进的 precision 精密；精确electronic robot 电子机器人 electronic camera 电子摄像 electronic organ 电子琴electronic hearing aid 电子助听器Internet 电脑互联网络；因特网 World Wide Web WWW 网络 modem 调制——解调器information superhighway 信息高速公路 on-line service 网上服务 microcomputer 微型电脑cellular phone (telephone)大哥大；移动电话cordless telephone 无绳电话通讯卫星微波炉 激光唱片；光盘 CD-ROM 光盘只读存储器fiber-optic cable 光纤电缆fiber-optic communication system光纤solar collector (furnace)太阳能收集器 solar cell 太阳电池synthetic （名词）合成物 counterpart 对应的物或人 synthetic resin 合成树脂organ transplanting 器官移值 artificial insemination 人工授精 clone 克隆；复制15. EDUCATION 教育preschool(preelementary)education 学龄前儿童教育elementary (primary) education 初等教育 secondary education 中等教育tertiary(higher) education 高等教育 adult education(continuing education)成人教育special education 特殊教育 education 教育的educational facilities 教育设施 compulsory 义务的；强制的 intellectual 智力的human resource development (training)人才开发；培训 acquisition 获得moral character 道德品质elementary school 小学 middle school 初中 high school 高中vocational high school 职业学校 technical high school 技校institution of higher learning(education))学院 community college 社区大学 institute （专科）学院；研究院 department 系 campus 校园catering (meals)膳食accommodation （lodging ）住宿 grader 某年级学生freshman （大学和高中）一年级学生 sophomore （大学和高中）二年级学生 junior （大学和高中）三年级学生senior （大学和高中）四年级学生 undergraduate 本科生 graduate(student)研究生fellow （大学接受奖学金的）研究生 academic 学术的academic performance 学习/业表现 transcript 学生成绩报告单 credit (credit hour)学分grade(score)分数；分数等级 grade point 积分点grade-point average 平均积分点 pass-fail option 考查课graduation thesis(paper)毕业论文 completion (of studies)完成学业satisfy (fulfil; meet) the requirements 达到要求（考试及格）commencement (graduation)exercise admissions office 招生办公室 entrance examination 入学考试Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)学习能力倾向测验recipient 接受者 semester(term)学期 quarter 学季summer session 夏季班 tuition学费non-refundable 不退还的prospective 未来的；即将成为的 financial aid (assistance)资助 stipend 奖学金scholarship （本科生）奖学金 fellowship （研究生）奖学金assistantship （半工半读）奖学金 program 教学计划；课程 discipline 学科liberal arts(humanities)文科 science course 理科 engineering course 工科 curriculum 全部课程 extracurricular 课外的 syllabus 教学大纲 vacation(holiday)假日 course 课程introductory course 基础课程 required course 必修课 elective(course)选修课treasurer 生活委员/财务大臣 elective system 选课制度 learn by rote 死记硬背encyclopedias 百科全书/专科全书 honor course(为)优秀生（开的）课 major 专业seminar 讨论会；研究班课程award (confer)授予（学位、证书） diploma (graduation certificate)毕业证书 degree 学位associate degree 准学士学位 bachelor’s degree 学士学位 master’s degree 硕士学位do ctor’s degree (doctorate)博士学位 educational background (education)学历 qualification 资格 honor 奖励；荣誉experience (work experience)工作经历 special skill 特殊技能proficiency （语言）精通；熟练 expertise 专长personal (personal information)个人情况marital status婚姻状况reference推荐人；介绍人推荐信professor（正）教授associate professor副教授assistant professor助理教授instructor（大学）讲师tutor（大学）助教chairman(chair) 系主任dean（大学学院）院长principal(中、小学)校长president (chancellor)（大学）校长alumnus（复数alumni）男/校友alumna(复数alumnae)女校友alma mater母校16. 建筑学a glass-shelf framed in a metal gridprototype原型architecture建筑学architect建筑学家beam 梁building material建筑材料building technique 建筑工艺construct/construction建设design element 设计元素elevator 电梯gas station 加油站glass boxlog structure 原木结构metal-frame 金属结构new material 新材料office building写字楼planetarium天文馆archives档案馆aquarium水族馆cabin 小木屋castle城堡cathedral大教堂mosque清真寺pyramid金字塔repair person修理工skyscraper摩天楼Sphinx狮身人面像the Statue of Liberty自由女神像the Triumphal Arch凯旋门wing 辐楼/侧楼17. 电影animated cartoon卡通片cameraman摄影caption字幕cartoon卡通片cast演员表；全体演员close-up特写镜头director导演documentary纪录片editing剪接feature film故事片illumination照明light effect灯光效果long shot远摄montage蒙太奇newsreel新闻片review试演script电影剧本setting布景shoot film拍摄电影sound effect音响效果studio电影厂theme song主题歌18. 摄影photographycamera lens相机镜头close-up特写darkroom暗室depth of field景深developing冲洗enlarge放大exposure爆光filter滤色镜focus焦点background背景foreground 前景high definition高清晰度instant camera拍立得lens镜头focus lens长镜头out of focus调焦不准panorama全景照photographer摄影家snap shot快照tripod三角架wide angle lens广角镜头19. 美术(绘画和雕塑)brush 画笔canvas油画布drawing board画板caricature漫画charcoal drawing木炭画engraving版画landscape painting风景画lithograph石版画fresco 壁画mural壁画mural painting壁画Oil painting油画pastel 彩粉画portrait肖像画sketch速写；素描still life静物画water color水彩画tempera蛋彩画panorama全景画pastel彩色蜡笔画poster海报/招贴画genuine真的fake假的fine arts美术gallery美术馆mix colors 调色original原作copy临本perspective 透视画法replica复制品reproduction复制品sculptor雕塑家statue塑像bust半身雕塑像figurine小雕像sculpture雕塑framing装框pigment 颜色，色素autograph 真迹calligraphy书法paste裱糊impressionistic style印象派风格animator 漫画家indigo靛蓝purple紫色20. 文学prose散文diary日记autobiography传记editorial社论narrative prose 叙述descriptive prose描写性essay随笔poetry 诗歌ballad 民谣Lullaby 催眠曲Fiction 小说allegory 寓言fairy tale 童话legend 传说proverb谚语prelude序曲prologue 序言epilogue 尾声model人物原型leading character主人公main plot主要情节protagonist主人公literary criticism文学批评literary studies文学研究Schools of literature文学流派Comparative literature比较文学Realism现实主义Modernism现代主义Aestheticism唯美主义Futurism 未来主义vignette小品文prolific多产21. 舞蹈10word版本可编辑.欢迎下载支持.。

大气辐射学英语Atmospheric radiative transfer is the study of how energy is transported through the Earth's atmosphere via electromagnetic radiation. This process is crucial in determining the Earth's energy budget and climate system. The atmosphere interacts with incoming solar radiation, outgoing terrestrial radiation, and emitted radiation from various atmospheric constituents, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and aerosols. Understanding the radiative transfer processes in the atmosphere is essential for predicting weather patterns, climate change, and for various applications such as remote sensing and satellite communication.Radiative transfer in the atmosphere is governed by the principles of absorption, emission, and scattering of electromagnetic radiation. When solar radiation enters the atmosphere, it is either absorbed by gases and particles, scattered in various directions, or transmitted through the atmosphere to the Earth's surface. The Earth's surface then absorbs some of this incoming radiation, and re-emits it as terrestrial radiation. This terrestrial radiation isfurther absorbed, scattered, and re-emitted as it travels back through the atmosphere and into space.The role of greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide, in the radiative transfer process is particularly important. These gases have the ability to absorb and re-emit terrestrial radiation, thus trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere. This phenomenon, known as the greenhouse effect, is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a habitable range. However, human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have led to an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, resulting in enhanced radiativeforcing and global warming.In addition to greenhouse gases, aerosols also play a significant role in atmospheric radiative transfer. Aerosols can scatter and absorb solar and terrestrial radiation, leading to changes in the energy distribution within the atmosphere and at the Earth's surface. The interaction between aerosols and radiation is an active area of research, as it has implications for climate modeling and air quality assessments.The study of atmospheric radiative transfer involves the use of mathematical models and computer simulations to quantify the complex interactions between radiation and the atmosphere. These models take into account the properties of gases, aerosols, clouds, and the Earth's surface, and are used to understand and predict the behavior of the atmosphere under different conditions. Remote sensing techniques, such as satellite observations and ground-based measurements, provide valuable data for validating and improving these models.Overall, atmospheric radiative transfer is a fundamental process that influences the Earth's energy balance and climate. Understanding the interactions between radiation and the atmosphere is crucial for addressing environmental challenges such as climate change, air pollution, and extreme weather events.大气辐射学是研究能量如何通过电磁辐射在地球大气中传输的学科。

Modeling growth rate of HfO 2thin films grown by metal–organicmolecular beam epitaxyMyoung-Seok Kim a ,Young-Don Ko a ,Tae-Houng Moon b ,Jae-Min Myoung b ,Ilgu Yun a,*aDepartment of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,Yonsei University,134Shinchon-Dong,Seodaemun-Gu,Seoul 120-749,South Korea bDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering,Yonsei University,134Shinchon-Dong,Seodaemun-Gu,Seoul 120-749,South KoreaReceived 30December 2004;received in revised form 6April 2005;accepted 12April 2005Available online 13June 2005AbstractHfO 2dielectric layers were grown on the p-type Si (100)substrate by metal–organic molecular beam epitaxy (MOMBE).Hafnium-tetra-butoxide,Hf(O $t -C 4H 9)4was used as a Hf precursor and Argon gas was used as a carrier gas.The thickness of the HfO 2film and intermediate SiO 2layer were measured by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM).The properties of the HfO 2layers were evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD),X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS),high frequency (HF)capacitance–voltage (C–V)measurement,and current–voltage (I–V)measurement.C–V and I–V measurements have shown that HfO 2layer grown by MOMBE has a high dielectric constant (k )of 20–22and a low-level of leakage current density.The growth rate is affected by various process variables such as substrate temperature,bubbler temperature,Ar and O 2gas flows and growth time.Since the ratio of O 2and Ar gas flows are closely correlated,the effect of variations in O 2/Ar flow ratio on growth rate is also investigated using statistical modeling methodology.q 2005Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Keywords:HfO 2;Gate dielectric;Thin film;Process modeling;MOMBE1.IntroductionThe rapid progress of complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS)integrated circuit technology since the late 1980s resulted in the reduction of the gate oxide thickness.With the reduction of gate dielectric thickness to a few nanometers,higher dielectric constant material than the conventional SiO 2(i.e.high-k material)is needed to overcome the problem of an exponential increase in the leakage current level due to direct tunneling.Many researches for high-k dielectric materials such as ZrO 2,Ta 2O 5,Al 2O 3,HfO 2,TiO 2,silicates (ZrSi x O y and HfSi x O y ),STO,and BST have been performed [1–5].Among these candidates,HfO 2is one of the most highlighted high-k gate insulators because of its high dielectric constant (25–30),wide band-gap energy (5.68eV),high breakdown field (15–20MV/cm 2),and good thermal stability on Si substrate.The growth method of high-k materials is also an important factor to determine the property of gate dielectric layer.In our experiments,we searched appro-priate experimental conditions and examined the character-istics of HfO 2films using metal–organic molecular beam epitaxy (MOMBE)system.MOMBE is one of the powerful techniques obtaining abrupt interface and controlled thickness of films,mainly due to source evaporation at a controlled rate under ultra high vacuum condition [6].In this paper,the relationships between the growth rate of HfO 2films grown by MOMBE and process variables of MOMBE systems are investigated.The electrical characteristics of HfO 2films are investigated by high frequency (HF)capacitance–voltage (C–V)and current–voltage (I–V)measurements.X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS),scanning electron microscopy (SEM),high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM),and X-ray diffraction (XRD)were also performed to analyze the HfO 2films grown by MOMBEsystems.Microelectronics Journal 37(2006)98–106/locate/mejo0026-2692/$-see front matter q 2005Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.mejo.2005.04.055*Corresponding author.Tel.:C 8221234619;fax:C 823132879.E-mail address:iyun@yonsei.ac.kr (I.Yun).2.ExperimentHfO2thinfilm was grown on a p-type Si(100)substrate, of which the native oxide was chemically eliminated by (50:1)H2O/HF solution prior to growth by MOMBE. Hafnium-tetra-butoxide[Hf(O$t-C4H9)4]was chosen as the MO precursor because it has a appropriate vapor pressure and relatively low decomposition temperature.High-purity (99.999%)oxygen gas was used as the oxidant.Hf-t butoxide was introduced into the main chamber using Ar as a carrier gas through a bubbling cylinder.The bubbler was maintained at a constant temperature to supply the constant vapor pressure of Hf-source.The apparatus of the system is schematically shown in Fig.1.High-purity Ar carrier gas passed through the bubbler containing the Hf-source.The gas line from the bubbler to the nozzle was heated to the same temperature.The mixture of Ar and metal–organic gases heated at the tip of the nozzleflows into the main chamber.The introduced Hf-source decomposed into Hf and ligand parts when it reached a substrate maintained at high temperature and the Hf ion was combined with O2gas supplied from another nozzle.The base pressure and working pressure were w10K9and w10K7Torr,respect-ively.Annealing at7008C for2min was carried out following the growth of thefilms to diminish the density of the interfacial charged particles[7].Detailed experimental conditions are listed in Table1.3.Result and discussionThe metal-oxide-semiconductor(MOS)capacitor struc-ture Au/HfO2/p-type Si was fabricated to measure its electrical characteristics.The high frequency(1MHz)C–V curve and I–V curve of HfO2films grown by MOMBE are shown in Fig.2.From measured capacitance and physical thickness,the dielectric constant and the equivalent oxide thickness can be obtained.Actually,the total capacitance must be calculated as series connection of HfO2layer capacitance and SiO2layer capacitance because an unexpected SiO2layer between HfO2and p-Si substrate shown in Fig.3affects the total capacitance strongly[8]. The thickness of SiO2layers was measured by HRTEM and had a value of10–20A˚with experimental conditions.It can be identified by TEM images that the formation of SiO2was affected by experimental conditions such as the growth time [9],O2/Ar gas ratio,and substrate temperature(not shown in here).The formation of SiO2layer is attributed to the excess oxygen during thefilm growth and should be eliminated or minimized because of its low dielectric constant.In addition,HfO2samples grown at substrate temperature of 4008C showed an amorphous nature in Fig.3(a).However, when the substrate temperature was at4508C,a large portion of the HfO2film was crystallized and some of the grain boundaries were observed in Fig.3(b).Ignoring the depletion region effect,the dielectric constant(k Z20–22) can be calculated.This relative low dielectric constantFig.1.Schematic illustration of MOMBE system.Table1Experimental conditionsProcess variables RangeSubstrate temperature300–6008CBubbler temperature70–1308CNozzle temperature2708C(Fixed)Base pressure10K9TorrWorking pressure10K7TorrGasflow(Ar)2–6sccmGasflow(O2)1–8sccmGrowth time20,30,40,50,60minRapid thermal annealing temp.7008C(2min in N2ambient) M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal37(2006)98–10699compared with the bulk HfO 2dielectric constant (k Z 25–30)may be due to the polycrystalline nature of the grown HfO 2films and Hf–silicate interfacial layer (not identified in HRTEM image but other research showed that HfO 2/SiO 2interface are marginally unstable with respect to formation of silicates [10])that has lower dielectric constant compared with the bulk HfO 2.Generally,the thickness resulted from C–V curve is slightly higher than that from SEM.This may be due to two major quantum effects:(i)additional band bending because of surface electrons (or holes)above the edge of conduction band and (ii)presence of charge centroid [7].Fixed oxide charge density (w 8!1011/cm K 2)and interface state density (w 1!1012eV K 1cm K 2),attributing to the interface trap density in the oxide layer,were calculated using the flat-band voltage shift [11],and Lehovec’s equation [12].The level of leakage current densities of HfO 2film at positive gate bias (0w 2V)and at negative gate bias (0w K 2V)is approximately 10K 9A/cm 2and 10K 7A/cm 2,respectively,which are relatively low levels compared with that of the conventional SiO 2.Through screening experiments at different experimental conditions,it was identified that the growth rate of HfO 2films grown by MOMBE system was affected by many process variables.Among these process variables,the substrate temperature,bubbler temperature,growth time,Ar and O 2gas flow were chosen as main process variables to determine the properties and the growth rate of HfO 2films.It is shown the relationship between the growth rate and the substrate temperature in Fig.4.Through experiments in various conditions,we have found that there were two regions showing a different trend in growth rate (region a and region b).At below 3008C,there has been found almost no growth of HfO 2layer.When the substrate temperature reached at 4508C,the growth rate had a maximum value,and decreased with increasing substrate temperature until at 6008C.To investigate the region a,SEM images of HfO 2films grown by MOMBE at different substrate temperature (3008C w 4508C)were shown in Fig.5.As shown in Fig.5(a),it was found that HfO 2film was not grown under the temperature of 3008C because Hf source was not effectively decomposed.At the temperature of 3508C,HfO 2films began to grow,and the crystallization of HfO 2films were enhanced as the substrate temperature increased,shown in Fig.5(b)–(d).In our MOMBE system,HfO 2filmsFig.2.High frequency C–V and I–V characteristics of HfO 2film grown by MOMBE:(a)C–V curve and (b)I–Vcurve.Fig.3.HRTEM images of HfO 2film grown by MOMBE:(a)4008C and (b)4508C.M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal 37(2006)98–106100grown at4508C of the substrate temperature showed the thickfilm thickness(rge growth rate)and fully crystallized structure.In order to examine the region b, XRD spectra of HfO2films grown at450and5508C of the substrate temperature are shown in Fig.6.HfO2films have been found to exist in monoclinic phase,tetragonal phase,cubic phase,and amorphous structure[13–16].This crystal structure depends on the growth method and experimental condition of HfO2films.It was found that there were monoclinic(m)and tetragonal(t)phase in our HfO2films grown by MOMBE system,and monoclinic phase(m)was dominant.Through XRD spectra,it was shown that the crystal structure of HfO2films was changed with the substrate temperature.At4508C,various crystal phase and crystal direction were shown in XRD spectrum. However,at5508C,the overall XRD spectrum became simple and some peaks disappeared.So,it can be assumed that the excess thermal energy from higher substrate temperature does not contribute to the growth offilms but only change the crystal structure of HfO2films.Another explanation for region b is related to the small crystallite size at higher substrate temperature.From each XRD spectrum,the crystallite size of HfO2films in different substrate temperature was ing Scherrer’s formula[17],the calculated crystallite size is approximately 7.2nm at4508C and4.6nm at5508C,respectively.It shows that the substrate temperature beyond a certain level limits the growth of crystallite size.In other research related to ZrO2film[18],it was shown that the incorporation of the hydrocarbon-rich environments limits the crystallite size. The decomposition rate of Hf-t-butoxide source increases with increasing substrate temperature.Fully decomposed source due to the high substrate temperature makes a chamber of MOMBE the hydrocarbon-rich circumstances. The incorporation of the hydrocarbon-rich circumstances limits the crystallite size,andfinally limits the growth rate. If we remind that HfO2and ZrO2is II–VI compound which have similar properties,this explanation can be persuasive. In addition,the observed XRD peak locations are not shifted to any particular direction,so it is possible tosuppose Fig.5.SEM images of HfO2films at different substrate temperature:(a)3008C,(b)3508C,(c)4008C,and(d)4508C.that there is no uniform tensile or compressive stress in the film[17].The relationship between the growth rate and the bubbler temperature is shown in Fig.7.It shows that the growth rate of HfO2films is a linear function of the bubbler temperature. If we remind of the fact that the bubbler temperature in MOMBE process is the major control parameter of transferred volume of Hf precursor,this phenomenon can be easily understood.The relationships between the growth rate and gasflows are shown in Figs.8and9.It is shown that the growth rate of HfO2films increases with increasing gasflow of carrier gas (Ar).They also showed that the growth rate of HfO2films increases with increasing gasflow of oxidant(O2).But the tendency of increasing growth rate is not linear,and the effects of O2/Ar gasflow ratio must be also taken into account[19,20].As the O2/Ar ratio was varied,an ionic species that dominate the deposition process can be also varied,and it can affect characteristics of HfO2films such as dielectric constant,surface morphology,fixed charge concentration and the growth rate.To investigate the effect of O2/Ar gas ratio more,XPS analysis was performed. Fig.10(a)shows the XPS spectra for Hf4f level that were calibrated from C1s peak at284.5eV.It was shown each spectrum at different O2gasflow(2–8sccm and Ar gasflow wasfixed at2sccm).As shown in Fig.10(a),the Hf4f5/2 and Hf4f7/2peaks,which have binding energies of16.05eV and17.76eV,respectively,related to Hf–O bonding in HfO2,shifted to the higher binding energy with increasing of O2gasflow.The origins of binding energy shiftare Fig.7.Growth rate of HfO2films in different bubblertemperature.Fig.8.Growth rate of HfO2films in different gasflow(Ar).Fig.9.Growth rate of HfO2films in different gasflow(O2). Fig.6.XRD spectra of HfO2films at different substrate temperature(450and5508C).M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal37(2006)98–106102suggested as a number of factors such as charge transfer effect,presence of electric field,environmental charge density,and hybridization.Among these,charge transfer is regarded as a dominant mechanism causing a binding energy shift.According to the charge transfer mechanism,removing an electron from the valence orbital generates increase in core electron’s potential and finally leads a chemical binding energy shift [21].Therefore,it is considered that the Hf 4f 5/2and Hf 4f 7/2peaks shift (D BE Z 0.6eV)originated from the enhanced charge transfer with increasing O 2gas flow,i.e.the larger portion of Hf atoms was fully oxidized with increasing O 2gas flow.Fig.10(b)shows the O 1s core level peaks also demonstrated binding energy shift with changing of O 2gas flow.Each peak can be split into two sub-peaks by Gaussian fitting which represent the Hf–O bonding at w 531eV and O–C or O–Si bonding at w 532.5eV [22,23].The relative quantities of Hf and O elements incorporated in the layer can be obtained by comparing the areas of Hf 4f peak and O 1s sub-peak for Hf–O bonding.The relationship between growth time and growth rate is shown in Fig.11.Growth time is critical and direct factor to determine the growth rate.Through the Fig.11,it can be identified that the growth rate increases with increasing growth time.It shows that growth rate and growth time have the linear relationship over 20min of growth time.However,there were no experimental results about the growth rate below the 20min of growth time.Considering other research related with the growth rate of thin films,it can be assumed that the growth rate has a logarithm function of growth time,and more experiments for the growth rate below 20min of the growth time willbeFig.10.XPS spectra of HfO 2film grown by MOMBE:(a)Hf and (b)O.Fig.11.Growth rate of HfO 2films at different growthtime.Fig.12.XRD spectra of HfO 2films at different growth time.M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal 37(2006)98–106103needed to fully understand the relationship between the growth rate and the growth time.XRD spectra and SEM images of HfO 2films grown at different growth time are shown in Figs.11and 12.It can be also identified that the growth time affects the crystal structure of HfO 2films (Fig.13).The growth rate in the deposition process is one of the important factors,which can determine optical and electrical characteristics.Therefore,the statistical modeling methodology is used to predict the response factor and analyze the relationship between input factors to reduce the time and the cost for the manufacturing process.Prior to the modeling,the experimental design matrix is generated by using factorial design to reduce the runs of the experiment and then add to the additional points,center point and star point,to cover the weak ranges for the predicted model [24].Response surface methodology (RSM)is a collection of mathematical and statistical techniques that are useful for the modeling and analysis of problem in which a response is influenced by several variables and the objective is to optimize the response [25].Response surface models maybe represented as the full quadratic model:y Z b 0CX n i Z 1b i X i CX n j Z i C 1X n i Z 1b ij X i X j CX n i Z 1b ij X 2i Where y is the response variable,n is the number ofindependent process factor,b are model coefficient,and X i are process factor values.The order in which experiments were performed has been randomized to avoid statistically the effect of irrelevant factors,which may be present,but not considered in this paper.The residual plot describes the difference between the predicted value and the measured value.One of the assumptions of this analysis is that the residuals are both normally and randomly distributed with zero mean and unit variance.The predicted model based on the statistical methodology can characterize the certain process factors without many experiments and identify the accuracy and validity of our model.In our paper,we performed the statistical modeling about the growth rate in different O 2/Ar gas ratio to verify the effect of gas flows on growth rate.The design matrix using the 2-factor factorial method and additional one center point and two star points is summarized in Table 2.At first,we performed the analysis of variance (ANOVA)to calculate the P -values that indicate whether the process variables are statistically significant on the response.Based in theresultsFig.13.SEM images of HfO 2films at different growth time (30,40,and 50min.)Table 2Design of experiment for the effect of O 2/Ar ratio Run O 2flow rate Ar flow rate 1K 1K 12K 112-factor31K 1Factorial design 411500Center point 601Star point 7K 1Star pointP -value of the simple regression modelTable 3Results of experimental design Factor Statistical significance Growth rate O 2gas flow 0.0027Ar gas flow0.0185M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal 37(2006)98–106104shown in Table 3,it is verified that O 2and Ar gas flows are statistically significant on the growth rate.In addition,we calculated the regression coefficients by means of the least square estimation method.In this way,we could extract the simple linear regression model for O 2/Ar ratio effect on the growth rate of HfO 2film.Fig.14shows that the plot of residual versus fitted value.We assumed that the residuals are both normally and randomly distributed.[24].It is observed that for randomized run orders,the residuals are scattered about zero and there is no special features or patterns in residuals.The contour plot of response surface is shown in Fig.15.The plot shows that when the one of gases (Ar or O 2)is insufficient compared to the other,the growth rate is restricted,and when both gas flows are sufficient,the growth rate has a high level.Also we could identify that Argas flow and O 2gas flow are closely correlated.When O 2/Ar ratio is about unity,the growth rate had a tendency to increase steeply.4.ConclusionThe characteristics of the HfO 2dielectric layer on the p-type Si substrate by MOMBE process were investigated.HfO 2films grown by MOMBE had a high dielectric constant (k Z 20–22).It was identified that there existed the fixed oxide charge (w 8!1011cm K 2)and interface state density (w 1!1012eV K 1cm K 2)in the HfO 2layer.Leakage current density of HfO 2film grown by MOMBE is about 10K 9–10K 7A/cm 2in K 2to 2V gate voltage.It is observed that the growth rate of HfO 2film was affected by the substrate temperature due to changing of growth direction,crystal structure,and crystallite size.It was also revealed that the HfO 2film grown by MOMBE had monoclinic and tetragonal phase and there was no uniform strain.The growth rate increased with increasing the bubbler tempera-ture.The effects of gas flows on the growth rate were also investigated by SEM and XPS.It is observed that the low level of gas flows limited the growth of films.In addition,it was founded that the growth time greatly affected the growth rate of HfO 2fiing the statistical modeling methodology,it can be concluded that the low level of gas flows limited the growth rate,and the growth rate was appeared to be increased when O 2gas flow rate is almost comparable to Ar gas flow rate with sufficient flowrate.Fig.14.Residual plot of simple regressionmodel.Fig.15.Contour plot of response surface for growth rate.M.-S.Kim et al./Microelectronics Journal 37(2006)98–106105AcknowledgementsThis research was supported by the MIC(Ministry of Information and Communication),Korea,under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center)support pro-gram supervised by the IITA(Institute of Information Technology Assessment)References[1]M.Copel,M.Gribelyuk,E.Gusev,Applied Physics Letter76(4)(2000)436.[2]G.B.Alers,R.M.Fleming,Y.H.Wong,B.Dennis,A.Pinczuk,G.Redinbo,R.Urdahl,E.Ong,Z.Hasan,Applied Physics Letter72(11)(1998)1308.[3]Stefan Jakschik,Uwe Schroeder,Thomas Hecht,Dietmar Krueger,Guenther Dollinger,Andreas Bergmaier,Claudia Luhmann,Johann W.Bartha,Journal of Applied Surface211(2003)352.[4]Q.Fang,J.Y.Zhang,Z.M.Wang,J.X.Wu, B.J.O’Sullivan,P.K.Hurley,T.L.Leedham,H.Davies,M.A.Audier,C.Jimenez, J.-P.Senateur,Ian W Boyd,Thin Solid Films427(2003)391.[5]J.P.Chang,Y.S.Lin,Appled Physics Letter79(22)(2001)3666.[6]Q.Fang,Organometallic Vapor-Phase Epitaxy:Theory and Practice,second ed,Academic Press,San Diego,USA,1999.[7]Alvin Chi-hai Ng,Jun Xu,J.B.Xu,W.Y.Cheung,Electron DeviceMeeting,IEEE Hong-Kong,2001,101.[8]G.D.Wilk,R.M.Wallace,J.M.Anthony,Journal of Applied Physics89(2001)5243.[9]Tae-Hyoung Moon,Moon-ho Ham,Myoung-Seok Kim,Ilgu Yun,Jae-Min Myoung,Applied Surface Science240(2005)105.[10]Maciej Gusowski,John E.Jaffe,Chun-Li Liu,Matt Stoker,RamaI.Hegde,Raghaw S.Rai,Philip J.Tobin,Applied Physics Letter80(11)(2002)1897.[11]Q.Fang,E.H.Nicollian,MOS(metal-oxide-semiconductor)physicsand 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Pollution：环境污染相关英语词汇集锦污染物aerosols 气溶胶/ 气雾剂agricultural wastes 农业废物asbestos 石棉commercial noise 商业噪音composite pollution 混合污染dioxins 二恶英hazardous substances 危险物质hazardous wastes 危险废物heavy metals 重金属hospital wastes 医院废物industrial effluents 工业废水industrial emissions 工业排放物industrial fumes 工业烟尘industrial noise 工业噪声inorganic pollutants 无机污染物lead contamination 铅污染liquid wastes 液体废物litter 丢弃物/ 废气物mercury contamination 汞污染micropollutants 微污染物mining wastes 采矿废物motor vehicle emissions 机动车辆排放物municipal waste 城市废物nitrogen oxides 氮氧化物noise pollution 噪声污染odour nuisance 恶臭公害organic pollutants 有机物污染persistent organic pollutants 难降解有机污染物pharmaceutical wastes 医药废物plastic wastes 塑料废物radioactive substances 放射性物质rubber waste 橡胶废物sewage 污水solid wastes 固体废物thermal pollution 热污染toxic substances 有毒物质toxic waste 有毒废物toxins 毒素traffic noise 交通噪音trash 废物/ 垃圾wood waste 木材废料污染源biological weapons 生物武器cement industry 水泥工业chemical weapons 化学武器chimneys 烟囱motor vehicles 机动车辆motorcycles 摩托车nuclear weapons 核武器ocean dumping 海洋倾倒oil spills 石油泄漏scrap metals 废金属excavation heaps 挖掘堆积污染治理acoustic insulation 隔音chemical decontamination 化学污染清除desulphurization of fuels 燃料脱硫filters 过滤器noise abatement 噪音治理pollution abatement equipment 污染治理设备pollution control technology 污染控制技术radiation protection 辐射防护scrubbers 洗涤器separators 分离器smoke prevention 防烟waste minimization 废物最少化废物battery disposal 电池处理chemical treatment of waste 废物的化学处理disposal sites 处置场所incineration of waste 废物焚烧mine filling 矿山回填oil residue recuperation 残油回收radioactive waste management 放射性废物管理recycled materials 回收的材料recycling 回收reuse of materials 材料再利用sanitary landfills 卫生填埋sea outfall 海洋排泄口septic tanks 化粪池sewage disposal 污水处置sewage treatment systems 污水处理系统solid waste disposal 固体废物处置waste assimilation capacities 废物同化处置waste conversion techniques 废物转化技术waste disposal 废物处置waste disposal in the ground 废物土地处置waste recovery 废物回收waste use 废物利用water reuse 水的再利用环境保护词汇集锦与环境保护有关的词汇World Environment Day Themes 历年世界环境日主题2006世界环境日主题：“沙漠和荒漠化--莫使旱地变荒漠”2006 Deserts and Desertification-Don't Desert Drylands!中国主题：生态安全与环境友好型社会1974 Only one Earth 只有一个地球1975 Human Settlements人类居住1976 Water: Vital Resource for Life 水：生命的重要源泉1977 Ozone Layer Environmental Concern; Lands Loss and Soil Degradation; Firewood关注臭氧层破坏，水土流失1978 Development Without Destruction没有破坏的发展1979 Only One Future for Our Children - Development Without Destruction为了儿童和未来--没有破坏的发展1980 A New Challenge for the New Decade: Development Without Destruction新的十年，新的挑战--没有破坏的发展1981 Ground Water; Toxic Chemicals in Human Food Chains and Environmental Economics 保护地下水和人类的食物链，防治有毒化学品污染1982 Ten Y ears After Stockholm (Renewal of Environmental Concerns)斯德哥尔摩人类环境会议十周年--提高环境意识1983 Managing and Disposing Hazardous Waste: Acid Rain and Energy管理和处置有害废弃物，防治酸雨破坏和提高能源利用率1984 Desertification沙漠化1985 Y outh: Population and the Environment青年、人口、环境1986 A Tree for Peace 环境与和平1987 Environment and Shelter: More Than A Roof 环境与居住1988 When People Put the Environment First, Development Will Last保护环境、持续发展、公众参与1989 Global Warming; Global Warning警惕全球变暖1990 Children and the Environment儿童与环境1991 Climate Change. Need for Global Partnership气候变化--需要全球合作1992 Only One Earth, Care and Share只有一个地球--一齐关心，共同分享1993 Poverty and the Environment - Breaking the Vicious Circle贫穷与环境--摆脱恶性循环1994 One Earth One Family 一个地球，一个家庭1995 We the Peoples: United for the Global Environment各国人民联合起来，创造更加美好的未来1996 Our Earth, Our Habitat, Our Home 我们的地球、居住地、家园1997 For Life on Earth 为了地球上的生命1998 For Life on Earth - Save Our Seas 为了地球上的生命--拯救我们的海洋1999 Our Earth - Our Future - Just Save It! 拯救地球就是拯救未来2000 2000 The Environment Millennium - Time to Act2000环境千年- 行动起来吧！2001 Connect with the World Wide Web of life世间万物生命之网2002 Give Earth a Chance 让地球充满生机2003 Water - Two Billion People are Dying for It! 水--二十亿人生命之所系2004 Wanted! Seas and Oceans - Dead or Alive? 海洋存亡匹夫有责2005 Green Cities - Plan for the Planet! 营造绿色城市，呵护地球家园中国主题：人人参与创建绿色家园联合国环境与发展大会（环发大会）United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)环发大会首脑会议Summit Session of UNCED联合国环境规划署United Nations Environment Programs （UNEP）国际生物多样性日International Biodiversity Day (29 December)世界水日World Water Day (22 March)世界气象日World Meteorological Day(23 March)世界海洋日World Oceans Day (8 June )人与生物圈方案Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme (UNESCO)中国21世纪议程China's Agenda 21中国生物多样性保护行动计划China Biological Diversity Protection Action Plan中国跨世纪绿色工程规划China Trans-Century Green Project Plan生物多样性公约Convention on Biological Diversity防治荒漠化国际公约Convention to Combat Desertification气候变化框架公约United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change国家环境保护总局State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA)坚持环境保护基本国策adhere to the basic state policy of environmental protection污染者负担的政策"the-polluters-pay" policy强化环境管理的政策policy of tightening up environmental management环保执法检查environmental protection law enforcement inspection限期治理undertake treatment within a prescribed limit of time生态示范区eco-demonstration region; environment-friendly region国家级生态示范区（珠海）Nationally Designated Eco-Demonstration Region国家级园林城市Nationally Designated Garden City工业固体废物industrial solid wastes白色污染white pollution (by using and littering of non-degradable white plastics)可降解一次性塑料袋throwaway bio-degradable plastic bags放射性废料积存accumulation of radioactive waste有机污染物organic pollutants三废综合利用multipurpose use of three types of wastes（waste water, waste gas, solid waste）城市垃圾无害化处理率decontamination rate of urban refuse垃圾填埋场refuse landfill垃圾焚化厂refuse incinerator防止过度利用森林protect forests from overexploitation森林砍伐率deforestation rate水土流失water and soil erosion土壤盐碱化soil alkalization生态农业environment-friendly agriculture; eco-agriculture水资源保护区water resource conservation zone海水淡化sea water desalinization造林工程afforestation project绿化面积afforested areas; greening space森林覆盖率forest coverage防风林wind breaks防沙林sand breaks速生林fast-growing trees降低资源消耗率slow down the rate of resource degradation开发可再生资源develop renewable resources环保产品environment-friendly products自然保护区nature reserve野生动植物wild fauna and flora保护生存环境conserve natural habitats濒危野生动物endangered wildlife珍稀濒危物种繁育基地rare and endangered species breeding center美化环境landscaping design for environmental purposes环境恶化environmental degradation温饱型农业subsistence agriculture空气污染浓度air pollution concentration酸雨、越境空气污染acid rain and transboundary air pollution工业粉尘排放industrial dust discharge烟尘排放soot emissions矿物燃料（煤、石油、天然气）fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas清洁能源clean energy汽车尾气排放motor vehicle exhaust尾气净化器exhaust purifier无铅汽油lead-free gasoline天然气汽车gas-fueled vehicles电动汽车cell-driven vehicles; battery cars小排量汽车small-displacement (engine) vehicles温室效应greenhouse effect工业废水处理率treatment rate of industrial effluents城市污水处理率treatment rate of domestic sewage集中处理厂centralized treatment plant>> 译海拾贝>> 英语>> 矿产.资源.能源.环境环境词汇(T-V)tag 作标记; 标志tagged 标记的; 示踪的tagged molecule 标记分子; 示踪分子tail 峰尾; 谱带尾色谱技术tail assay 尾料分析; 尾气分析tail recession 尾水消退tailings 尾渣; 尾矿tailings pond 尾矿池; 尾水池tamper 干扰; 暗中破坏tanker 油轮; 油船; 油罐车; 油槽车Task Force on Low and Cold Emission Sources 低和冷排放源问题工作队tax allowances for anti-pollution investments 税率优待反污染投资tax differenciation (on petrol) 对石油的差别计税tax incentives 税率奖励tax relief 税捐减免taxa [pl. of taxon] 生物分类群TCP 热带气旋计划TDGC 危险货物运输规则TECEMO 气象学仪器和观测方法成本效率问题Technical Commission for Climatology 气候学技术委员会technical grade 工业级Technical Regulations 技术规则; 技术规范technological articles 技术论文technological hazard 工艺危害; 技术危害technological installations 技术设备technological items 技术物品; 技术产品technological line 技术生产线technological plastics 高级技术塑料; 工艺塑料technological requirements 技术要求; 技术规格technological state of the art 最先进技术水平technology 技术; 工艺学telemetry 遥测技术Television Infrared Observational Satellite (Tiros) 电视红外观测卫星tellurium compounds 碲化合物temperate forest biosphere 温带森林生物层temperature inversion 逆温temperature lapse rate 温度直减率temperature stratification 温度分层; 热结层temperature, salinity and current report 温度含盐量及海流观测报告; 温盐流报告temporal resolution 时间分辨率temporal trend 时间趋势tentative standard 暂行标准teratogen 致畸物导致畸形胎儿的物质teratogency 产生畸形terrain 地形; 地面; 地区terrestrial biota 陆地生物terrestrial non-thermal-continuum radiation 地球非热连续辐射terrestrial radiation 地球辐射tertiary treatment 废水的三级处理TESAC 温度含盐量及海流观测报告; 温盐流报告test bed 试验台test cycle 试验阶段; 试用期test observatory 试验性观测台test procedures 试验程序test run 试运转; 试车tetrachlorethylene (Cl2C=CCl2) 四氯乙烯tetrachlorodifluoroethane (C2Cl4F2) 四氯二氟乙烷tetrachloroethylene 四氯乙烯tetrachloromethane 四氯甲烷tetrafluorodichloroethane 四氟二氯乙烷tetrafluoromethane (CF4) 四氟甲烷TFAP 热带森林行动计划thallium 铊thalweg 深泓线; 谷底线; 剖面线thematic map 专题地图Thematic Mapper (TM) 专题成像仪thermal adjustment time 热响应时间thermal belt 高温带; 绿化地带thermal capacity 热容量thermal discharge 排热; 散热thermal efficiency 热效率thermal expansion (of the Oceans) 海水的热膨胀thermal fluid 热流体thermal image 热像; 热影像thermal infrared spectrum (TIR) 红外热光谱thermal input 热输入thermal inverson 逆温thermal lag (of the oceans, of the Earth) 海洋或地球的热滞后thermal load 热负荷thermal losses 热量损耗; 热耗thermal plume 热卷流thermal pollution 热污染thermal stratification 温度分层; 热结层thermal zone 高温带; 绿化地带thermally unstable substance 热不稳定物质thermocline 温跃层; 斜温层thermodynamic model of climate 气候的热力学模式thermohaline circulation of the ocean 海洋的温盐环流thermopause 热层顶thermoplastic polymer mixtures 热塑性聚合混合物thermoplastic resins 热塑性树脂thermoplastics 热塑性塑料thermosets 热固性材料thermosetting resins 热固性树脂thermosphere 热层thickness of the ozone layer 臭氧层的厚度thindown 逐渐变弱; 逐渐稀薄thin-layer chromatography 薄层色谱法thinner 稀释剂; 冲淡剂thinning of the Arctic icecap 北极冰盖逐渐变薄thinning of the ozone layer 臭氧层逐渐变薄thio 硫; 硫代thiol 硫醇threatened species 受威胁物种three-membered ring 三元环; 三原子环three-way catalytic converter 三元催化排气净化器threshold dose 阈剂量; 最低有效剂量threshold for injury 造成伤害的阈值; 造成伤害的最低限值threshold limit value (TLV) 阈限值; 最低限值threshold value 阈值throughfall 贯穿降水量; 净降水量tidal energy 潮汐能tidal waterway 感潮水道; 潮汐航道; 感潮河道tidal wave 潮波; 潮汐波; 海啸; 地震或风暴潮所引起的异常高潮位tide flow 潮流tide gauge 验潮仪; 潮位水尺tide station 验潮站; 潮位站tide theory 潮汐理论tide-gauge station 验潮站; 潮位站tideline 涨潮线tilth 耕作; 耕层; 耕性timber 木材; 木料timber forest 用材林; 乔林timber line 树木线; 森林线time belt 时区time of occurrence 发生时刻; 潜伏期Time Series of Ocean Measurements (TSOM) 海洋测量时间序列time step 时步; 时间步长time trend 时间趋势time zone 时区time-averaged anomalies 异常的时间平均值time-scale 时标; 时间尺度time-series 时间序列; 时间先后次序time-space distribution (of ozone) 臭氧的时空分布time-to-death 致命时间timing modification 更改正时TiO2 TiO2 二氧化钛; (一般不译)tip burn on leaf 叶尖枯萎tipping 倾弃tipping bucket raingauge 翻斗式雨量计tipping site 垃圾场; 倾置场TIR 红外热光谱Tiros 泰罗斯卫星; 电视红外观测卫星Tiros Operational V ertical Sounder 泰罗斯业务垂直探空器titanium dioxide (TiO2) wastes 二氧化钛废料titrant 滴定剂; 滴定用标准液TLm 半数耐受水平TLV 阈限值; 最低限值to control chemicals 控制化学品; 管制化学品to control emissions 控制排放; 管制排放to counteract environmental degradation 阻止环境的退化; 减轻环境的退化TOC 有机碳总量TOD 总需氧量TOGA热带海洋与全球大气实验计划Tokyo Conference 东京会议tolerance 容许; 许可tolerance 忍受; 耐受TOMS 臭氧总量绘图系统top 树梢topical action 局部作用top-of-the-atmosphere fluxes 大气顶部通量topographic pattern 地形图形; 地形类型topsoil 表土; 耕层Toronto Conference 多伦多会议torr 托(一毫米水银柱高的气压)total airborne fraction 污染物在大气中的总份额total chlorine (or nitrogen) 氯或氮的总量total cloud cover 总云量; 云的覆盖总量total column ozone depletion 臭氧气柱消耗总量total deposition 沈积总量total dissolved solids 溶解固体总量total exchange capacity 交换总容量total head 总水头; 总能头total nitrogen 氮的总量total organic carbon (TOC) 有机碳总量total oxidant 氧化剂总量total oxygen demand (TOD) 总需氧量total ozone column 臭氧气柱总量total ozone content 臭氧总含量total ozone deviation 臭氧总量离差Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) 臭氧总量绘图系统total ozone oscillation 臭氧总量振荡; 臭氧总量起伏total ozone unit 总臭氧单位total radiation 全辐射; 总辐射total soil water potential 土壤水总潜力total sulphur 硫的总量total suspended particulates (TSP) 悬浮微粒总量total suspended solids (TSS) 悬浮固体总量TOVS 泰罗斯业务垂直探空器toxic chemical 有毒化学品toxic concentration low 低毒性浓度toxic dose low 低毒性剂量toxic rain 毒雨toxicant 毒; 毒素; 毒物; 毒剂; 毒药; 有毒的toxicant monitoring 毒物监测toxicity assessment 毒性评价toxicity elimination 消除毒性; 清除毒性toxicity emission factor 毒性排放系数toxicity hazard zone 毒性危害区; 毒性风险区toxicity index 毒性指数toxicity limit 毒性极限; 毒性阈值toxicity mode 毒性类; 毒性型toxics 毒物; 毒剂TPPs 三聚二缩磷酸盐或酯trace analysis 痕量分析trace element 痕量元素trace gas 痕量气体; 微量气体tracer 示踪剂tracer dilution technique 示踪剂稀释技术tracer solution 示踪剂溶液track of a cyclone 气旋路径tracking 追踪; 跟踪tradable emission rights 可以转让的排放权trade mark 商标trade name 商名; 商品名trade winds 信风; 贸易风trade-off 交易; 交换; 权衡; 折衷traffic pollution 交通污染trajectory model 轨迹模式trans-atmospheric pollution 越界空气污染trans-border disposal (of hazardous wastes) 危险废物的越界处理transboundary air pollution 越界空气污染transboundary movement 越境转移transboundary waters 越界水域; 跨越国界水域transfer of a pollutant 污染物的转移transfer rate 转移率; 输送率transfer station 转移站transformation rate 转化率(原生污染物转化为次生污染物的速度) transient 瞬变的; 瞬时的; 短暂的transient flow 瞬变流动; 不稳流动transient tracers in the ocean (TTO) 海洋中的瞬变示踪剂transit State 过境国transition lake 转变中的湖泊湖水从中性转变成酸性transition phase 转变阶段; 过渡阶段transmissible 可传染的; 传染性的transport 输送; 运输; 迁移transport (of a pollutant) in soil 污染物在土壤中的迁移transport model 迁移模型transport of a slick 浮油的迁移transport rate 输送率; 转移率Transportation of Dangerous Goods Code 危险货物运输规则transportation source 交通污染源trap 收集器; 阱trapped air (in old ice) 古冰气泡中的空气trap-test 收集性能试验travel 移动; 迁移; 漂移; 飘移travel 移动; 迁移; 漂移; 飘移travel time 迁移时间travelling standards 巡检用标准仪器treatment plant 处理厂treatment sludge 污水污泥tree belt area 保护林带区tree breeding 树苗育种tree cover 林木植被tree line 森林线; 树木线tree savanna 稀树干草原tree surgery 树木外科术tree-ring 树木年轮tree-ring climatology 年轮气候学tribromomethane (CHBr3) 三溴甲烷tributyl tin chloride 三丁基氯化锡trichloroethene 三氯乙烯trichloroethylene (CHCl=CCl2) 三氯乙烯trichlorofluoromethane (CCl3F) 三氯氟甲烷trichloromethane (CHCl3) 三氯甲烷; 氯仿trichloromonofluoromethane 三氯氟甲烷trichlorotrifluoroethane 三氟三氯乙烷trickling filter 滴滤池; 散水滤床trifluorochloromethane 三氟氯甲烷trifluoromethane (CHF3) 三氟甲烷triol 三醇triphenylmethylphosphonium bromide 溴化三苯甲基triple superphosphate (TSP) 三过磷酸钙tripolyphosphates (TPPs) 三聚二缩磷酸盐或酯tritium 氚trivial name 俗名trophic factors 营养因子tropical belt 热带tropical cyclone 热带气旋tropical cyclone landfall 热带气旋登陆地气象预报项目Tropical Cyclone Programme (TCP) 热带气旋计划tropical cyclone-prone area 易于受热带气旋侵袭地区Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) 热带森林行动计划Tropical Forestry Action Programme 热带森林行动计划tropical rain forest 热带雨林tropical storm 热带风暴Tropical Wind Observation System (TWOS) 热带风观测系统tropics 热带tropopause 对流层顶troposphere 对流层tropospheric chemistry 对流层化学tropospheric lifetime 在对流层停留时间tropospheric ozone 对流层臭氧tropospheric ozone pollution 对流层臭氧污染tropospheric ozone station 对流层臭氧观测站tropospheric residence time 在对流层停留时间trough 低压槽; 槽形低压true resin 真树脂; 天然树脂true specific gravity 绝对比重; 密度turbid 浑浊的turbidimeter 浑浊度计turbidity 浑浊度turbidity 浑浊度; 含沙量turbo(-)charged engine 涡轮增压发动机turbopause 湍流层顶turbulance 湍流; 湍动性turbulent diffusion 湍流扩散turbulent diffusion model 湍流扩散模式turbulent exchange 湍流交换turbulent flow 湍流two-dimensional (paper) chromatography 两向纸色谱法type-approval inspection 定型检查typhoon 台风typical odour 典型气味ultraviolet (solar) radiation (UVR) 紫外太阳辐射ultraviolet A radiation (UV A) 紫外线A波段; 长波紫外线ultraviolet B radiation (UVB) 紫外线B波段; 中波紫外线ultraviolet C radiation (UVC) 紫外线C波段; 短波紫外线ultraviolet range 紫外线波长范围UN class .. 联合国危险货物分类第..类unburnt solids 未燃固体uncertainty 不确定性; 不可靠性; 不精确度uncompacted tip 不压实的垃圾场unconfined groundwater 自由地下水; 无压地下水unconfined water 自由地下水; 无压地下水uncontrolled clearance 无节制地采伐森林; 无节制地清除uncontrolled dump 没有管理的垃圾场uncontrolled emissions 无节制地排放uncontrolled tipping 无节制地倾弃uncontrolled vehic le 未装废气净化装置的车辆under nitrogen blanket 在氮气层之下undercurrent 潜流; 底流underflow 地下水流; 冰下水流underflow 潜流; 底流underground flow 地下水流; 渗流underprediction 预测偏低understocked 立木度不足的uneven-aged forest 异龄林uniform flow 均匀流; 等速流uniform hazard 均匀危险因素; 均匀风险unintentional poisoning 事故性中毒unit discharge 流量模数; 单宽流量unit of ozone 臭氧单位United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 联合国环境与发展会议(环发会议)United Nations serial number 联合国产品编号United Nations Water Conference 联合国水事会议United States Environment Protection Agency 美国环境保护局; 环保局unlawful dumping 非法倾弃unleaded 无铅的; 未加铅的unlined landfill 非密封性垃圾填埋unmanaged ecosystem 没管理的生态系统unplasticized poly(vinyl chloride) 未增塑聚氯乙烯unplasticized PVC 未增塑聚氯乙烯unreactive hydrocarbons 惰性烃; 惰性碳氢化合物unsafe water 不卫生的水unsatisfactory landfill 不合格的垃圾掩埋场unsaturated air 不饱和空气unsaturated derivative 不饱和衍生物unsaturated zone 不饱和带; 非饱水带; 包气带unstable atmosphere 不稳定大气unsteady flow 不稳定流; 非恒定流unsteady wind 不稳定风; 不稳定气流unstocked 无立木的upkeep 保持良好状态; 保养; 维持upper air 高层空气; 高空upper atmosphere 高层大气Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 高层大气研究卫星upper layer of the oceans 海洋上层upper mid-latitude 北半球中纬度upper ocean 海洋上层upper stratosphere 平流层上部upper troposphere 对流层上部upper wind 高空风; 高空气流upper-air (sounding) station 高空探测站upper-air data 高层大气资料upper-air network 高层大气监测网upper-air wind 高空风; 高空气流uppermost levels of the atmosphere 大气的最高层; 大气的最上层up-slope wind 上坡风uptake 摄取; 吸收uPVC 未增塑聚氯乙烯upward (total) radiation 向上全辐射upward flow chromatography 上向流色谱法upward ozone transfer 臭氧的向上输送; 臭氧的上升输送upwelling 涌升upwind wind source of pollution 逆风污染物urban (ambient) air quality 城市环境空气质量urban climatology 城市气候学urban motor vehicle traffic 城市汽车交通; 城市机动车辆交通urban runoff 城市径流urbane solid waste 城市固体废物urea formaldehyde resin 脲醛树脂user charges 使用费user requirements 使用者需要usual name 常名; 俗名utilities 公用事业utilities cost 公用事业费用; 公用事业开支utility boiler 电站锅炉UVR 紫外太阳辐射vacuum distillation 真空蒸馏vacuum insulation 真空绝缘vacuum suction-drainer vehicle 真空吸水排水车vacuum sweeper 真空吸尘扫街车vagaries of climate 变化无常的气候; 多变的气候value 值vapour degreasing 蒸气清除油脂法; 蒸气脱脂法vapour pressure 水汽压力; 蒸气压力vapour recovery unit (VRU) 蒸气回收装置vapour release rate 蒸气释放速率variable wind 不定风variation of water level 水位变化varied flow 变速流; 非均匀流vascular plant species 维管束植物VC(M) 单体氯乙烯vector breeding site 传病媒介繁殖地vector control 传病媒介控制vector-borne disease 媒传疾病; 媒介传播疾病vegetal invaison of waters 水草在水体中大量繁殖vegetation belt 植被带vegetation cover 植被vegetation monitoring 植被监测vegetative cover 植被vegetative season 植物的生长季节vehicle manufacturer 车辆制造商; 车辆制造厂vehicle size 车辆大小vent (hole) 通风孔; 排气孔; 通气空vent air filter system 通风空气过滤系统ventillated gas 通风气体venting 通风; 透气; 排气; 风干verdant zone 无霜带versus (vs.) 对; 对于; 相对于vertical circle 地平经圈; 垂直圈仪vertical column 大气气柱vertical distribution of ozone 臭氧的铅直分布vertical gradient of pollutant 污染物的铅直梯度vertical profile of ozone 臭氧铅直分布图vertical structure of atmosphere 大气的铅直结构vertical temperature gradient 温度铅直梯度vertical transfer 铅直输送vertical transport coefficient 铅直输送系数verticql temperature profile radiometer 温度铅直廓线辐射仪very high resolution radiometer (VHRR) 甚高分辨辐射仪very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) 甚长基线干涉测量Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 保护臭氧层维也纳公约Vienna Convention on Fluorochlorohydrocarbons 关于含氯氟烃的维也纳公约Vienna Group 维也纳小组Villach Conference 关于气候变化和致温室效应气体问题的菲拉赫会议vinyl chloride (monomer) (VC(M)) 单体氯乙烯vinyl ether 乙烯醚; 二乙烯基醚vinyl trichloride (CHCl2CH2Cl) 1,1,2-三氯乙烷violator 违犯者virtual point source 虚拟点污染源; 理论点源visbreaking 减低粘度; 减粘裂化; 减粘轻度裂化visible 可看见的; 能见的; 显而易见的; 宏观的visible and infrared spin-scan radiometer (VISSR) 可见光和红外自旋扫描辐射仪visible radiation 可见光辐射VOC control technology 挥发性有机化合物控制技术VOC emission inventory 挥发性有机化合物排放物清单volatile 挥发性的; 易挥发的volatile organic compound 挥发性有机化合物volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 挥发性有机化合物volcanic ash cloud 火山灰云volume of pollutants 大量污染物volume of surface runoff 地面径流总量V oluntary Assistance Programme (V AP) 自愿援助计划voluntary observing ship (VOS) 自愿观测船vortex 涡旋vortex breakdown 涡旋崩解vulnerability analysis 弱点分析vulnerable to pollution 易受污染损害的译海拾贝资源共享首页| 免费发布工作| 寻找翻译| 寻找工作| 互助在线翻译| 我的资料| 翻译工具| 译海拾贝| 在线词典| 消息中心| 翻译论坛| 网站帮助|译心译意>> 译海拾贝>> 英语>> 矿产.资源.能源.环境环境词汇(R-S)作者:minjieabc 来源:翻译中国发布时间:2006-10-13 类型:转载点击数：25radiance 辐射率radiation accident 放射性事故radiation balance 辐射平衡; 辐射差额radiation climate 辐射气候radiation damage 辐射线损伤radiation data 辐射数据; 辐射资料radiation level 辐射水平; 辐射强度radiation medicine 放射医学; 辐射医学radiation standards 辐射标准radiation station 辐射观测站radiative code 辐射数据编码radiative effect 辐射效应radiative properties (of gases) 气体的辐射特性radiative transfer 辐射传输radiative transfer code 辐射传输规律radiatively active gas 影响辐射效应气体; 对辐射产生效应的气体radiatively important gas (RIG) 对辐射产生重要效应的气体radical 基; 根; 原子团; 游离基; 自由基radicular system absorption 根系吸收radioactive half-life 放射性半衰期radiobiology 放射生物学; 辐射生物学radioecology 辐射生态学; 放射生态学radionuclides 放射性核素radiosonde 无线电探空仪radiosonde observation (raob) 探空观测radiosounding 无线电探空radiowind 无线电测风radon 氡rain forest 雨林rain free period 无雨期; 干季rain recorder 雨量记录器rain sampler 雨水取样器; 降水收集器rain(-)fed agriculture 靠雨水浇灌的农业; 雨浇农业rain(-)fed farming 靠雨水浇灌的农业; 雨浇农业rain(-)gauge data 雨量计资料rain(-)out 云中的尘埃被形成云的水滴清除rain(-)out wash(-)out 雨水冲洗; 大气中的尘埃被雨水清除rainfall 雨量; 降雨rainfall amount 雨量rainfall regime 雨量型rainfall season 雨季raingauge 雨量器; 雨量计rain-producing system 致雨系统ram jet 冲压式喷气发动机range finding 测距rangeland 牧场; 牧地; 靶场raob 探空观测rapidly developing disasters 急剧恶化的灾害; 急剧恶化的事故rare earth metals 稀土金属rare taxa 稀有分类群rate 率; 速率; 速度rate of (ozone layer) depletion 臭氧层的消耗速率rate of climate change 气候变化率; 气候变化速度rate of deposition 沈积速率rate of discharge 排放速率; 倾卸速度rate of emission 排放速率rating 校准; 定标rationalization of hunting crops 狩猎的合理化ravine erosion 峡谷侵蚀raw radiance 原始辐射率raw refuse 未经任何处理的垃圾; 原始垃圾raw sewage 原污水; 未经任何处理的污水rawin 无线电测风仪RBC 生物转盘reactant 反应物; 反应剂reaction time 反应时间reactive gas 活性气体reactive hydrocarbon (RHC) 活性烃reactivity 反应性; 反应作用; 反应速度reading 读数re-affoestation 重新造林; 再造林reagent 反应物; 试剂reallocation (of halons) 哈龙的转产reawaking (of a volcano) 火山的复活recapture of CFCs 含氯氟烃的回收receiving area 承受面积receiving waters 承受水体; 承受水域receptor area 受体面积; 接受面积recession 退水; 消退recession discharge 消退排放量; 枯竭排放量recgarge area 地下水补给区recirculation (of gas) 气体的回流; 再循环; 重复循环reclaim 土地的开垦; 改良; 回收reclaimable waste 可再利用废物; 可回收废物reclaimed quarry 可回收碎石; 可再使用碎石reclamation 回收; 开垦; 改良; 驯化recommended exposure limit 建议的曝露极限; 建议的曝露限值record flood 创记录的洪水record of discharge 排放记录recording gas analyser 自计气体分析器recording rain gauge 自计雨量器; 自计雨量计recovery (of the ozone hole) 臭氧层空洞的复原recovery of CFCs 含氯氟烃的回收recovery of service station vapour 加油站蒸气的回收recovery period 复原期间recovery phase 复原阶段; 复原期间recovery plant 资源回收厂; 回收车间recruits 幼鱼recycling of CFCs 含氯氟烃的重复使用red mud 红泥red tide 红潮; 赤潮redesign 重新设计redevelopment of landfill sites 垃圾填埋地的重新整修redox potential 氧化还原电势; 氧化还原电位势reduced nitrogen species 被还原氮化物reduced sulphur species 被还原硫化物reducer Rreducing agent 还原剂reductant 还原剂reduction at source 在源头减少污染reduction schedule (for halon) 减少使用哈龙的时间表reductor 稀释剂; 冲淡剂re-engineering 再设计; 改建reference climatological station 基准气候站refillable container 可再装容器refining 净化; 精炼; 使成熟reflectorized marker 反射器标志reflectve placard 反光性标志牌reforestation 重新造林; 迹地更新refractories 耐火材料refrigerant 制冷剂refrigerant 500 500制冷剂refrigerant 502 502制冷剂refrigerant 503 503制冷剂refrigerant 504 504制冷剂refrigerant fluid 制冷液refrigerating medium 冷却介质refrigeration capacity 制冷能力refuse cart 手推垃圾车refuse chute 垃圾坑refuse collection 垃圾收集refuse collector 垃圾收集车; 垃圾收集器refuse production peak 产生垃圾高潮季节refuse receptacle 垃圾箱; 垃圾容器refuse reclamation 垃圾回收; 废物再利用refuse treatment 垃圾处理refuse truck 垃圾汽车refuse-derived 由垃圾产生的regeneration 再生; 恢复; 复兴regenerative capacity 再生能力regenerative heat exchanger 再生式热交换器regional basic synoptic network 区域基本天气观测站网Regional Centre for Seismology for South America 南美地震学区域中心Regional Meteorological Centre (RMC) 区域气象中心regional natural park 区域自然公园Regional Telecommunications Hub (RTH) 区域电信枢纽Register 登记中心registered 已登记的; 已注册的; 已立案的registration 登记; 注册; 立案regular gas 普通汽油regulated flow 调节流量; 调节径流regulatory action(s) 管制行动; 管制的行为; 管理的行为regulatory control(s) 规章; 条例; 制度rehabilitation (of victims of a disaster) 灾害受害者的复原rehabilitation of housing 住宅的翻新rehabilitation of the environment 恢复环境rehabilitative measures 善后措施reinforced thermoplastic sheet (RTS) 增强热塑性片材release (of a pollutant) 排出污染物; 放出污染物release agent 脱模剂; 隔离剂release of heat 放热; 释放热量release rate of CFCs 放出含氯氟烃的速率relief manager 救灾工作管理人; 救灾工作负责人relief worker 救灾工作人员remedial action 补救行动remobilization of a chemical 化学品的再流动remote sensing 遥感remote sensor 遥感传感器removable lid 活动盖子removal 去除; 清除removal efficiency 去除系数removal efficiency 去除效率removal of demolition waste 清理废墟removal of peat 移走泥炭removal of pollutants 消除污染物; 去除污染物removal process 消除过程; 消除步骤removal rate 消除速率repair the ozone hole 修复臭氧层空洞repeating pattern 重复型式; 周期性的型式replacement chemical 代替化学品; 代用化学品repopulation 再放养; 再引种; 种群恢复reporting format 报告格式reporting framework 报告格式reporting of an incident 事故的报告reporting of data 资料的报告reproductive failure 生殖失败; 繁殖失败reproductive potential 生殖潜能; 繁殖潜能reproductive success 生殖成功; 繁殖成功repugnant substance 恶臭物质research ship 调查船; 考察船; 研究船reserved forest 保留林reservoir 水库; 吸收库; 储层; 蓄水池reservoir of chlorine 氯的吸收库reservoir species 吸收库中的各种物质residence half-time 停留半衰期; 半存留期residence time 停留时间; 阻滞时间residence time 停留时间residual 残留物; 残积物residual fuel oil 残余燃料油residual soil 残积土resilience under stress 应力之下的回弹力resistant to pollution 耐污染的; 抗污染的resolution 分辨率resource base 资源基础resource recovery 资源回收resource recovery plant 资源回收厂; 回收车间respirable suspended particulates (RSPs) 可因呼吸进入人体的悬浮微粒respirable-sized particulates 颗粒大小可因呼吸进入人体的微粒response 回应; 反应; 响应response plan 应急计划; 反应计划response strategies 回应战略response time (of a measuring instrument) 测量仪器的响应时间restocking 再放养; 再引种; 种群恢复restoration of soils 土壤的恢复restored taxa 复原分类群restrictions on sulphur dioxide emissions 二氧化硫排放的限制retained dose 保留剂量; 持留剂量retarded spark timing 延迟点火正时retention 持水; 滞留水量retention efficiency 去除效率。

空气污染的英语作文关于空气污染的英语作文（精选16篇）在平平淡淡的日常中，大家对作文都再熟悉不过了吧，作文根据写作时限的不同可以分为限时作文和非限时作文。

写起作文来就毫无头绪？以下是小编收集整理的关于空气污染的英语作文，供大家参考借鉴，希望可以帮助到有需要的朋友。

空气污染的英语作文篇1Although some city's air quality is improving, but it is estimated that the number of deaths due to air pollution each year up to 358000 people.[5] according to the self assessment, air quality in the recorded data of 338 cities, two-thirds is considered contaminated, two-thirds of which was rated as moderate or severe pollution.Related to air pollution in China, breathing and heart disease is the top killer.Thirty percent for acid rain place.The Chinese government's environmental regulations are thought to have 20 years behind the United States, 20 to 30 yearsbehind that in Europe.And because of car usage increases, a true problem isworsening.Draw lessons from the Beijing Olympic Games and Shanghai world expo and the guangzhou Asian games air quality guarantee of successful experience, promote the pearl river delta regional environmental cooperation, the implementation of regional air pollution defense measures from spreading.Host during the universiade held in shenzhen air pollution index is less than 30, the air quality is superior, the successful completion of the "green universiade" air quality security tasks.空气污染的英语作文篇2Air pollution is one of the major problems of the modern world.A great deal of energy is needed to run the factories of modern industrial nations. Automobile, trains, planes and busses need energy, too.Nearly all of this energy is produced by burning fuels. The burning produces wastes, some of which remain in the air, causing air pollution.Scientists are finding ways to stop air pollution especially in big industrial areas and densely-populated cities.They are studying new ways of generating electricity that may be less damaging to the environment. In the meantime, many power plants are being modernized to give off less polluted material.Also, engineers try to design and locate new power plants to do minimum damage to the environment.However, it may be that we still have a long way to go before we have a "clean" world.Nearly all of the countries are trying hard to prevent and control air pollution. There indeed seems to be no end to tasks that environmentalists will be required to do.People will continually find new ways to control pollution. 空气污染的英语作文篇3Health, surrounded by, smog, anything but, gases, impurities, absorb, poisonous, try hard, blacked out.We all know that clean air is important to good health. Wherever you go and whatever you do, you are always surrounded by a sea of gases that we call air.If there are impurities in the air, they may be absorbed by our bodies and make us ill.We need clean air, but unfortunately, air pollution is globally present, especially in cities.Many large cities are anything but pollution-free. Our cities have many factories, which we need to make food, clothing and other things.Every year these factories pour millions upon millions of tons of smog into air.Power plants and houses that burn coal add greatly to air pollution. Besides, there are more cars in cities now.Once out on the streets, they will take in fresh air and replace it with poisonous gases.Our country is trying hard to prevent and control air pollution. As long as every citizen also realizes its importance and makes join efforts, the day will come soon when people will take in only clean air.Then, the sunlight will no longer be blackened out by smoke and soot.空气污染的英语作文篇4Air pollution comes from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage. They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes. In Germany, over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986. Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia. A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident. In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gascovered the town of Bhopal. Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundredsof thousands of people were injured.Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的英语作文篇5Some time ago, TV and Internet began to report the haze weather, which affected China in large areas. Nanjing is no exception. In this weather, we were forced to attend classes.Haze is a kind of weather that many people still don't understand. So I'll simply say: "haze is caused by the emission of pollutants and ground dust suspended in the air. At the same time, the lower ground temperature and the influence of people and vehicles make the dust stir and cause the local inhalable dust to stay in the low air for a long time. In addition, there are more and more cars in cities in recent years, and the emission of automobile exhaust has become a major factor in the formation of haze.With the continuous deterioration of air quality, haze weather increases, the harm is also increasing day by day! Air pollution also plays a decisive role in the generation of lung cancer. Foreign studies have shown that PM2.5, the inhalable particulate matter in haze sky, is also the cause of cardiovascular disease. In December 1952, London, UK, more than 12000 people died in a few months due to haze weather, and more than 4000 people died in the first five days.In order to let us breathe clean air and return to the blue sky and white clouds, we should use more energy-saving and environmental protection appliances. In our life, we should start from individuals, save electricity, go to work on foot or take more public transport, drive less private cars to and from work and go out, and do not let off fireworks during festivals!空气污染的英语作文篇6Recently, I investigated the air quality of the health schoolcommunity where I live.After this investigation, I found that the air in the community has been seriously polluted. The main pollution sources are: cooking fume from restaurants nearby the community; exhaust gas from passing vehicles; people burning garbage at the back mountain of Meifeng temple nearby, which is full of smoke. It is these harmful gases that pollute the original fresh air. The air polluted by these harmful gases will have adverse effects on human health and the growth of surrounding plants and trees.Protect the environment, everyone has a rule. In order to prevent the air pollution in our hometown, I think we can do a lot of things to contribute to prevent the air pollution in our hometown. First, you can write a proposal to the restaurant next to the community, suggesting that the restaurant should treat the cooking fume and then discharge it into the air. We should also improve the automobile engine to reduce the emission of exhaust gas; second, we should take good care of flowers and trees, because flowers and trees are oxygen manufacturing plants, and air filters can effectively purify the air; third, we should pay attention to do a good job in environmental sanitation, do not litter, do not spit.Ah! We should form a good habit of protecting the environment and good civilized and hygienic habits from childhood. Let's mobilize! Let us live in a better environment!空气污染的英语作文篇7The earth we live on is suffering from serious air pollution. Exhaust gas from factories, burning garbage and automobile exhaust are all the sources of air pollution. They attack our respiratory tract and lungs at all times, increasing the incidence rate of respiratory system.When the air is slightly polluted, the air inhaled by the human body can remove part of the dust by the nasal hair in the nasal cavity, and then adhere to the dust by the mucus in the nasal cavity and the mucus in various bronchus. There are tens of millions of cilia in the trachea and bronchus. They swing about 12 times per second. They push and sweep the mucus in the respiratory tract from the bottom up to the throat, and then cough it out of the body through coughing.When the air is seriously polluted, the purification effect of respiratory tract will be reduced or even completely lost. In this case, the respiratory tract and lung are vulnerable to the invasion of bacteria and suffer from various diseases.For various reasons, air pollution is still increasing. If we can't solve the problem of air pollution, I'm afraid that one day, human beings can only live with masks.空气污染的英语作文篇8On Saturday morning, my parents and I rode bicycles to feel the air quality of Puyang City. It's cold, but I can't feel cold because I'm going to be a little air investigator.Along the way, we talked and laughed. When we came to the west section of the Yellow River Road, a bad smell came. I asked my father, "Dad, what kind of smell is this? It's so smelly." Dad said to us: "this is the chemical plant in our city, the smell of waste gas from chemical plants."My father and mother took me to the Majia River, and saw that the color of the river turned black and there was a gust of stench. I asked my father: why is this? My father told me: This is because the sewage from the chemical plant and the domestic wastewater are discharged into the river.Now the air pollution is too serious. The waste gas producedby chemical plants and domestic wastewater are directly discharged into the air and rivers without treatment. The number of automobiles, motorcycles and other motor vehicles is increasing rapidly, and the emission of exhaust gas is increasing. This caused serious air pollution.In order to alleviate air pollution, please start from the small things around you. Don't litter, do not burn in the wild, and try not to use cars with high exhaust emissions I believe that with everyone's support, the harm caused by air pollution will disappear!空气污染的英语作文篇9We all know that we should reduce air pollution, but many people just talk about it and don't practice it. Do you know the harm of air pollution? Do you know what future we will face if we don't reduce air pollution?My hometown, Dalian, is a beautiful city. According to my father, Dalian used to be a city with beautiful environment and fresh air. The air was filled with the smell of the sea. After the summer rain, you can often see beautiful rainbow hanging in the sky like a colorful bridge. I have seen many pictures of dad's life when he was a child at home. In the background of the photos, I can see that the sky is cloudless, and there are few kinds of motor vehicles on the road. At that time, people's means of transportation were mainly buses, and the environment was much better than now.Now there are more and more vehicles in my hometown. Thousands of cars are driving on the road every day. The exhaust emissions of these cars not only damage the environment, but also endanger people's health. I heard from the radio that the exhaust gas emitted by cars has warmed our city, and these gasesare suspended in the sky above the city and it is difficult to dissipate. There are also a lot of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the car exhaust. These gases are harmful to human body. If they are absorbed into the body, they will cause a lot of lung diseases. No wonder that when I go to school every morning, the sky is always gray. It's hard to see the rising sun in the morning. There is no rainbow in the sky after the rain. The deep blue sky disappears. Even the chirping birds do not want to come to such places. Only in children's songs is there "the sun shines in the sky, the flowers smile at me, and the birds say..." The scene.Do you know, Dalian she is crying, she cried that people hurt her, destroyed her, turned her beautiful face into such ugly. I suggest that families with cars should reduce the use of vehicles and try to walk or take buses, so as to make our city air cleaner.We should all know the harm of air pollution, and then we should act quickly to protect our living environment, so that air pollution does not harm our home! Protect our home, from you and me, from now on, from the small things around us!空气污染的英语作文篇10My hometown, Jiaozuo, used to be a picturesque place. One day, my mother and I went for a walk, I saw a chimney, the top out of black smoke, like a big black dragon rushed into the sky, they opened their teeth and claws, instantly covered the blue sky, the sky became gray, swallowed up the white clouds, even the sun was scared away by it.I was very sad to see all this. These smoke, there are a lot of smoke, inhaled in the eyes, will cause eyes red, astringent, inhaled in the respiratory tract, bronchitis, serious will lead to death. We should drive less and walk more. If we want to go far away, wedon't want to drive. We should make buses. We should also move those chemical plants to places far away from the city. In this way, we will not pollute the environment and do less harm to human beings.I hope the sky will be bluer, the water will be clearer, the grass will be greener, and the flowers will be more red. I believe that through our efforts, human life will be better.空气污染的英语作文篇11In the past few decades, our Earth has changed a lot, but to the bad direction. Among these changes, the air pollutions resulting from a huge number of automobiles and coal-burning is almost the severest. The severe air pollution alarms humans of the heavy load we have exerted on Earth by our insatiable production and usage of automobiles. However, with the deepening of urbanization, more cars are needed, which will make the air pollution worse. Therefore, the following actions should be taken.First, we should apply the most cutting-edge technologies in order to adopt new forms of energy as substitutes for fossil fuels. Second, try hard to develop possible transportation means, which are enviromental friendly. So that the citizens can reduce the dependence on cars.In short, our humans should take responsibilities for the air pollution and have to find ways to solve this problem.空气污染的英语作文篇12Air pollution es from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage. They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes. In Germany,over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986.Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia. A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident. In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gascovered the town of Bhopal. Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundredsof thousands of people were injured. Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的英语作文篇13Air pollution es from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage. They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes. In Germany, over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986. Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia. A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident. In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gascovered the town of Bhopal. Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundredsof thousands of people were injured. Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的英语作文篇14too many cars have created a lot of serious problems in our world. besides congestion, accidents and fast fuel consumption,cars are responsible for a good part of air pollution in big cities. all the time, they are pumping huge amounts of waste gases into the atmosphere. these gases are very harmful, causing disease and even death. one possible solution is to design and develop clean cars and clean fuels.in shanghai, some of the public buses begin to run on natural gas, which does not give off as much carbon dioxide as the petrol. but it may take decades for the new models of clean cars completely replace the traditional ones. another solution is to develop modern public transportation systems and restrict the use of private cars. if the price of petrol rises constantly and the public vehicles are efficient and convenient enough, most people will not buy private cars. and the total number of cars in big cities will reduce greatly. on the whole, the elimination of air pollution needs the collective efforts from the government, the public and the environmentalists.空气污染的英语作文篇15This year, with the high speed development of economy in our country, the improvement of people's living standards. In this environment, the deterioration of ecological environment is gradually in our country.In the case of priority to the development of the economy. But at the expense of the environment. We are in urgent need to change the status quo. In the past, in order to develop the economy, our country's forest area is not reduced, cut down trees. Soil and water loss. Desertification is expanding fast. Amidst the city, and farmland. Every spring, Beijing sandstorm struck by the Mongolian plateau. PM2.5 table. Chemical companies in order to save costs, will not be processed into the river sewage, and makes the water undrinkable. Now almost impossible to find notpolluted river in China.We should realize the seriousness of the problem now. Effective measures must be taken. First, change ideas, should pay more attention to environmental protection. Should the economy and environment simultaneously. Now in China is taking measures to change the status quo. In the second. , through legislation, our country has now been made in the history of the most severe "environmental law" in the third, the government's regulation. Environmental protection bureau should really law enforcement. I believe our country environment will get better..空气污染的英语作文篇16The cartoon presents the Earth with a personified human face that seems quite unhappy. A examination of the picture immediately reveals that the source of its mood is the air pollution resulting from a huge number of automobiles spread around its surface.The cartoon, no doubt, aims at alarming humans of the heavy load we have exerted on Earth by our insatiable production and usage of automobiles. However, the majority of people merely indulge in the celebration of the convenience brought by cars, while forgetting or simply neglecting their harmful impact on the atmosphere. Admittedly, there are various factors contributing to the current worldwide air pollution, but it is undeniable that the exhaust from automobiles is categorized as one of the major elements. I would like to make the following proposals to solve this problem: firstly, we should apply the most cutting-edge technologies in order to adopt new forms of energy as substitutes for fossil fuels. It should also be guaranteed that the clean energy be inexpensive so that it can be widely accepted.Besides, there should be attempts to develop possible transportation means, so that citizens can be diverted from dependence on cars. In short, it is humans‘ responsibility to resume clean air for Earth.。

空气污染的原因英语作文•相关推荐空气污染的原因英语作文（精选14篇）在日常生活或是工作学习中，大家或多或少都会接触过作文吧，作文是人们以书面形式表情达意的言语活动。

你写作文时总是无从下笔？下面是小编整理的空气污染的原因英语作文（精选14篇），欢迎阅读与收藏。

空气污染的原因英语作文篇1In general, there are two ways of traveling, private cars and public transportation. Chinese people should regard public transportation as their first traveling opinion.First, there are so many people living in this countries that make it so crowded. If each chinese people own a car, there will be far more traffic jams and accidents, which increase you impatience.Moreover, there will be far more pollution resulted from cars. Once a car started, it release huge amount of dirty gas and heat, which lead to great pollution and result in green house effect.All in all, Chinese people should take public transpotation into consideration first。

空气污染的原因英语作文篇2Once man did not have to think about the protection of his environment. There were few people on the earth, and natural resources seemed to be unlimited.Today things are different. The world has become too crowded. We are using up our natural resources,and polluting our environment with dangerous chemicals. If we continue to do this, human life on earth will not survive.We realize that if too many fish are taken from the sea, therewill soon be none left. Yet,with modern fishing methods, more and more fish are caught.We know that if too many trees are cut down, forests will disappear. Yet, we continue to use powerful machines to cut down more and more trees. We see that if rivers are polluted with waste products, we will die. Yet, waste products are still put into rivers.We know that if the population continues to rise at the present rate, in a few years, there wont be enough food.What can we do to solve these problems?If we eat more vegetables and less meat, there will be more food available. Land for crops feeds five times more people than land where animals are kept.Our natural resources will last longer if we learn to recycie them.The world population will not rise so quickly if people use modern methods of birth control.Finally, if we educate people to think about the problems we shall have a better and cleaner planet in the future.空气污染的原因英语作文篇3Pollution is becoming more and more serious all over the world. As is shown in the cartoon, two cars are giving off waste gas and three people are trying to avoid breathing in the poisonous gas by masking their face with their hands. The poisonous gas sent off by factories, domestic appliances and automobiles has made the air unhealthy for people to breathe.There is no denying that automobiles are indications of civilization, progress and development; nevertheless , automobiles cause the serious problem of air pollution. Scientists have warned that unless effective measures are taken, the problem of pollution will eventually get out of hand. Actually,people are showing a real concern over the problem. For example, there is an increasingly loud voice from the public for firm action against pollution from automobiles.Indeed, the earth is our home and we have the duty to take care of it for ourselves and for our descendants. In my opinion, we should work out concrete solutions to the problem of pollution from poisonous gas given off by automobiles. For example, the automobiles should be equipped with a device which can dispose of waste gas so as to prevent it from polluting air. Only in this way can we really solve the problem of air pollution caused by automobiles.空气污染的原因英语作文篇4Although some city's air quality is improving, but it is estimated that the number of deaths due to air pollution each year up to 358000 people.According to the self assessment, air quality in the recorded data of 338 cities, two-thirds is considered contaminated, two-thirds of which was rated as moderate or severe pollution.Related to air pollution in China, breathing and heart disease is the top killer.Thirty percent for acid rain place.The Chinese government's environmental regulations are thought to have 20 years behind the United States, 20 to 30 years behind that in Europe.And because of car usage increases, a true problem is worsening.Draw lessons from the Beijing Olympic Games and Shanghai world expo and the guangzhou Asian games air quality guarantee of successful experience, promote the pearl river delta regional environmental cooperation, the implementation of regional air pollution defense measures from spreading.Host during the universiade held in shenzhen air pollution index is less than 30, the air quality is superior, the successful completion ofthe "green universiade" air quality security tasks.空气污染的原因英语作文篇5The earth on which we live is to suffer from serious air pollution. The exhaust gas from the factory, the burning of waste, car exhaust and other pollution in the atmosphere are the source of trouble. The time of the invasion of the respiratory tract and lung, the incidence of respiratory rate increased year by year.When the air is polluted slightly, inhaled air can be part of the dust removal by nasal cavity in the nose, the nasal mucus in the bronchial mucus and the dust adhesion. Tracheal and bronchial cilia in tens of millions of their root, about 12 times per second to swing, like a "cleaner" from the bottom up sweep mucus in the respiratory tract, and throat, cough up through in vitro.When the air is seriously polluted, the purification effect of respiratory tract will be reduced, and even lost completely. In this case, respiratory tract and lung is vulnerable to the invasion of bacteria and diseases.Due to various reasons, the air pollution is getting worse. If you can not solve the problem of air pollution, I am afraid it one day, humans can only live with a mask.空气污染的原因英语作文篇6Air pollution comes from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage.They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes.In Germany, over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986.Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia.A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident.In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gas covered the town of Bhopal.Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundreds of thousands of people were injured. Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的原因英语作文篇7Air pollution es from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage. They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes. In Germany, over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986.Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia. A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident. In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gascovered the town of Bhopal. Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundredsof thousands of people were injured. Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的原因英语作文篇8Health, surrounded by, smog, anything but, gases, impurities,absorb, poisonous, try hard, blacked out.We all know that clean air is important to good health. Wherever you go and whatever you do, you are always surrounded by a sea of gases that we call air.If there are impurities in the air, they may be absorbed by our bodies and make us ill.We need clean air, but unfortunately, air pollution is globally present, especially in cities.Many large cities are anything but pollution-free. Our cities have many factories, which we need to make food, clothing and other things.Every year these factories pour millions upon millions of tons of smog into air.Power plants and houses that burn coal add greatly to air pollution. Besides, there are more cars in cities now.Once out on the streets, they will take in fresh air and replace it with poisonous gases.Our country is trying hard to prevent and control air pollution. As long as every citizen also realizes its importance and makes join efforts, the day will e soon when people will take in only clean air.Then, the sunlight will no longer be blackened out by smoke and soot.空气污染的原因英语作文篇9In the past few decades, our Earth has changed a lot, but to the bad direction. Among these changes, the air pollutions resulting from a huge number of automobiles and coal-burning is almost the severest. The severe air pollution alarms humans of the heavy load we have exerted on Earth by our insatiable production and usage of automobiles. However, with the deepening of urbanization, more cars are needed, which will make the air pollution worse. Therefore, the following actions should be taken.First, we should apply the most cutting-edge technologies inorder to adopt new forms of energy as substitutes for fossil fuels. Second, try hard to develop possible transportation means, which are enviromental friendly. So that the citizens can reduce the dependence on cars.In short, our humans should take responsibilities for the air pollution and have to find ways to solve this problem.空气污染的原因英语作文篇10Air pollution es from factories, power stations and cars. Chemicals in the smoke from power stations cause a lot of damage. They can travel hundreds of miles in the wind before falling to the ground in the rain. But this "chemical rain" gradually destroys trees in the forests and kills fish in the lakes. In Germany, over 50% of the country's trees had been damaged by the year 1986. Time and time again there are serious accidents that pollute the air. In 1986 there was a bad accident at a nuclear power station in Russia. A cloud of radiation crossed the whole of Europe. It is said that 125,000 people died in Russia as a result of illnesses caused by this accident. In 1984 there was a serious accident at a factory in India and a cloud of dangerous gascovered the town of Bhopal. Over 2,500 people were killed that night, and hundredsof thousands of people were injured. Many of the injured lost their sight.空气污染的原因英语作文篇11In the past few decades, our Earth has changed a lot, but to the bad direction. Among these changes, the air pollutions resulting from a huge number of automobiles and coal-burning is almost the severest. The severe air pollution alarms humans of the heavy load we have exerted on Earth by our insatiable production and usage of automobiles.However, with the deepening of urbanization, more cars areneeded, which will make the air pollution worse. Therefore, the following actions should be taken. First, we should apply the most cutting-edge technologies in order to adopt new forms of energy as substitutes for fossil fuels. Second, try hard to develop possible transportation means, which are enviromental friendly. So that the citizens can reduce the dependence on cars. In short, our humans should take responsibilities for the air pollution and have to find ways to solve this problem.空气污染的原因英语作文篇12Air pollution is becoming more and more serious in today's world .Some chemical factories produce terrible gas and make air bad .Buses and cars also produce waste gas .In our daily life ,burning gas ,oil and coal also creates air pollution .The air pollution can cause a lot of problems .It is harmful to people's health .It can cause bresthing problems ,sore eyes and ever cancer .It can also harm the plants ,and the farmers will get the less harvest .Luckily,the government has tried many ways to solve the problems ,such as making laws to prevent the factories from polluting the air.空气污染的原因英语作文篇13The cartoon presents the Earth with a personified human face that seems quite unhappy. A examination of the picture immediately reveals that the source of its mood is the air pollution resulting from a huge number of automobiles spread around its surface.The cartoon, no doubt, aims at alarming humans of the heavy load we have exerted on Earth by our insatiable production and usage of automobiles. However, the majority of people merely indulge in the celebration of the convenience brought bycars, while forgetting or simply neglecting their harmful impact on the atmosphere. Admittedly, there are various factors contributing to the current worldwide air pollution, but it is undeniable that the exhaust from automobiles is categorized as one of the major elements. I would like to make the following proposals to solve this problem: firstly, we should apply the most cutting-edge technologies in order to adopt new forms of energy as substitutes for fossil fuels. It should also be guaranteed that the clean energy be inexpensive so that it can be widely accepted. Besides, there should be attempts to develop possible transportation means, so that citizens can be diverted from dependence on cars. In short, it is humans’ responsibility to resume clean air for Earth.地球正面临着一个卡通化身人类的脸显得非常不高兴。

煤气灯效应英语The gaslighting effect is a psychological manipulation tactic that can leave victims doubting their own perceptions and memories. It's a silent form of abuse, often hidden in plain sight.This insidious practice involves a manipulator constantly questioning the victim's reality, making them feel as if they are going crazy. The term originates from a 1938 play, "Gas Light," where a husband manipulates his wife by dimming the gaslights and denying their change.In relationships, gaslighting can manifest as a partner dismissing or undermining the other's feelings, thoughts, or experiences. It's a form of control that erodes trust andself-esteem.Victims often feel isolated, as the manipulator may also discourage them from seeking support from friends or family. This tactic is designed to make the victim believe that they are unreliable and that their perceptions are flawed.Recognizing gaslighting is crucial for victims to regain control over their lives. Support from loved ones and professional help can be instrumental in overcoming the damaging effects of this psychological warfare.Educating oneself about gaslighting and its signs canempower individuals to identify and resist such manipulation. Awareness is the first step towards healing and recovery.In conclusion, the gaslighting effect is a harmful and subtle form of psychological abuse that can have long-lasting effects on a person's mental health. It's important to be vigilant and to support those who may be experiencing this form of manipulation.。

英语九年级全一册第十三单元作文大气污染全文共6篇示例，供读者参考篇1Air Pollution is Such a Bummer! (By a 9th Grader)Ugh, air pollution is the worst! It's like Mother Nature has a really bad cold and the air is all gunked up with nasty stuff. You know how it is when you're sick and you blow your nose into a tissue? Well, that's basically what the air is like when it's polluted - full of gross particles and chemicals that shouldn't be there.I feel bad for the air having to put up with so much nonsense from us humans. We're constantly choking it up with fumes from factories, exhaust from cars and buses, smoke from fires, and all kinds of other icky things. No wonder the air gets so irritated and cranky sometimes!My science teacher says there are different types of air pollution. Particulate matter is one of the main offenders. That refers to the tiny solid particles and liquid droplets floating around that we end up breathing in. Things like dust, dirt, smoke, and soot are all particulate matter. When I think about breathing in that stuff, I want to go "Ewwww!" It's no wonder people withasthma and other respiratory problems have such a hard time with polluted air.Then you've got the gaseous air pollutants like nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and carbon monoxide. Those don't sound very appealing either. Nitrogen oxides are created during combustion, like when fuels are burned in power plants or car engines. Sulfur dioxide comes from burning fossil fuels that contain sulfur. Ozone is good up high in the ozone layer, but not so great down at ground level where we breathe it in. And carbon monoxide is just plain toxicity released from incomplete combustion.When all these pollutants build up, they create smog - you know, that ugly brown cloud that hovers over cities sometimes. It's like the air is wearing a thick, dirty sweater. No thanks, air! You look better without the smog sweater. Plus, breathing in smog has been linked to heart and lung problems, so it's not just an eyesore.Acid rain is another super fun consequence of air pollution. When moisture in the air combines with nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide, it creates sulfuric and nitric acids. Then this acid rain falls from the sky, harming plants, animals, buildings, you name it. If I was a plant, I wouldn't appreciate having acid rainpoured all over me! No wonder trees and other vegetation look so sickly in polluted areas.Of course, humans have to take responsibility for our role in this mess. We're the ones running the factories, driving thegas-guzzling cars, burning excessive fossil fuels, and generally treating the air like our personal dumpster. It's not cool and it's not sustainable. We need to wake up and realize that clean air is essential for, you know, respirating and staying alive!There are things we can do though to help clear the air. More renewable energy like solar and wind would reduce emissions from burning fossil fuels. Public transportation, walking, biking, or driving electric cars cuts back on exhaust fumes. Planting more trees gives us additional air filters. On an individual level, reduce, reuse, recycle! Every little bit makes a difference.At the rate we're going though, future generations might need to wear gas masks all the time just to breathe safely. How crazy is that?? Imagine showing up to school in a gas mask and hazmat suit. "Hey Timmy, nice respirator! Radical look for third period algebra." No thanks, I'll pass on the apocalyptic style and just try to be part of the solution instead of the pollution.We've got to show some love and respect for the air around us. After all, we need it to live and it doesn't ask for much in return. The air is always there for us, letting us exhale our bad breath and farts without complaining. The least we can do is stop overwhelming it with noxious chemicals! Let's start changing our ways and cleaning up our act. The air will appreciate it, and our kids will appreciate being able to breathe easily too.So yeah, that's my rant about air pollution for today. Thanks for listening! I need to go outside for some fresh air now...or as fresh as it can be in this polluted world. Maybe I'll take a Hazmat suit just in case! Peace out, atmospheric friends!篇2Air Pollution is Really Bad and GrossAir pollution is a huge problem that's really gross and unhealthy. It's caused by things like factories, cars, and power plants releasing yucky chemicals and particles into the air we breathe. Ugh, I can't even imagine having to smell that nasty stuff all day!The biggest culprit is probably vehicle emissions from cars, buses, and trucks. They burn gasoline or diesel fuel which releases carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter,and other stinky fumes. Just thinking about having to breathe in all those icky exhaust fumes makes me feel sick. How do people living in big cities with tons of traffic even survive?Then you've got industrial facilities like factories, refineries, and power plants. They burn coal, oil, and gases to produce energy, but that lets out sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and loads of other gross pollutants. Those giant smoke stacks just constantly pump out thick, black clouds of smog. No thanks, I'll pass on living next to one of those!Speaking of smoke, fires are another major source of air pollution too. Wildfires send up huge plumes of carbon monoxide, particulates, and who knows what else. But indoor fires for heating or cooking with wood or coal are just as bad when there's no ventilation. I'm definitely not trying to inhale any of that sooty air if I can avoid it.Anyway, breathing in all those pollutants is really unhealthy and can cause tons of scary illnesses. Particulate matter can get lodged deep in your lungs and potentially cause cancer down the road. Sulfur dioxide can make asthma or bronchitis way worse. Nitrogen oxides inflame the linings of your lungs. Carbon monoxide limits how much oxygen your blood can carry.Honestly, the list of health risks from air pollution goes on and on - it's straight up terrifying if you think about it too much!And that's not even getting into the other major effects of air pollution, like acid rain, the depletion of the ozone layer allowing in more UV radiation, smog blocking out sunlight, and contributing to global warming. It's just an all-around disaster for the environment and human health.So what can be done about this smoggy situation? Well, countries need to regulate emissions from vehicles and industries with strict standards. Things like requiring catalytic converters on cars, putting filters on smokestacks, switching to cleaner energy sources than coal, and levying taxes or fees on major polluters. Individuals can also do their part by driving less, using public transportation, conserving energy at home, and being aware of everyday activities that contribute to air pollution.At the end of the day though, fixing this air pollution crisis needs to be a huge, unified global effort. Nasty smog doesn't respect national borders - it impacts everyone and everything. We all need to work together to reduce emissions and clean up the air before the health and environmental effects get evenmore outrageously bad than they already are. Nobody wants to breathe dirty, polluted air - it's just plain gross!篇3Air Pollution is Really Yucky!Hi friends! Today I want to talk about something super important - air pollution. It's a huge problem that makes the air we breathe really gross and unhealthy. Let me tell you all about it!First of all, what even is air pollution? It's basically when there are too many smelly, bad things mixed into the air we breathe. Things like smoke, gases, and tiny particles that come from factories, cars, fires, and even some household products. All that yukky stuff gets trapped in the air around us instead of going away.And let me tell you, air pollution is no joke! It can make you feel really sick if you breathe in too much of it. It can give you a nasty cough, make your eyes and nose burn, and even make it hard to breathe properly. No fun at all! But that's not the worst part.The worst part is that breathing in too much pollution over time can give you serious diseases like lung cancer, heart disease, and other scary illnesses. It's especially bad for little kids because their bodies are still growing. So we have to be super careful about dirty air!But why is there so much air pollution in the first place? Well, there are a few main causes. One biggie is factories and power plants that burn coal and other fossil fuels. All that smoke gets released into the air and makes it super polluted. Things like cars, trucks, trains, and airplanes also release a ton of exhaust and gases that dirty up the air too.Another major cause is something you might not expect - farming! Believe it or not, some farm activities like spreading fertilizers and pesticides on crops releases pollution particles into the air. And then there's indoor air pollution from things like cigarette smoke, harsh cleaners, and even some furniture that releases gases over time. Gross!So where is air pollution worst? You might be surprised to learn that some of the most polluted cities in the world are in places like India, Pakistan, and China. That's because they have lots of factories, cars, and people all packed together makingtons of pollution. But even cities in the United States have problems with smog and dirty air too.All this pollution isn't just bad for our health though. It's also really harmful to the environment and animals too. Pollution can make lakes, rivers, and oceans toxic for fish and other water creatures. It damages trees, plants, and crops which really messes up the food chain. Acid rain caused by pollution can even corrode and damage buildings and historic monuments over time. What a disaster!But don't lose hope yet! There are lots of things we can do to reduce air pollution and make the world a cleaner, healthier place:• Use less electricity from polluting power plants by turning off lights and unplugging devices when not in use• Walk, bike, or take public transportation instead of driving a gas car• Recycle and reuse items instead of burning them• Conserve energy and resources at home• Avoid using harsh chemical c leaners and aerosol sprays• Plant trees which absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen• Support businesses that use renewable energy like solar and wind• Spread awareness about air pollution so others understand the issueIf we all work together and make an effort, we really can cut down on air pollution! Imagine how awesome it would be to have crisp, fresh air everywhere we go. No more coughing, stinging eyes, or struggling to breathe. Just healthy, clean air for all.I sure hope countries, leaders, and companies start taking this issue seriously before it's too late. The future of the planet and the air we breathe depends on it! I'll do my part by recycling, saving energy, and telling everyone about this problem. Who's with me?Air pollution might seem like a huge, complicated issue. But when you break it down, it's actually pretty simple. We just need to be way more careful about what we're releasing into the atmosphere. A few small changes can make a huge difference if we all work together. Easy peasy!So let's get out there and start cleaning up the air one step at a time. The earth - and our lungs - will thank us. No more polluted air! A fresher, healthier world is possible if we want it enough. Let's make it happen, friends!篇4Air Pollution is Really Gross and Stinky!Air pollution is a huge problem these days and it's really yucky! There's smog and soot and tons of nasty chemicals in the air we breathe. It makes me cough and my eyes water sometimes. It's just so gross!There are a few main causes of air pollution that I want to talk about. One biggie is vehicle emissions from cars, trucks, buses, and other vehicles that burn gasoline or diesel fuel. All those exhausts from the tailpipes contain particles and gases that pollute the air. Things like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter get released. Particulate matter is basically just really tiny pieces of solid or liquids suspended in the air. It sounds pretty grody when you think about breathing that stuff in!Another major source of pollution is industrial activities like manufacturing, construction, and burning of fossil fuels frompower plants. Factories release tons of chemicals and particles into the air through their smokestacks and vents. Things get made by burning fuels or undergoing chemical processes, and all the byproducts get released outside. Power plants burn coal or natural gas to produce electricity, but that burning process creates air pollution too. It's crazy how much pollution comes from just making the electricity to power our homes and businesses!Speaking of homes, did you know that even household activities contribute to air pollution? Things like using aerosol sprays, painting, and burning wood, coal, or natural gas for heating and cooking all pollute the indoor air that we breathe inside our houses. My parents always yell at me for spraying too much body spray or air freshener because it's bad for the air quality. I guess they have a point!Air pollution is really bad for our health and the environment in so many ways. It can cause respiratory problems like asthma or make existing conditions worse. All those chemicals in the air are toxic and can damage our lungs, hearts, and other organs over time. It's also been linked to higher risks of cancer, which is totally scary. For the environment, air pollution leads to smog,acid rain, the depletion of the ozone layer, and contributes to climate change and global warming. How messed up is that?The effects of air pollution really freak me out. Smog is like this ugly haze of pollutants in the air that can be seen hanging over cities. It's hard to breathe that stuff in and it looks so depressing and gloomy. Acid rain happens when some pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acidic rain, snow, fog or other precipitation. This acid rain can damage trees, crops, buildings, and pollute waters like lakes and streams. The ozone layer high up in the atmosphere protects us from a lot of the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation, but chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) can deplete and thin out this protective ozone layer when they get released into the air. This lets through more cancer-causing UV rays which leads to higher skin cancer rates and other issues.Probably the scariest effect of air pollution is how it contributes to global climate change and global warming. When certain air pollutants like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases build up too much in the atmosphere, they absorb and trap more heat from the sun's radiation. This causes overall global temperatures to rise whichleads to melting glaciers and ice caps, rising sea levels, changed weather patterns with more extreme storms, droughts, heatwaves and all sorts of problems. Climate change is a huge deal and we've got to do something about the air pollution causing it before the Earth gets even more messed up!So what can we do to reduce air pollution? Well, we definitely need stricter regulations from governments to limit emissions from vehicles and industrial activities. We should transition to more renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydroelectric instead of burning fossil fuels that pollute the air. People can drive less, use public transportation more, and buy electric or hybrid vehicles that don't give off as many emissions. At home, we should conserve energy, useenvironmentally-friendly products without aerosols, and avoid burning materials for heating that create indoor air pollution.Air pollution is no joke - it's a major threat to human health and the whole planet. I really hope people start taking it more seriously and make changes to reduce pollutants being pumped into the atmosphere constantly. Nobody wants to breathe in gross contaminated air or live in an polluted world that's getting hotter and more messed up every year due to climate change caused by air pollution. We've got to work together to solve thisproblem and have clean air again before it's too late! The future of the Earth is kind of riding on it.篇5Air Pollution is Really Bad!Hi there! My name is Tommy and I'm going to tell you all about air pollution. It's a super serious problem that makes the air we breathe yucky and dirty. Let me explain why it's so bad and what we can do about it.First of all, what even is air pollution? It's basically when there are too many bad things in the air that shouldn't be there. Things like smoke, gases, and tiny dust particles that come from factories, power plants, cars, and other sources. All that nasty stuff gets mixed into the air we breathe every day.Air pollution is really harmful to people's health. It can make it hard to breathe and cause lung problems like asthma attacks. People with allergies or heart and lung diseases are especially at risk. Even healthy people can get headaches, feel tired, and get sick more easily when the air is super polluted.But it's not just humans that air pollution hurts. It also damages plants, animals, bodies of water, and the wholeenvironment. The toxic chemicals and particles can poison fish, kill trees and crops, and make animals really sick too. It's terrible for nature!A major cause of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. We burn these to power our cars, heat our homes, run factories, and make electricity. But when we burn them, they release gases and particles that pollute the air. Things like carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide and tiny particulates get spit into the atmosphere.Another big contributor is transportation - cars, buses, planes and ships all pump out exhaust that dirties the air. Cities with tons of traffic and vehicle emissions tend to have really bad smog problems. Things like smoke from fires, emissions from industries and chemical plants, and dust from construction sites also add to the air pollution.Global warming and climate change make air pollution even worse because of rising temperatures. Hotter weather increases the amount of ground-level ozone, which is very harmful to breathe. So climate change is making the air quality decline even more rapidly.The effects of breathing polluted air over many years are quite scary. It can permanently damage lungs, stunt growth inkids, and cause cancer, heart disease, and other horrible illnesses. No one wants to live in a world where the air is constantly toxic and dangerous to inhale!So what can we do to fight this dirty air crisis? Well, we can start by driving less and using more public transportation, biking or walking instead of driving everywhere. We can also conserve electricity at home by turning off lights and unplugging devices we aren't using. That cuts down on the pollution from power plants.At school, we should recycle as much as possible and not waste paper, plastic or other materials. We can have trees planted around our neighborhoods to absorb some of the carbon dioxide and release fresh oxygen. Speaking up and telling leaders we want stronger clean air laws is important too!Ultimately though, big changes need to happen globally. We need to develop and use wayyyy more renewable energy sources like solar, wind and hydropower instead of dirty fossil fuels. Vehicle emissions standards have to get stricter, and industries need much better regulations on their pollution output. It will take cooperation between all countries to solve this worldwide problem.But we can't just give up because it seems too big of an issue! Everyone needs to do their part by making some simple changes in their daily lives. If we all work together and take steps to reduce air pollution, we can create a healthier, cleaner world to live in. An environment with fresh breathable air for all people and creatures on this planet - now that's the dream! Let's start making it a reality, one action at a time. What do you say, are you in?篇6Air Pollution is Very Very Bad!Hi friends! Today I want to talk to you about something super important - air pollution. It's a really big problem that hurts the planet and everybody living on it.What is air pollution anyway? It's basically when there are too many yucky gases and particles in the air that we breathe. Things like smoke, soot, dust and other nasties get released into the atmosphere. This pollution comes from factories, power plants, cars, trucks, trains, planes and even some household products we use.Why is air pollution so bad? Well, for one thing, breathing in all those dirty particles can make people really sick. It can causediseases like asthma, bronchitis and even lung cancer. Elderly people and kids are especially at risk because their lungs are more sensitive. No one wants to be stuck inside coughing and wheezing all the time!Air pollution also does a ton of damage to the environment around us. You know how sometimes the sky looks all hazy and gray instead of bright blue? That's because of smog from pollution. Smog is just gross. It can even kill plants and crops, which isn't good because we need those to live.Another terrible thing about air pollution is that it contributes to global warming and climate change. Those bad gases like carbon dioxide trap heat in our atmosphere, causing temperatures to rise across the whole planet. This leads to things like melting ice caps, rising sea levels, extreme weather and animals losing their homes and going extinct. So sad!You might be wondering - what can we do about this huge problem? Well, there's actually lots we can do to reduce air pollution! Governments can pass laws to make factories use better filters and cleaner energy sources like solar or wind power. They can also invest in public transportation and encourage people to drive less.As individuals, we can take public transport, walk, bike or carpool whenever possible instead of driving our own cars. We can conserve energy at home by turning off lights/AC when not using them. Avoiding too many sprays and chemicals helps too. Planting trees is great because they absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.If we all work together, we can cut down on air pollution and have clean fresh air to breathe. Imagine blue skies, healthy trees and animals thriving in their habitats! A world with less pollution is a happier world for humans and nature alike. Let's get started today by making some simple changes. Who's with me?。

The Thermodynamics of Gas PhaseReactionsIntroductionThermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformation in physical and chemical systems. In chemistry, thermodynamics helps in understanding the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions. One of the significant areas in thermodynamics is the study of gas phase reactions. This article examines the thermodynamics of gas reactions, how they occur, and their properties.Gas Phase ReactionsGas phase reactions are chemical reactions that occur in the gas state. They are distinct from reactions that occur in a liquid or solid state. In a gas phase reaction, the reactants are in the gas phase, and the products are also in the gas phase. Gas reactions occur in everyday life, from the burning of fossil fuels to the combustion reactions that occur in a car engine. In gas phase reactions, the reactant molecules collide with each other, leading to a change in molecular arrangement and the formation of new molecules. The thermodynamics of gas reactions is governed by several factors, including enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy.EnthalpyEnthalpy is a measure of the heat content of a system. It is represented by the symbol H and is measured in Joules. In a gas phase reaction, the enthalpy change, ΔH, is the difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants. In an endothermic reaction, the enthalpy change is positive, while in an exothermic reaction, the enthalpy change is negative. The magnitude of the enthalpy change determines the amount of heat energy released or absorbed during the reaction.EntropyEntropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system. It is represented by the symbol S and is measured in Joules per Kelvin. Entropy is related to the number of ways in which the particles of a system can arrange themselves without changing the energy of the system. In a gas phase reaction, the entropy change, ΔS, represents the change in randomness or disorder of the system. The reaction proceeds in the direction that increases the entropy or randomness of the system. The entropy change is positive for a reaction that increases the number of gas molecules or molecules in an unordered state.Gibbs Free EnergyThe Gibbs free energy, represented by the symbol G, is a measure of the maximum amount of work that can be obtained from a thermodynamic system. The Gibbs free energy determines whether a reaction is spontaneous or not. If the Gibbs free energy of a reaction is negative, the reaction is spontaneous, and if it is positive, the reaction is non-spontaneous.The Relationship between Enthalpy, Entropy, and Gibbs Free Energy in Gas Phase ReactionsIn gas-phase reactions, the values of enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy determine the thermodynamic stability of the system. The relationship between these variables is given by the following equation:ΔG = ΔH –TΔSwhere ΔG is the Gibbs free energy change, ΔH is the enthalpy change, ΔS is the entropy change, and T is the temperature of the system in Kelvin. The relationship between enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy is essential in predicting whether a reaction is spontaneous or not. If ΔG is negative, the reaction is spontaneous, while if it is positive, the reaction is non-spontaneous. If ΔG is zer o, the reaction is at equilibrium.Examples of Gas Phase ReactionsGas phase reactions occur in everyday life, from the combustion of fuels to the formation of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere. One example of a gas phase reaction is the reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water vapor. The reaction can be represented by the following equation:2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)The enthalpy change for this reaction is -483.6 kJ/mol, indicating that the reaction is exothermic. The entropy change is positive, indicating that the reaction leads to an increase in randomness or disorder. The Gibbs free energy of this reaction is negative at room temperature, indicating that the reaction is spontaneous.ConclusionThe thermodynamics of gas phase reactions is a critical area of study in physical chemistry. The enthalpy, entropy, and Gibbs free energy determine the stability and spontaneity of the reaction. Understanding these variables is essential in predicting the course and extent of chemical reactions. Gas phase reactions occur in everyday life, from the formation of ozone in the Earth's atmosphere to the combustion of fossil fuels. The study of gas phase reactions is integral to our understanding of the physical and chemical processes that occur in nature.。

review of shale gas sorption and its models -回复Shale gas sorption is a critical process that affects the extraction and production of unconventional natural gas from shale formations. It involves the adsorption of methane and other hydrocarbon gases onto the surface of organic matter and inorganic minerals within the shale matrix. Understanding shale gas sorption is crucial for accurately estimating the gas storage capacity and evaluating the commercial viability of shale gas reservoirs. Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted to investigate shale gas sorption and develop models that can predict sorption behavior. In this article, we will review the current state of knowledge on shale gas sorption and discuss the different models used to describe the sorption process.Shale gas sorption is influenced by several factors, including the composition and properties of the shale rock, the pressure and temperature conditions, and the chemical nature of the gases involved. The main mechanism responsible for sorption is the Van der Waals forces acting between the gas molecules and the surface of the sorbent. The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models are commonly used to describe the equilibrium sorption behavior ofshale gas.The Langmuir model assumes that the sorption process occurs on a homogeneous surface with a fixed number of active sites available for adsorption. It predicts that the amount of gas adsorbed increases linearly with the pressure until a maximum adsorption capacity is reached. The Freundlich model, on the other hand, is empirical and describes sorption as a multilayer adsorption process with a variable distribution of adsorption energies. It allows for a wider range of sorption behaviors compared to the Langmuir model.Both the Langmuir and Freundlich models have been applied extensively to describe the sorption behavior of methane and other hydrocarbon gases in different shale formations. However, it is important to note that the assumptions made by these models may not always accurately reflect the complex nature of shale gas sorption. Hence, researchers have also developed more advanced models to capture the intricacies of the sorption process.One such model is the Dual Mode Langmuir model, which considers the presence of both Langmuir and Freundlich sorptionsites. This model has been found to better fit experimental data from shale samples compared to the traditional Langmuir model. Similarly, the BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) model, commonly used to describe gas adsorption on solid surfaces, has been modified to account for the heterogeneity of shale surfaces and the multilayer sorption behavior.In addition to these empirical models, there have been efforts to develop molecular-scale models that can provide insights into the sorption mechanisms at a microscopic level. Molecular dynamics simulations and Monte Carlo simulations have been used to study the interaction between gas molecules and shale surfaces, allowing for a more detailed understanding of the sorption process. These models take into account factors such as surface roughness, mineralogy, and gas composition, providing a more accurate representation of the sorption behavior.Despite the advancements made in modeling shale gas sorption, there are still several challenges to overcome. The heterogeneous nature of shale rocks, the complex interactions between gas and rock surfaces, and the lack of comprehensive experimental data make it difficult to develop universally applicable models.Furthermore, the practical application of these models for estimating gas storage and recovery in shale reservoirs remains a subject of ongoing research.In conclusion, shale gas sorption is a complex process that plays a crucial role in the production and extraction of unconventional natural gas. The development of accurate and reliable sorption models is essential for estimating gas storage capacity and evaluating the commercial viability of shale gas reservoirs. While empirical models such as the Langmuir and Freundlich models have been widely used, more advanced models taking into account the heterogeneity of shale surfaces and the molecular-scale interactions are being explored. Continued research and experimental validation will enhance our understanding of shale gas sorption and enable more accurate predictions for the exploitation of shale gas resources.。

The greenhouse effect 温室效应It may be cold outside, but on a sunny day it can be hot in a greenhouse. Some of the gases in the Earth's atmosphere act like the glass in a greenhouse. Radiant heat from the Sun can pass through them to warm the Earth below. But the ground also loses heat by radiation. The "greenhouse gases" send some of this heat back towards the Earth's surface and help to keep it warm. However, by burning fuels and forests, we are putting larger and larger amounts of these greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. As a result, the Earth is slowly warming up. This is called the greenhouse effect.温室外面也许很冷，但晴天时室内就会很热。

地球大气层中的一些气体起着类似温室玻璃的作用。

太阳辐射热可以穿过这些气体使地球变暖。

不过地面也会通过辐射散发热量。

“温室气体”把热量辐射回地球表面，使之保温。

然而，由于不断地燃烧燃料、烧毁森林，我们正在把越来越多的温室气体释放到大气层。

结果，地球在逐渐变暖。

这就是温室效应。

Greenhouse gases 温室气体Carbon dioxide is the m ain greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Animals (like ourselves) give out carbon dioxide when they breathe, while plants breathe in carbon dioxide. In this way, animals and plants keep the atmosphere in balance and the amount of carbon dioxide stays the same.二氧化碳是大气层中主要的温室气体。

Radon Gas Health Effects and Remediation Radon gas is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is formed by the decay of uranium in soil, rock, and water. It is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that can seep into homes and buildings through cracks in the foundation, walls, and floors. Radon gas is a serious health concern as it is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. In this response, we will explore the health effects of radon gas, its remediation, and multiple perspectives on the issue.Health Effects of Radon GasExposure to radon gas can lead to serious health effects, especially if the exposure is prolonged. The most significant health effect of radon gas is lung cancer. Radon gas can cause damage to the DNA in lung tissue, which can lead to the development of cancer cells. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), radon gas is responsible for about 21,000 lung cancer deaths in the United States each year.Radon gas exposure can also lead to other respiratory problems such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma. The symptoms of these respiratory problems include shortness of breath, coughing, and wheezing. Children and elderly people are particularly vulnerable to the health effects of radon gas exposure.Remediation of Radon GasRadon gas can be remediated through various methods, including ventilation, sealing cracks and gaps in the foundation, and installing a radon mitigation system. Ventilation is the simplest and most cost-effective method of radon gas remediation. It involves opening windows and doors to allow fresh air to circulate and remove radon gas from the indoor environment.Sealing cracks and gaps in the foundation is another effective method of radon gas remediation. This method involves sealing all the entry points of radon gas into the building,including cracks in the foundation, walls, and floors. This method can be combined with ventilation to enhance its effectiveness.Installing a radon mitigation system is the most effective method of radon gas remediation. This method involves installing a system that draws radon gas from the soil beneath the building and vents it outside. The system includes a fan, a vent pipe, and a radon detector to monitor the radon gas levels.Multiple Perspectives on Radon Gas Health Effects and RemediationThe issue of radon gas health effects and remediation has multiple perspectives, including those of homeowners, government agencies, and real estate agents. Homeowners are concerned about the health effects of radon gas on their families and want to ensure that their homes are safe. They may be willing to invest in radon gas remediation methods to protect their families from the health effects of radon gas exposure.Government agencies, such as the EPA, are concerned about the health effects of radon gas on the general public and have set guidelines for radon gas exposure and remediation. The EPA recommends that homeowners test their homes for radon gas and remediate if the levels are above the recommended limit.Real estate agents are concerned about the impact of radon gas on the value of homes. Homes with high levels of radon gas may be more difficult to sell, and buyers may be hesitant to purchase a home with radon gas issues. Real estate agents may recommend that homeowners test their homes for radon gas and remediate if necessary to increase the value of their homes.ConclusionRadon gas is a serious health concern that can lead to lung cancer and other respiratory problems. It is important for homeowners to test their homes for radon gas and remediate if necessary to protect their families from the health effects of radon gas exposure. There are various methods of radon gas remediation, including ventilation, sealing cracks and gapsin the foundation, and installing a radon mitigation system. The issue of radon gas health effects and remediation has multiple perspectives, including those of homeowners, government agencies, and real estate agents. It is important for all stakeholders to work together to ensure that homes are safe from the health effects of radon gas exposure.。

工业废气排放的危害英语作文In life, with the development of science and technology, the production of industrial pollution is increasing year by year. What should we do?Industrial pollution refers to the environmental pollution caused by waste gas, waste water and solid emissions formed in the process of industrial production. Pollution is mainly caused by the "three wastes" (waste water, waste gas and waste residue) and various noises in production, which can be divided into waste water pollution, waste gas pollution, waste residue pollution and noise pollution.These convolutions do us countless harm. For example, a large amount of untreated water, gas, slag and other hazardous wastes discharged from industrial production will seriously damage the ecological balance and natural resources of agriculture and cause great harm to the development of agricultural production; Industrial "three wastes" are also very harmful to industrial production. T oxic pollutants will corrode pipelines, damage equipment and affect the service life of plants; Environmental pollution and public nuisance flood directly endanger the health of the broad masses of the people; Some pollution is not easy to find, and the harm caused by it has been very serious The Maas River Valley in Belgium is located in a narrow basin. From December 1 to 5, 1930, the temperature reversed, causing the harmfulgas and soot dust emitted by the factory to gather in the near Earth atmosphere. Three days later, people began to get sick. Its symptoms include chest pain, cough, dyspepsia, etc. more than 60 people died within a week, among which the mortality of patients with heart disease and lung disease was the highest. At the same time, many livestock died. During the event, SO2 concentration was very high and may contain fluoride. After the analysis, it was believed that the pollution incident was caused by the combined effect of several harmful gases and soot dust on human body.But that's not to say that we have no way to prevent this from happening. We also have corresponding defensive measures. For example, a number of enterprises with backward technology, serious pollution and waste of resources will be eliminated and closed down; Carry out the practice of circular economy; Actively prevent environmental emergencies; Implement the whole process management system for industrial hazardous wastes; Implement strict nuclear and radiation environmental safety managementToday, our thoughts are not closed. We should strive to understand environmental protection knowledge and protect our living environment - the earth. Keep a beautiful and environmentally friendly home for future generations. And make a contribution to all people in the world to make the world a better place.。

海口2024年02版小学6年级上册英语基本全练全测考试时间：90分钟（总分:100）A卷考试人：_________题号一二三四五总分得分一、综合题(共计100题)1、听力题：I like to _____ (explore) caves.2、听力题：My sister enjoys singing in the ____ (choir).3、What is the main ingredient in chocolate?a. Sugarb. Cocoac. Flourd. Milk答案:B4、听力题：The main gas emitted by decaying organic matter is __________.5、听力题：The Earth's atmosphere contains gases that are vital for ______.6、What fruit is often associated with doctors and health?A. BananaB. AppleC. OrangeD. Grape答案:B7、听力题：A solution that contains a large amount of solute is said to be _______.8、填空题：The _______ (The War on Terror) began after the September 11 attacks.9、填空题：The _____ (飞盘) is perfect for the park.10、填空题：The sun helps plants to ______ (生长) by providing light.11、What do we call a story that is not true?A. Non-fictionB. FantasyC. FictionD. Biography12、填空题：I enjoy playing ________ (棋) with my grandparents.13、听力题：I play _____ (视频游戏) after homework.14、听力题：I can ___ my favorite book. (read)15、填空题：The __________ (状态) of matter includes solid, liquid, and gas.16、填空题：The _____ (狐狸) is clever and sly.17、填空题：The garden has many _______ that bloom in spring.18、听力题：The ________ is the natural home of many species.19、What is the capital of Thailand?A. BangkokB. HanoiC. JakartaD. Kuala Lumpur答案: A. Bangkok20、听力题：A __________ is a reaction that produces light and heat.21、What do you call a person who catches fish?A. FishermanB. HunterC. FarmerD. Gardener答案: A22、听力题：The reaction of an acid with a base produces ______ and water.23、What do we call a baby cow?A. CalfB. KidC. LambD. Foal答案: A24、填空题：The ancient Egyptians used _____ to build their pyramids.25、听力题：I see a _____ in the tree. (bird)26、What do we call the place where we keep our clothes?A. BedroomB. ClosetC. KitchenD. Bathroom27、填空题：The __________ (美洲土著人) have rich cultural traditions.28、听力题：The capital of Turkey is __________.29、填空题：The capital of Canada is _____.30、How do you say "good morning" in Spanish?A. Buenos díasB. Buenas nochesC. Buenas tardesD. Hola31、填空题：The macaw has bright _______ (羽毛).32、Which gas do plants take in during photosynthesis?A. OxygenB. Carbon DioxideC. NitrogenD. Helium答案:B33、What do we call the lines that run from east to west on a globe?A. LatitudeB. LongitudeC. EquatorD. Meridian答案: A34、听力题：I see a ___ at the store. (toy)35、听力题：The car is parked _____ (in front/behind) the house.36、What is the name of the famous rock formation in Australia?A. Ayers Rock (Uluru)B. Great Barrier ReefC. Sydney Opera HouseD. Blue Mountains37、听力题：I see a _____ (bird/fish) flying.38、选择题：What do we call the place where you can buy groceries?A. StoreB. MarketC. MallD. Supermarket39、听力题：My cousin is a talented ____ (dancer).40、听力题：Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist ______.41、填空题：A whale is a __________ (大型) marine animal.42、选择题：What do you call a baby rabbit?A. KitB. PupC. CalfD. Cub43、填空题：The ________ was a key battle in the Revolutionary War.44、填空题：Vikings are known for their _____ and exploration.45、填空题：My ________ (表哥) is a great basketball player and teaches me how to play.46、填空题：The ________ (城镇) has a rich cultural heritage.47、What is the main ingredient in pizza dough?a. Riceb. Flourc. Cornd. Sugar答案:B48、听力题：The __________ is a famous area known for its art.49、填空题：The flower petals are ______.50、听力题：A covalent bond forms when atoms _____ electrons.51、填空题：My ________ (玩具名称) helps me practice my spelling.52、听力题：Chemical reactions can be spontaneous or ______.53、选择题：What is the color of a typical kiwi fruit?A. BrownB. GreenC. YellowD. Red54、Which animal is known for its ability to fly?A. FrogB. FishC. BirdD. Snake答案: C55、填空题：_____ (生态经典) teaches about biodiversity.56、What is the smallest unit of life?A. CellB. TissueC. OrganD. Organism答案: A57、听力题：My uncle is a fantastic ____ (woodworker).58、听力题：A _______ is a substance that can donate protons in a chemical reaction.59、听力题：The chemical formula for potassium chloride is _______.60、填空题：A zebra’s stripes are unique to each ________________ (个体).61、听力题：The park is ___ (quiet/loud).62、选择题：Which fruit is yellow and tropical?A. BananaB. CherryC. PeachD. Plum63、填空题：A crab can be found in ______ (沙滩) and rocky areas.I like to _____ (种植) flowers.65、填空题：I watched a _______ (小鸭子) follow its mother.66、What is the opposite of "hot"?A. WarmB. ColdC. CoolD. Dry答案:B67、填空题：A frog can jump very _________. (高)68、What is the opposite of 'clean'?A. DirtyB. NeatC. ClearD. Pure答案：A69、What do you call a house made of ice?A. IglooB. CastleC. HutD. Cabin答案:A70、听力题：Elephants have large ______.71、填空题：On hot summer days, I enjoy eating __________. (冰淇淋)72、听力题：A _______ can be used to demonstrate the effects of gravity on different objects.73、填空题：The _____ (狮子) is a symbol of strength and courage.74、填空题：A flamingo's diet consists mainly of ________________ (浮游生物).My dad works at a _____ (hospital/school).76、填空题：The _______ (小松鼠) collects acorns for winter.77、What is the main language spoken in the USA?A. SpanishB. FrenchC. EnglishD. German78、填空题：The chemical formula for salt is __________ (NaCl).79、听力题：A trench is a deep ______ in the ocean floor.80、听力题：I like to ________ cartoons.81、听力题：A frog goes through ______ stages in its life.82、What do you call the study of the Earth's physical structure?A. GeographyB. GeologyC. BiologyD. Meteorology答案: B83、听力题：The bat hangs upside down in the ____.84、What is the capital of Mongolia?A. UlaanbaatarB. ErdenetC. DarkhanD. Choibalsan答案:A85、填空题：A __________ (实验室记录) is essential for reproducing results.86、What is the opposite of "full"?A. EmptyB. HeavyC. LightD. Solid87、填空题：We will have ________ (节日) celebrations soon.88、填空题：I help my __________ with yard work. (爸爸)89、填空题：I made a ________ (沙堡) at the beach.90、What is the main purpose of a compass?A. To tell timeB. To find directionC. To measure distanceD. To weigh objects91、What do we call a group of owls?A. ParliamentB. FlockC. GaggleD. School答案:A. Parliament92、填空题：My dad, ______ (我爸爸), loves to tell jokes.93、填空题：_____ (阳光) is essential for plants to make their food.94、What do we call a story that is based on real events?A. FictionB. Non-fictionC. BiographyD. Novel答案:B95、听力题：Astronomers believe there may be more than one ______ in the universe.96、听力题：The chemical formula for water is ______.97、填空题：I think it’s fun to go ________ (参加比赛).98、填空题：The tropical fish in aquariums come in various ________________ (颜色) and patterns.99、填空题：A ______ (植物园) is a great place to learn about different species.100、听力题：He is going to the ___. (market)。

时文阅读|新型传感器有助于预测火山爆发从前，人们在面对突如其来的自然灾害时，只能无奈地接受它们带来的苦难，被迫流离失所，甚至付出生命代价。

如今，监测系统的发展使得科学家能够监测灾害来临前的迹象，这无疑给人们留出了应对灾害的时间，从而大大减少伤亡、降低损失。

现在，让我们去了解一种可以预测火山爆发的新型装置吧阅读短文并回答问题Compared to other causes of natural disasters, volcanoes offer clues only when they are about to erupt. Now, however, developments in monitoring systems have allowed scientists to develop sensors（传感器）to detect and consequently forecast eruptions, allowing authorities to plan for them with increasing precision.University of Cambridge volcanologist Marie Edmonds says that scientists are now able to use very precise sensors that monitor the gases volcanoes emit, which can give clues on the location of the magma（岩浆）. The sensors help with prediction because different gases are emitted at various stages of an eruption. When magma rises, pressure is released along with gases. Carbon dioxide is released early on and then, as the magma goes higher, sulphur dioxide is released. The ratio（比例）of the two gases is used to detect the location of magma relative to the surface, telling researchers the imminence of the eruption.Edmonds is connected to an international group known as the Deep Carbon Observatory that has worked to put new gas sensors on fifteen of the most active and dangerous volcanoes to improve the forecasting of various types of eruptions. The gas sensors continually measure water vapor, sulphur dioxide, and carbon dioxide. They are placed inside large boxes with surface antennae（触角）and buried underground. Advances in electronics have increased their precision and lowered their cost, allowing more of them to be used worldwide.Putting these sensors atop active volcanoes is dangerous. Scientists wear reflective suits that protect against heat, plus gas masks for protection from corrosive gases. They sometimes hike long distances in remote regions to reach a site. However, according to Edmonds, the work they do to save people’s lives makes a dangerous job worth it. She enjoys doing something that helps people.Edmonds’ team has also attached sensors to drones to measure emissions from a Papua New Guinea volcano for a short time, a technique developed to gather “snapshots” of the activity. These snapshots help researchers to better understand the complexities of activities that lead to eruptions1.How do sensors detect and predict volcanic eruptions?A. By sending warnings to researchers.B. By measuring the heat underground.C. By tracking different gases released.D. By studying the surrounding emissions.2. What do we know about the gas sensors?A. They should be attached to the magma.B. They are available around the world.C. They can check various types of eruptions.D. They become more accurate and expensive.3. Why is it risky to place sensors atop active volcanoes?A. There is heat and dangerous gases.B. It’s hard to find the top of volcanoes.C. Scientists lack enough suits and masks.D. Active volcanoes may erupt at any time.4. What are the snapshots for?A. Predicting volcanic eruptions earlier.B. Attracting people’s attention to volcanoes.C. Avoiding the danger of the researchers’ work.D. Collecting more information for researchers.【参考答案】CBAD单词学习1. emit v. 发出；散发Sulphur gases were emitted by the volcano. 硫磺气体由火山喷发出来。