Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education Advance Access published July 6, 2005 Early Manu

JIAN NAN WEN XUE臣下百吏莫不宿道乡方而务,是夫人主之职也。

若是,则一天下,名配尧、禹。

”从另一方面阐明了依法执政实为“人主之职”,也是“一天下”的必由之路。

因此,虞舜之道有关“求中”与“得中”的实践,可以概括为三个方面:首先注重的是家庭生活中的和睦之道,其次是社会生活中人与人的平等互助,再次是在对外关系中和平共处。

特别是在对三苗的关系处理上,虞舜不仅主张义征三苗,施大德于三苗,以“仁义”取胜,而且把自己的遗体埋在南方,以保证民族和解,不起战事,最终解决了长期以来南北对立的局面,最终实现了华夏、东夷、三苗三大部族的统一,为夏王朝的建立奠定了坚实的基础。

《吕氏春秋·尚德》:“三苗不服,禹请攻之。

舜曰:‘以德可也。

’行德三年,而三苗服。

孔子闻之曰:‘通乎德之情,则孟门、太行不为险矣。

故曰德之速,疾乎以邮传命。

’周明堂,金在其后,有以见先德后武也。

舜其犹此乎?其臧武通于周矣。

”《盐铁论·论功》也说:““有虞氏之时,三苗不服,禹欲伐之,舜曰:‘是吾德未喻也。

’退而修政,而三苗服。

”这些论述说明,虞舜在处理内外关系与民族矛盾时,秉持“以和为贵”与“以德服人”的方针,取得了较好效果。

三尧历史意义及其现代启示中华文明从一开始就把和谐作为价值观的最高准则。

追求和谐,是中华文化精神和民族精神的一个显著特点。

中国人以和为贵、以和为善、以和为美。

和谐文化造就了中国人崇尚和谐、爱好和平,主张多民族和睦共存,多元文化融合共生,重视人自身、人与人、人与社会、人与自然统一性的文化传统。

而造就这一文化传统的最早源头,应该就是虞舜文化。

虞舜文化是中华传统文化的重要母源,且对历代执政者的治民理念及其具体措施均有深远影响。

纵观历史,中国古代凡是长治久安的时期,执政者都高度重视依法施政。

立法历来为执政者所重视,早在神农炎帝时期就出现了《政典》、《黄帝四经》等法律文献。

自尧舜至夏商,在不同历史时期的发展过程中一直不断出现一些具有重要意义的文件,其中如《尧典》、《舜典》、《大禹》、《皋陶谟》等,有学者认为都是具有“宪法性意义”的法律文献。

B OSTON U NIVERSITY Center for Energy and Environmental Studies Working Papers SeriesNumber 9501 September 1995 THE CAPITAL THEORY APPROACH TO SUSTAINABILITY:A CRITICAL APPRAISALbyDavid Stern675 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston MA 02215Tel: (617) 353-3083Fax: (617) 353-5986E-Mail: dstern@WWW: /sterncv.htmlThe Capital Theory Approach to Sustainability:A Critical AppraisalDavid I. SternBoston UniversityNovember 1995______________________________________________________________________________ Center for Energy and Environmental Studies, Boston University, 675 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston MA 02215, USA. Tel: (617) 353 3083 Fax: (617) 353 5986, E-Mail: dstern@The Capital Theory Approach to Sustainability:A Critical Appraisal______________________________________________________________________________ SummaryThis paper examines critically some recent developments in the sustainability debate. The large number of definitions of sustainability proposed in the 1980's have been refined into a smaller number of positions on the relevant questions in the 1990's. The most prominent of these are based on the idea of maintaining a capital stock. I call this the capital theory approach (CTA). Though these concepts are beginning to inform policies there are a number of difficulties in applying this approach in a theoretically valid manner and a number of critics of the use of the CTA as a guide to policy. First, I examine the internal difficulties with the CTA and continue to review criticisms from outside the neoclassical normative framework. The accounting approach obscures the underlying assumptions used and gives undue authoritativeness to the results. No account is taken of the uncertainty involved in sustainability analysis of any sort. In addition, by focusing on a representative consumer and using market (or contingent market) valuations of environmental resources, the approach (in common with most normative neoclassical economics) does not take into account distributional issues or accommodate alternative views on environmental values. Finally, I examine alternative approaches to sustainability analysis and policy making. These approaches accept the open-ended and multi-dimensional nature of sustainability and explicitly open up to political debate the questions that are at risk of being hidden inside the black-box of seemingly objective accounting.I.INTRODUCTIONThe Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) proposed that sustainable development is "development that meets the needs of the present generation while letting future generations meet their own needs". Economists initially had some difficulty with this concept, some dismissing it1 and others proliferating a vast number of alternative definitions and policy prescriptions (see surveys by: Pezzey, 1989; Pearce et al., 1989; Rees, 1990; Lélé, 1991).In recent years, economists have made some progress in articulating their conception of sustainability. The large number of definitions of sustainability proposed in the 1980's have been refined into a smaller number of positions on the relevant questions in the 1990's. There is agreement that sustainability implies that certain indicators of welfare or development are non-declining over the very long term, that is development is sustained (Pezzey, 1989). Sustainable development is a process of change in an economy that does not violate such a sustainability criterion. Beyond this, the dominant views are based on the idea of maintaining a capital stock as a prerequisite for sustainable development. Within this school of thought there are opposing camps which disagree on the empirical question of the degree to which various capital stocks can be substituted for each other, though there has been little actual empirical research on this question.There is a consensus among a large number of economists that the CTA is a useful means of addressing sustainability issues.2 Capital theory concepts are beginning to inform policy, as in the case of the UN recommendations on environmental accounting and the US response to them (Beardsley, 1994; Carson et al., 1994; Steer and Lutz, 1993). There are, however, a growing number of critics who question whether this is a useful way to address sustainability (eg. Norgaard, 1991; Amir, 1992; Common and Perrings, 1992; Karshenas, 1994; Pezzey, 1994; Common and Norton, 1994; Faucheux et al., 1994; Common, 1995). The literature on sustainable development and sustainability is vast and continually expanding. There are also a large number ofsurveys of that literature (eg. Tisdell, 1988; Pearce et al., 1989; Rees, 1990; Simonis, 1990; Lélé, 1991; Costanza and Daly, 1992; Pezzey, 1992; Toman et al., 1994). I do not intend to survey this literature.The aim of this paper is to present a critique of the capital theory approach to sustainability (CTA henceforth) as a basis for policy. This critique both outlines the difficulties in using and applying the CTA from a viewpoint internal to neoclassical economics and problems with this approach from a viewpoint external to neoclassical economics. I also suggest some alternative approaches to sustainability relevant analysis and policy. The neoclasscial sustainability literature generally ignores the international dimensions of the sustainability problem. I also ignore this dimension in this paper.The paper is structured as follows. In the second section, I discuss the background to the emergence of the capital theory approach, while the third section briefly outlines the basic features of the approach. The fourth section examines the limitations of the CTA from within the viewpoint of neoclassical economics and the debate between proponents of "weak sustainability" and "strong sustainability". The following sections examine the drawbacks of this paradigm from a viewpoint external to neoclassical economics and discuss alternative methods of analysis and decision-making for sustainability. The concluding section summarizes the principal points.SHIFTING DEBATE: EMERGENCE OF THE CAPITAL THEORY II. THEAPPROACHMuch of the literature on sustainable development published in the 1980's was vague (see Lélé, 1991; Rees, 1990; Simonis, 1990). There was a general lack of precision and agreement in defining sustainability, and outlining appropriate sustainability policies. This confusion stemmed in part from an imprecise demarcation between ends and means. By "ends" I mean the definition ofsustainability ie. what is to be sustained, while "means" are the methods to achieve sustainability or necessary and/or sufficient conditions that must be met in order to do the same. As the goal of policy must be a subjective choice, considerable debate surrounded and continues to surround the definition of sustainability (eg. Tisdell, 1988). As there is considerable scientific uncertainty regarding sustainability possibilities, considerable debate continues to surround policies to achieve any given goal.Sharachchandra Lélé (1991) stated that "sustainable development is in real danger of becoming a cliché like appropriate technology - a fashionable phrase that everyone pays homage to but nobody cares to define" (607). Lélé pointed out that different authors and speakers meant very different things by sustainability, and that even UNEP's and WCED's definitions of sustainable development were vague, and confused ends with means. Neither provided any scientific examination of whether their proposed policies would lead to increased sustainability. "Where the sustainable development movement has faltered is in its inability to develop a set of concepts, criteria and policies that are coherent or consistent - both externally (with physical and social reality) and internally (with each other)." (613). Judith Rees (1990) expressed extreme skepticism concerning both sustainable development and its proponents. “It is easy to see why the notion of sustainable development has become so popular ... No longer does environmental protection mean sacrifice and confrontation with dominant materialist values” (435). She also argued that sustainable development was just so much political rhetoric. A UNEP report stated: "The ratio of words to action is weighted too heavily towards the former" (quoted in Simonis, 1990, 35). In the early days of the sustainability debate, vagueness about the meaning of sustainability was advantageous in attracting the largest constituency possible, but in the longer run, greater clarity is essential for sustaining concern.In the 1990's many people have put forward much more precisely articulated definitions of sustainable development, conditions and policies required to achieve sustainability, and criteria toassess whether development is sustainable. This has coincided with a shift from a largely politically-driven dialogue to a more theory-driven dialogue. With this has come a clearer understanding of what kinds of policies would be required to move towards alternative sustainability goals, and what the limits of our knowledge are. There is a stronger awareness of the distinction between ends and means. Most, but not all (eg. Amir, 1992), analysts agree that sustainable development is a meaningful concept but that the claims of the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) that growth just had to change direction were far too simplistic.There is a general consensus, especially among economists, on the principal definition of sustainable development used by David Pearce et al. (1989, 1991): Non-declining average human welfare over time (Mäler, 1991; Pezzey, 1992; Toman et al., 1994).3 This definition of sustainability implies a departure from the strict principle of maximizing net present value in traditional cost benefit analysis (Pezzey, 1989), but otherwise it does not imply a large departure from conventional economics. John Pezzey (1989, 1994) suggests a rule of maximizing net present value subject to the sustainability constraint of non-declining mean welfare. It encompasses many but not all definitions of sustainability. For example, it excludes a definition of sustainability based on maintaining a set of ecosystem functions, which seems to be implied by the Holling-sustainability criterion (Common and Perrings, 1992; Holling, 1973, 1986) or on maintaining given stocks of natural assets irrespective of any contribution to human welfare. A sustainable ecosystem might not be an undesirable goal but it could be too strict a criterion for the goal of maintaining human welfare (Karshenas, 1994) and could in some circumstances lead to declining human welfare. Not all ecosystem functions and certainly not all natural assets may be necessary for human welfare. Some aspects of the natural world such as smallpox bacteria may be absolutely detrimental to people. In the context of the primary Pearce et al. definition, the Holling-sustainability criterion is a means not an end.The advantage of formalizing the concept of sustainability is that this renders it amenable to analysis by economic theory (eg. Barbier and Markandya, 1991; Victor, 1991; Common and Perrings, 1992; Pezzey, 1989, 1994; Asheim, 1994) and to quantitative investigations (eg. Repetto et al., 1989; Pearce and Atkinson, 1993; Proops and Atkinson, 1993; Stern, 1995). Given the above formal definition of sustainability, many economists have examined what the necessary or sufficient conditions for the achievement of sustainability might be. Out of this activity has come the CTA described in the next section. The great attractiveness of this new approach is that it suggests relatively simple rules to ensure sustainability and relatively simple indicators of sustainability. This situation has seemingly cleared away the vagueness that previously attended discussions of sustainability and prompted relatively fast action by governments and international organizations to embrace specific goals and programs aimed at achieving this notion of the necessary conditions for sustainability.III. THE ESSENCE OF THE CAPITAL THEORY APPROACHThe origins of the CTA are in the literature on economic growth and exhaustible resources that flourished in the 1970s, exemplified by the special issue of the Review of Economic Studies published in 1974 (Heal, 1974). Robert Solow (1986) built on this earlier literature and the work of John Hartwick (1977, 1978a, 1978b) to formalize the constant capital rule. In these early models there was a single non-renewable resource and a stock of manufactured capital goods. A production function produced a single output, which could be used for either consumption or investment using the two inputs. The elasticity of substitution between the two inputs was one which implied that natural resources were essential but that the average product of resources could rise without bound given sufficient manufactured capital.The models relate to the notion of sustainability as non-declining welfare through the assumption that welfare is a monotonically increasing function of consumption (eg. Mäler, 1991). The path ofconsumption over time (and therefore of the capital stock) in these model economies depends on the intertemporal optimization rule. Under the Rawlsian maxi-min condition consumption must be constant. No net saving is permissible as this is regarded as an unjust burden on the present generation. Under the Ramsey utilitarian approach with zero discounting consumption can increase without bound (Solow, 1974). Here the present generation may be forced to accept a subsistence standard of living if this can benefit the future generations however richer they might be. Paths that maximize net present value with positive discount rates typically peak and then decline so that they are not sustainable (Pezzey, 1994). Pezzey (1989) suggested a hybrid version which maximizes net present value subject to an intertemporal constraint that utility be non-declining. In this case utility will first increase until it reaches a maximum sustainable level. This has attracted consensus as the general optimizing criterion for sustainable development. Geir Asheim (1991) derives this condition more formally.Under the assumption that the elasticity of substitution is one, non-declining consumption depends on the maintenance of the aggregate capital stock ie. conventional capital plus natural resources, used to produce consumption (and investment) goods (Solow, 1986). Aggregate capital, W t,and the change in aggregate capital are defined by:W t=p Kt K t + p Rt S t (1)∆W t=p Kt∆K t + p Rt R t (2)where S is the stock of non-renewable resources and R the use per period. K is the manufactured capital stock and the p i are the relevant prices. In the absence of depreciation of manufactured capital, maintenance of the capital stock implies investment of the rents from the depletion of the natural resource in manufactured capital - the Hartwick rule (Hartwick 1977, 1978a, 1978b). Income is defined using the Hicksian notion (Hicks, 1946) that income is the maximum consumption in a period consistent with the maintenance of wealth. Sustainable income is,therefore, the maximum consumption in a period consistent with the maintenance of aggregate capital intact (Weitzman, 1976; Mäler, 1991) and for a flow of income to be sustainable, the stock of capital needs to be constant or increasing over time (Solow, 1986).The initial work can be extended in various ways. The definition of capital that satisfies these conditions can be extended to include a number of categories of "capital": natural, manufactured, human, and institutional.4 Natural capital is a term used by many authors (it seems Smith (1977) was the first) for the aggregate of natural resource stocks that produce inputs of services or commodities for the economy. Some of the components of natural capital may be renewable resources. Manufactured capital refers to the standard neoclassical definition of "a factor of production produced by the economic system" (Pearce, 1992). Human capital also follows the standard definition. Institutional capital includes the institutions and knowledge necessary for the organization and reproduction of the economic system. It includes the ethical or moral capital referred to by Fred Hirsch (1976) and the cultural capital referred to by Fikret Berkes and Carl Folke (1992). For convenience I give the name 'artificial capital' to the latter three categories jointly. None of these concepts is unproblematic and natural capital is perhaps the most problematic. Technical change and population growth can also be accommodated (see Solow, 1986).Empirical implementation of the CTA tends to focus on measurement of sustainable income (eg. El Serafy, 1989; Repetto, 1989) or net capital accumulation (eg. Pearce and Atkinson, 1993; Proops and Atkinson, 1993) rather than on direct estimation of the capital stock.5 The theoretical models that underpin the CTA typically assume a Cobb-Douglas production function with constant returns to scale, no population growth, and no technological change. Any indices of net capital accumulation which attempt to make even a first approximation to reality must take these variables into account. None of the recent empirical studies does so. For example, David Pearce and Giles Atkinson (1993) present data from eighteen countries on savings and depreciation of natural andmanufactured capital as a proportion of GNP. They demonstrate that only eight countries had non-declining stocks of total capital, measured at market prices, and thus passed a weak sustainability criterion of a constant aggregate capital stock, but their methodology ignores population growth, returns to scale or technological change.IV.INTERNAL APPRAISAL OF THE CAPITAL THEORY APPROACHIn this section, I take as given the basic assumptions and rationale of neoclassical economics and highlight some of the technical problems that are encountered in using the CTA as an operational guide to policy. From a neoclassical standpoint these might be seen as difficulties in the positive theory that may lead to difficulties in the normative theory of sustainability policy. In the following section, I take as given solutions to these technical difficulties and examine some of the problems inherent in the normative neoclassical approach to sustainability.a.Limits to Substitution in Production and "Strong Sustainability"Capital theorists are divided among proponents of weak sustainability and strong sustainability. This terminology is confusing as it suggests that the various writers have differing ideas of what sustainability is.6 In fact they agree on that issue, but differ on what is the minimum set of necessary conditions for achieving sustainability. The criterion that distinguishes the categories is the degree of substitutability believed to be possible between natural and artificial capital.7The weak sustainability viewpoint follows from the early literature and holds that the relevant capital stock is an aggregate stock of artificial and natural capital. Weak sustainability assumes that the elasticity of substitution between natural capital and artificial capital is one and therefore that there are no natural resources that contribute to human welfare that cannot be asymptotically replaced by other forms of capital. Reductions in natural capital may be offset by increases inartificial capital. It is sometimes implied that this might be not only a necessary condition but also a sufficient condition for achieving sustainability (eg. Solow, 1986, 1993).Proponents of the strong sustainability viewpoint such as Robert Costanza and Herman Daly (1992) argue that though this is a necessary condition for sustainability it cannot possibly be a sufficient condition. Instead, a minimum necessary condition is that separate stocks of aggregate natural capital and aggregate artificial capital must be maintained. Costanza and Daly (1992) state: "It is important for operational purposes to define sustainable development in terms of constant or nondeclining total natural capital, rather than in terms of nondeclining utility" (39).8 Other analysts such as members of the "London School" hold views between these two extremes (see Victor, 1991). They argue that though it is possible to substitute between natural and artificial capital there are certain stocks of "critical natural capital" for which no substitutes exist. A necessary condition for sustainability is that these individual stocks must be maintained in addition to the general aggregate capital stock.The weak sustainability condition violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics, as a minimum quantity of energy is required to transform matter into economically useful products (Hall et al., 1986) and energy cannot be produced inside the economic system.9 It also violates the First Law on the grounds of mass balance (Pezzey, 1994). Also ecological principles concerning the importance of diversity in system resilience (Common and Perrings, 1992) imply that minimum quantities of a large number of different capital stocks (eg. species) are required to maintain life support services. The London School view and strong sustainability accommodate these facts by assuming that there are lower bounds on the stocks of natural capital required to support the economy, in terms of the supply of materials and energy, and in terms of the assimilative capacity of the environment, and that certain categories of critical natural capital cannot be replaced by other forms of capital.Beyond this recognition it is an empirical question as to how far artificial capital can substitute for natural capital. There has been little work on this at scales relevant to sustainability. However, the econometric evidence from studies of manufacturing industry suggest on the whole that energy and capital are complements (Berndt and Wood, 1979).In some ways the concept of maintaining a constant stock of aggregate natural capital is even more bizarre than maintaining a non-declining stock of total capital. It seems more reasonable to suggest that artificial capital might replace some of the functions of natural capital than to suggest that in general various natural resources may be substitutes for each other. How can oil reserves substitute for clean air, or iron deposits for topsoil? Recognizing this, some of the strong sustainability proponents have dropped the idea of maintaining an aggregate natural capital stock as proposed by Costanza and Daly (1992) and instead argue that minimum stocks of all natural resources should be maintained (Faucheux and O'Connor, 1995). However, this can no longer really be considered an example of the CTA. Instead it is an approach that depends on the concept of safe minimum standards or the precautionary principle. The essence of the CTA is that some aggregation of resources using monetary valuations is proposed as an indicator for sustainability.The types of models which admit an index of aggregate capital, whether aggregate natural capital or aggregate total capital, is very limited. Construction of aggregate indices or subindices of inputs depend on the production function being weakly separable in those subgroups (Berndt and Christensen, 1973). For example it is only possible to construct an index of aggregate natural capital if the marginal rate of substitution between two forms of natural capital is independent of the quantities of labor or capital employed. This seems an unlikely proposition as the exploitation of many natural resources is impractical without large capital stocks. For example, in the production of caught fish, the marginal rate of substitution, and under perfect competition the price ratio, between stocks of fresh water fish and marine fish should be independent of the number of fishingboats available. This is clearly not the case. People are not likely to put a high value on the stock of deep sea fish when they do not have boats to catch them with.If substitution is limited, technological progress might reduce the quantity of natural resource inputs required per unit of output. However, there are arguments that indicate that technical progress itself is bounded (see Pezzey, 1994; Stern, 1994). One of these (Pezzey, 1994) is that, just as in the case of substitution, ultimately the laws of thermodynamics limit the minimization of resource inputs per unit output. Stern (1994) argues that unknown useful knowledge is itself a nonrenewable resource. Technological progress is the extraction of this knowledge from the environment and the investment of resources in this activity will eventually be subject to diminishing returns.Limits to substitution in production might be thought of in a much broader way to include nonlinearities and threshold effects. This view is sometimes described as the "ecological" viewpoint on sustainability (Common and Perrings, 1992; Common, 1995) or as the importance of maintaining the "resilience" of ecological systems rather than any specific stocks or species. This approach derives largely from the work of Holling (1973, 1986). In this view ecosystems are locally stable in the presence of small shocks or perturbations but may be irreversibly altered by large shocks. Structural changes in ecosystems such as those that come about through human interference and particularly simplification, may make these systems more susceptible to losing resilience and being permanently degraded. There is clearly some substitutability between species or inorganic elements in the role of maintaining ecosystem productivity, however, beyond a certain point this substitutability may suddenly fail to hold true. This approach also asks us to look at development paths as much less linear and predictable than is implied in the CTA literature.All things considered, what emerges is a quite different approach to sustainability policy. It is probable that substitution between natural and artificial capital is limited, as is ultimately technicalchange. Additionally the joint economy-ecosystem system may be subject to nonlinear dynamics. This implies that eventually the economy must approach a steady state where the volume of physical economic activity is dependent on the maximum economic and sustainable yield of renewable resources or face decline ie. profit (or utility) maximizing use of renewable resources subject to the sustainability constraint. As in Herman Daly's vision (Daly, 1977) qualitative change in the nature of economic output is still possible. Sustainability policy would require not just maintaining some stocks of renewable resources but also working to reduce "threats to sustainability" (Common, 1995) that might cause the system to pass over a threshold and reduce long-run productivity.The notion of Hicksian income originally applied to an individual price-taking firm (Faucheux and O'Connor, 1995). However, even here it is not apparent that the myopic policy of maintaining capital intact from year to year is the best or only way to ensure the sustainability of profits into the future. If a competing firm makes an innovation that renders the firm's capital stock obsolete, the latter's income may drop to zero. This is despite it previously following a policy of maintaining its capital intact. The firm's income measured up to this point is clearly seen to be unsustainable. In fact its policy has been shown to be irrelevant to long-run sustainability. In the real world firms will carry out activities that may not contribute to the year to year maintenance of capital and will reduce short-run profits such as research and development and attempts to gain market share.10 These activities make the firm more resilient against future shocks and hence enhance sustainability.b.Prices for AggregationSupposing that the necessary separability conditions are met so that aggregation of a capital stock is possible, analysts still have to obtain an appropriate set of prices so that the value of the capital stock is a sustainability relevant value. The CTA is more or less tautological if we use the "right" prices. However, these correct "sustainability prices" are unknown and unknowable. A number of。

ContentsAbstract (i)摘要 (iii)List of Tables (iv)List of Abbreviations (v)Chapter One Introduction (1)1.1Background of the Study (1)1.2Purpose of the Study (2)1.3Significance of the Study (2)Chapter Two Literature Review (4)2.1The Overview of the Length Approach (4)2.1.1The Overview of the Length Approach Aboard (4)2.1.2The Overview of the Length Approach at Home (5)2.2The Overview of the Writing Teaching (7)2.2.1The Overview of the Writing Teaching Abroad (7)2.2.2The Overview of the Writing Teaching at Home (9)Chapter Three Theoretical Foundations (12)3.1Output Hypothesis (12)3.2Constructivism (16)3.3Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis (19)Chapter Four Research Methodology (24)4.1Research Questions (24)4.2Subjects (24)4.3Instruments (24)4.3.1Questionnaires (24)4.3.2Tests (25)4.3.3Scoring criteria (25)4.4Procedures of the Experiment (26)Step One:Preparing (26)Step Two:Training (27)Step Three:Evaluating (31)4.5Data Collection and Analysis (31)Chapter Five Results and Discussion (33)5.1Results and Discussions of the Writing Tests (33)5.1.1Results and Discussions of the Pre-test (33)5.1.2Results and Discussions of the Post-test (34)5.2Results and Discussions of the Questionnaires (37)Chapter Six Conclusion (42)6.1Major Findings and Implications (42)6.2Limitations (42)6.3Suggestions for Future study (43)References (vi)Appendix I Questionnaire about Learner Attitudes towards the Length Approach (ix)Appendix II Pre-test (xi)Appendix III Scoring criteria (xii)Appendix IV Post-test (xiii)Appendix V A student's writing compositions (xiv) (xv) (xxii)Acknowledgements (xxiii)AbstractEnglish writing,as one of productive skills and communication ways of students'language,is anessential aspect in English learning and teaching.However,writing teaching has always been considered asin foreign language teaching.For many years,researchers have devoted themselves to find out “bottleneck”effective ways to solve this problem and many approaches have been put forward,such as productapproach,process approach and genre approach etc.To some extent,these approaches have improvedE nglish writing students’w riting proficiency.However,the current situation of college students’performance in China is still far from satisfactory.A majority of students lack enthusiasm and are not interested in writing.Given problems existing in English writing,it is urgent to find out new effective ways so as to comprehensively improve students'writing ability.Recently,a new approach-LA,based on some important L2theories as well as the insightful analyses of the situation of writing teaching in China,was initiated by Professor Wang Chuming.The basic assumption of this new approach is that the teachercurrent level of foreign language. constantly adjusts the writing requirements on the basis of students’Through gradually increasing the number of words in composition,students are encouraged to writeincreasingly long compositions so as to strengthen their sense of achievement,enhance their confidence intheir ability to learn foreign language,stimulate further learning and eventually ensure progress in foreignlanguage learning.This new approach has attracted great attention both at home and abroad.The currentstudy,on the basis of the previous researches,aims to investigate the feasibility and validity of applying LAto high school English writing teaching,hoping to change the current situation in writing field and improvestudents'writing confidence and proficiency of their English.80students coming from two parallel classesof high school in Minghu school in Taian participated in this research.By employing instrumentscontaining two English writing tests,two questionnaires and SPSS(Statistical Program for Social Science17.0),this thesis adopted quantitative and qualitative analysis methods in order to answer the followingresearchquestions：1.Can the application of the length approach help senior high school students develop theirself-confidence in their English writing?2.Can the application the length approach in English writing help senior high school students improvetheir writing proficiency in their English writing?After fourteen weeks'experiment,the author comes to the conclusion as follows:i。

Of Studies译文对比赏析一、原作写作风格Of Studies的语言风格和现代英语颇为不同。

与时文相比，它显得有点像古文。

全文以读书（study）为中心展开讨论，环环相扣，意思逐层递进。

文字精炼，语言简约、潇洒、比喻恰当，富于想象力，处处透露出美感与智慧，说服力十足，论断分明，尤以富含哲理的名言警句见长，字里行间饱含自信。

不时结合使用拉丁文，使文章带有古香古色的韵味，书卷气十足。

二、对比分析严复提出翻译要做到信、达、雅，对于散文，我认为译者在做到信、达的同时，更要注重雅。

在通篇的行文上，要追求风格的一致性。

如前文所言，该散文语言精炼，文章短小精悍，所以翻译的难处在于再现语言简约优美风格的同时又不失其说服力，实现刚和柔的完美结合。

在此，我将挑选王佐良和廖运范的译文（以下简称为王译和廖译）来作比较分析。

1．对比一下两篇译文的风格王译采用半文半白的语言形式，四字词的使用频率高，语言简洁，与原文的风格十分接近，而廖译则用现代汉语的形式，使文章显得十分通俗易懂。

如果按照奈达所提倡的意义的对应必须优先于文体上的对应这一言论来分析这两篇译文，那么这两篇译文都忠实于原文，在读者中产生的效应是相当的。

但是，若按照科勒提出的对等观点来研究翻译对等和等效的问题，那么王译就脱颖而出了。

科勒所提出的除了外延对等（denotativeequivalence），主要研究词汇方面；还包括内涵对等（connotative equivalence），即文体对等，关注文体效果，古体的或是平实的；语篇规约对等（text－normative equivalence），关注不同交际场景的用法；语用对等（pragmatic equivalence），指为特定的读者群进行翻译和形式对等（formal equivalence），针对的是韵律、隐喻和其他修辞手法的对等。

王译在做到词汇、文章意义对等的同时，采用半古文的形式，凸显了文体风格的对等，译文中再现原文的排比句和其他的修辞手法，实现了翻译的形式对等。

CCF推荐的国际学术会议和期刊目录修订版发布CCF(China Computer Federation中国计算机学会)于2010年8月发布了第一版推荐的国际学术会议和期刊目录，一年来，经过业内专家的反馈和修订，于日前推出了修订版，现将修订版予以发布。

本次修订对上一版内容进行了充实，一些会议和期刊的分类排行进行了调整，目录包括：计算机科学理论、计算机体系结构与高性能计算、计算机图形学与多媒体、计算机网络、交叉学科、人工智能与模式识别、软件工程/系统软件/程序设计语言、数据库/数据挖掘/内容检索、网络与信息安全、综合刊物等方向的国际学术会议及期刊目录，供国内高校和科研单位作为学术评价的参考依据。

目录中，刊物和会议分为A、B、C三档。

A类表示国际上极少数的顶级刊物和会议，鼓励我国学者去突破；B类是指国际上著名和非常重要的会议、刊物，代表该领域的较高水平，鼓励国内同行投稿；C类指国际上重要、为国际学术界所认可的会议和刊物。

这些分类目录每年将学术界的反馈和意见，进行修订，并逐步增加研究方向。

中国计算机学会推荐国际学术刊物（网络/信息安全）一、 A类序号刊物简称刊物全称出版社网址1. TIFS IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics andSecurity IEEE /organizations/society/sp/tifs.html2. TDSC IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure ComputingIEEE /tdsc/3. TISSEC ACM Transactions on Information and SystemSecurity ACM /二、 B类序号刊物简称刊物全称出版社网址1. Journal of Cryptology Springer /jofc/jofc.html2. Journal of Computer SecurityIOS Press /jcs/3. IEEE Security & Privacy IEEE/security/4. Computers &Security Elsevier http://www.elsevier.nl/inca/publications/store/4/0/5/8/7/7/5. JISecJournal of Internet Security NahumGoldmann. /JiSec/index.asp6. Designs, Codes andCryptography Springer /east/home/math/numbers?SGWID=5 -10048-70-35730330-07. IET Information Security IET /IET-IFS8. EURASIP Journal on InformationSecurity Hindawi /journals/is三、C类序号刊物简称刊物全称出版社网址1. CISDA Computational Intelligence for Security and DefenseApplications IEEE /2. CLSR Computer Law and SecurityReports Elsevier /science/journal/026736493. Information Management & Computer Security MCB UniversityPress /info/journals/imcs/imcs.jsp4. Information Security TechnicalReport Elsevier /locate/istr中国计算机学会推荐国际学术会议（网络/信息安全方向）一、A类序号会议简称会议全称出版社网址1. S&PIEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy IEEE /TC/SP-Index.html2. CCSACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security ACM /sigs/sigsac/ccs/3. CRYPTO International Cryptology Conference Springer-Verlag /conferences/二、B类序号会议简称会议全称出版社网址1. SecurityUSENIX Security Symposium USENIX /events/2. NDSSISOC Network and Distributed System Security Symposium Internet Society /isoc/conferences/ndss/3. EurocryptAnnual International Conference on the Theory and Applications of Cryptographic Techniques Springer /conferences/eurocrypt2009/4. IH Workshop on Information Hiding Springer-Verlag /~rja14/ihws.html5. ESORICSEuropean Symposium on Research in Computer Security Springer-Verlag as.fr/%7Eesorics/6. RAIDInternational Symposium on Recent Advances in Intrusion Detection Springer-Verlag /7. ACSACAnnual Computer Security Applications ConferenceIEEE /8. DSNThe International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks IEEE/IFIP /9. CSFWIEEE Computer Security Foundations Workshop /CSFWweb/10. TCC Theory of Cryptography Conference Springer-Verlag /~tcc08/11. ASIACRYPT Annual International Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptology and Information Security Springer-Verlag /conferences/ 12. PKC International Workshop on Practice and Theory in Public Key Cryptography Springer-Verlag /workshops/pkc2008/三、 C类序号会议简称会议全称出版社网址1. SecureCommInternational Conference on Security and Privacy in Communication Networks ACM /2. ASIACCSACM Symposium on Information, Computer and Communications Security ACM .tw/asiaccs/3. ACNSApplied Cryptography and Network Security Springer-Verlag /acns_home/4. NSPWNew Security Paradigms Workshop ACM /current/5. FC Financial Cryptography Springer-Verlag http://fc08.ifca.ai/6. SACACM Symposium on Applied Computing ACM /conferences/sac/ 7. ICICS International Conference on Information and Communications Security Springer /ICICS06/8. ISC Information Security Conference Springer /9. ICISCInternational Conference on Information Security and Cryptology Springer /10. FSE Fast Software Encryption Springer http://fse2008.epfl.ch/11. WiSe ACM Workshop on Wireless Security ACM /~adrian/wise2004/12. SASN ACM Workshop on Security of Ad-Hoc and Sensor Networks ACM /~szhu/SASN2006/13. WORM ACM Workshop on Rapid Malcode ACM /~farnam/worm2006.html14. DRM ACM Workshop on Digital Rights Management ACM /~drm2007/15. SEC IFIP International Information Security Conference Springer http://sec2008.dti.unimi.it/16. IWIAIEEE International Information Assurance Workshop IEEE /17. IAWIEEE SMC Information Assurance Workshop IEEE /workshop18. SACMATACM Symposium on Access Control Models and Technologies ACM /19. CHESWorkshop on Cryptographic Hardware and Embedded Systems Springer /20. CT-RSA RSA Conference, Cryptographers' Track Springer /21. DIMVA SIG SIDAR Conference on Detection of Intrusions and Malware and Vulnerability Assessment IEEE /dimva200622. SRUTI Steps to Reducing Unwanted Traffic on the Internet USENIX /events/23. HotSecUSENIX Workshop on Hot Topics in Security USENIX /events/ 24. HotBots USENIX Workshop on Hot Topics in Understanding Botnets USENIX /event/hotbots07/tech/25. ACM MM&SEC ACM Multimedia and Security Workshop ACM。

Journal of Literature and Art Studies, ISSN 2159-5836December 2014, Vol. 4, No. 12, 1129-1133The Influence of Confucius’ Moral Standards on Wellbeing ofAcademics in Higher Education in China in the Context of theChinese Dream*MA Wen-ying, LIU XiChangchun Univesity, Changchun, ChinaThe Chinese Dream, adopted by General Secretary Xi Jinping, was used and spread in China. It is about Chineseprosperity, collective effort, socialism and national glory. It is also about the welfare, wellbeing, and quality of lifeof every Chinese. Academics in higher education in China are facing changes both across the globe and in China,they must take the challenges. This paper does research on wellbeing of the academics from the aspects of thedefinition of wellbeing, the situation both in the world and in China, the Chinese concept of happiness, the possibleinfluence of Confucius moral standards on wellbeing of Chinese. This paper may help school leaders implementpolicies that foster effective work environment in the new era in China.Keywords: wellbeing, Confucius’ moral standards, the Chinese dream, academics, higher education, ChinaAll Rights Reserved.IntroductionIn general use the term wellbeing describes a person’s state of happiness (Diener, 2009). Current research on wellbeing has been derived from two general perspectives: hedonism (Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999) andeudaimonism (Waterman, 1993). Hedonism posits that wellbeing is pleasure attainment and pain avoidance.Eudaimonism focuses on self-realisation and emphasises that wellbeing is the personal fully functioning. Thehappiness and pleasure of hedonism are obtained from the successful pursuit of human goals, while the happinessand pleasure of eudaimonism arise from integrity to one’s true self, which is understood to be natural anduniversal. Thus people’s wellbeing is seen as a psychological state, and it is interpreted as a fulfilment of a naturalhuman potentiality, needs to be nurtured by society and culture in order for individuals to feel happy. Therefore,people’s wellbeing is dependent on their adjustment to the values and norms of their culture. Diener and Suh(2000) formulated this cultural relativistic position in the following way: “If societies have different sets of values,people in them are likely to consider different criteria relevant when judging the success of the society” (p. 3). Bythe success of the society they mean the ability by which the society provides for conditions for people to* This paper is a part of the results of the academic project “Research on psychological rights of lecturers in higher education inChina”.MA Wen-ying, Ph.D., associate professor, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun Univesity.LIU Xi, M.A., lecturer, School of Foreign Languages, Changchun Univesity.1130THE INFLUENCE OF CONFUCIUS’ MORAL STANDARDSaccomplish their own values and goals. As the values and goals are predetermined by their society, the betterpeople are adjusted to their social environment, the better their sense of wellbeing.This paper aims to do research on wellbeing of academics in higher education in China. China is in a new era with the development in economy and international relations. The Chinese Dream, adopted by President Xi,Jinping as a slogan began to be used and spread in the whole China. In this case, how do the academics in theuniversities work and how do they perceive their wellbeing under this context? Let’s begin to discuss the issuewith the situation of academics in higher education in China.The Chinese Dream and the Situation of Academics in Higher Education in ChinaThe “Chinese Dream” has been a popular topic of recent days. It embodies the aspiration of all Chinese people for a beautiful country and better life. The Chinese Dream was elaborated by General Secretary Xi Jinpingat the closing ceremony of the 1st session of the 12th NPC, 2013. President Xi has described the dream as“national rejuvenation, improvement of people’s livelihoods, prosperity, construction of a better society andmilitary strengthening”. Xi Jinping has also claimed that the Chinese dream is about Chinese prosperity,collective effort, socialism and national glory. In short, the Chinese dream is about the welfare, well-being, andquality of life of every Chinese today and in future.To the academics in higher education in China, their work is complex, and located in contexts that are both demanding (of knowledge, classroom management, and teaching skills) and emotionally and intellectuallychallenging” (Day, 2005, p. 13). They are facing new changes both across the globe and in China. In the world, inthe 21st century, change is a constant in institutions of higher education across the globe and no less so in China. All Rights Reserved.According to Lee (2008), the changes are changes in the university students (e.g., greater diversity, higherproportion of women, and greater concern for future employment); changes in the professoriate (e.g., greaterdiversity and increase in vulnerability due to increases in part-time and sessional appointments); changes inacademic administration (e.g., administrators increasingly professionally trained as administrators rather than asacademics); and internationalisation (increase in the number of foreign students as well as closer links amonguniversities).In China, the Fourth National Education Conference, which was held in July 2010, presented an outline of China’s education reform and development with mid-term and long-term projections. The aim is to build amodern education system and to become a strong society through increasing the quality of education (Han, 2010).To achieve the required quality of education, policies have been introduced that have two primary foci:enhancing the teaching capability of lecturers and further implementing educational reform. That is, on the onehand, personnel, lecturers, and administrators must change their methods of teaching and conductingadministration. On the other hand, from the perspective of the institutions, the management system must betransformed to be consistent with educational reforms. Following the institution of the new national policies,educational leaders and administrators have been encouraged to adopt management policies in which traditionalChinese culture, socialist values, and modern entrepreneurial values are integrated.The changes across the globe and in China create a pervasive sense of unfamiliarity for academics who have lived their lives in those context. They are facing new challenges. As the academics’ values and goals are shapedTHE INFLUENCE OF CONFUCIUS’ MORAL STANDARDS1131by the Chinese culture. It might be expected that the better the academics are adjusted to their social environment,the better their sense of wellbeing.The Concept of Confucius on Wellbeing and HappinessConcepts are moulded by culture. Chinese culture has its own cultural perspectives on wellbeing. 福or福气(fu or fu qi) is the happiness in Chinese ancient thoughts (Lu, 2001). Fu appeared as early as the boneinscriptions of the Shang Dynasty. It meant “presenting the filled wine container at the altar” (Bauer, 1976). Theoriginal meaning of Fu was the desires expressed by humans when they worshiped a god.Later, in the Shang Shu (a book of documents) in Zhangguo phase (475-221 BC) in the history of China, the word “fu” meant “longevity, prosperity, health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death” (Wu, 1991). In anotherimportant ancient work, Classic of Ritual, “fu” meant “fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of obstacles”. Thissuggests that the Chinese people’s conception of happiness seems to include material abundance, physical health,virtuosity and peaceful life.In the history of folk philosophies of China, there were three philosophies which influenced Chinese concepts of happiness: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism (Lu, 2001). These are now addressed in turn.Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate a thought system (Lu, 2001). In The Book of Conversations, which records dialogues with his disciples, Confucius did not talk about 福(fu), rather, heproposed 礼(li), meaning ritual, as the most important concept of his system. Confucians valued ritual morethan mundane happiness. Confucius spent his life touring countries, introducing his thoughts on Chinesehumanism to each ruler. He suggested that a wise ruler should rule with “virtue” and treat people equally by using礼(li). People can then regard virtue and礼(li) as matters of personal concern in their social categories. All Rights Reserved.Confucian philosophy postulates that happiness is integral in accomplishing life goals; accumulating materialresources by hard work and frugality; obtaining respectable social status by intellectual labour; having a virtuouslife by suppression of selfish and earthly desires; and ultimately, fulfilling one’s social duties. In summary,“Confucians regarded happiness as spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, notother-judged” (Lu, 2001, p. 411). This discussion turns now to Taoism—another of the three major systems ofChinese thought.Taoism rejects the philosophy that material happiness leads to satisfaction and the Confucian idea of happiness as constant self-cultivation to achieve moral greatness. Taoists advocate that everything in the universemust follow道(tao), which was interpreted as a great natural force that made everything start in the first place.Taoism posits无为(wu wei)，which means not-doing, and asserts that perfect happiness is the absence ofhappiness, and perfect glory is the absence of glory. Happiness in Taoism is to liberate human beings from alldesires, through following the natural force of not doing anything, accepting fate calmly and facing life with apeaceful mind. They called this state天人合一(tian ren he yi). Taoists have a lifestyle of withdrawal, isolation,and quietness. Happiness in Taoism, therefore, “is not an emotional feeling of joy, rather, it is a cognitive insightand transcendence” (Lu, 2001, p. 411).In contrast with Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous Chinese philosophy. However, it influenced Chinese beliefs for over a thousand years after it was introduced from India in Tang Dynasty.Buddhism argued that “there is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all existence on earth was1132THE INFLUENCE OF CONFUCIUS’ MORAL STANDARDSpoisoned by unhappiness from the very start, and only ‘nirvana’ can offer salvation” (Lu, 2001, P. 412). Afternirvana, humans can not only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Buddhism posits thathumans lift their souls to reach nirvana and eternal happiness through physical exercises, meditation, doingcharitable deeds and eliminating all human desires (Lu, 2001).According to Lockett (1988), Chinese traditional cultural heritage—Confucian of moral standards regulate Chinese behaviour in the greatest extent. It influenced Chinese wellbeing in the following six aspects: harmony;group orientation; guanxi (relationships); self-learning and diligence. How these Confucian moral standardsinfluence the wellbeing of academics in the context of the Chinese Dream will be discussed in the followingparagraphs.HarmonyConfucianism emphasises harmony as a social standard (Ginsberg, 1975). This can be traced in some old sayings in China. For example, 国泰民安(guotaiminan), refers to the country being prosperous and peopleliving in peace. 安居乐业(anjuleye) refers to people who live and work in peace and contentment. 家和万事兴(jiahewanshixing) refers to harmony between family members and how this makes everything prosper. Thesesayings express social harmony in Chinese society. In the university, academics view their schools as a big familyand try to build and maintain harmonious relationships (Liu, 2003). Chinese believe that harmony contributes tounity in resolving problems. 同舟共济(tongzhougongji) refers to working together with harmony andfaithfulness in times of difficulty in the school. Academics are expected to go through “thick and thin” with theiruniversity (Han, 2010).Group OrientationAll Rights Reserved.Collective outcome or group orientation is another Confucian social moral standard (Earley, 1989).Confucianism emphasises that a human being is not an individual, but rather a member of a family; people in thesociety are interdependent. The family in Chinese can be translated into家(jia). A group is a big family, which inChinese means大家(dajia). Country refers to national family, which in Chinese means国家(guojia). Therefore,being a member of a family, one is expected to contribute to the betterment of the family (Liu, 2003). Conformityto group orientation means individuals are subordinate in their personal interests with respect to the goals of thegroup (Earley, 1989). In the university, high levels of group orientation can enhance academics’ collectiveidentity; thus increase the group potency and performance (Han, 2010).GuanxiGuanxi means “relationships”. It can be found in伦(lun), which “are moral principles regarding interactive behaviours of related parties” (X. Chen & C. C. Chen, 2004, p. 308). Guanxi involves positive relationships at theinterpersonal level and at the level of the group. By belonging to a community and being aware of what is goingon, academics feel secure and develop a sense of harmony with the lecturers’ group.DiligenceThe next social moral standard in the Analects of Confucius (Yuan, 2001), which is a record of the words and behaviours of Confucius and his students, is a diligent work ethic. Confucian thought postulates that “when aperson is given a great responsibility, heaven may test him with hardship and frustrated efforts in order to toughenhis nature and show up his inadequacies” (Han, 2010, p. 40). Consequently, a sense of diligence transcends theTHE INFLUENCE OF CONFUCIUS’ MORAL STANDARDS1133whole life of the Chinese individual. Confucian thought states that diligence brings fortune. Therefore, thosepeople who are diligent and endure the hardship of favourable or unfavourable conditions are respected. In theschool, lecturers are likely to be diligent and persistent in work so that they may contribute to the betterment ofthe school.Self-learningSelf-learning or education is another social moral standard emphasised by Confucian thought (Yuan, 2001).Influenced by Confucians, Chinese employees develop themselves in order to achieve their educational goals.Academics learn knowledge and skills to adapt changes in the external environment. Thus, self-learning plays animportant role at work in acquiring, reflecting, contributing, and carrying out knowledge to reach spiritual andmoral development.ConclusionThe wellbeing in higher education in China can be regarded as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment: as positive feelings/emotions; as a harmonious homeostasis; as achievement and hope; and as freedom from illbeing. The happiness is also a state of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, andwith the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to one’s survival andwellbeing. The academics in higher education can achieve wellbeing through: the wisdom of harmony; thewisdom of group orientation; the the wisdom of guanxi; wisdom of diligence; and the wisdom of self-learning.ReferencesBauer, W. (1976). China and the search for happiness: Recurring themes in four thousand years of Chinese cultural history. New All Rights Reserved.York: The Seabury Press.Chen, X., & Chen, C. C. (2004). On the intricacies of the Chinese guanxi: A process model of guanxi evelopment. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 21, 305-324.Day, C. (2005). A passion for teaching. New York: Routledge.Diener, E. (2009). Culture and well-being. Champaign: Springer.Diener, E., & Suh, E. M. (2000). Measuring subjective well-being to compare the quality of life of cultures. In E. Diener, & E. M.Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective well-being (pp. 3-12). Cambridge, Massachusetts: A Bradford Book.Earley, C. (1989). Social loafing and collectivism: A comparison of the United States and the People’s Republic of China.Administrative Science Quarterly, 34, 565-581.Ginsberg, R. (1975). Confucius on ritual, moral power and war. Peace and Change, 3(1), 17-21.Han, B. (2010). Education programming: Monitoring fairness by reform. Outlook Weekly, 29, 21-24.Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (1999). Well-being: The foundation of hedonic psychology. New York: Russell Sage Found.Lee, W. O. (2008). The repositioning of higher education from its expanded visions: Lifelong learning, entrepreneurship, internationalization and integration. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 7(2), 73-83.Liu, S. (2003). Cultures within culture: unity and diversity of two generations of employees in state-owned enterprises. Human Relations, 56, 387-417.Lockett, M. (1988). Culture and the problems of Chinese management. Organization Studies, 9(4), 475-496.Lu, L. (2001). Understanding happiness: A look into the Chinese folk psychology. Journal of Happiness Studies, 2, 407-432.Waterman, A. S. (1993). Two conceptions of happiness: Contrasts of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 678-691.Wu, Y. (1991). The new transcription of “Shang Shu”. Taipei: Shan Min Books.Yuan, Z. S. (2001). Translations on Four Books and Five Classics (Si-Shu-Wu-Jing). Beijin: Xiangzhuan Press.。

1. The company tried to get rid of its financial difficulty by diminishing the number of employees.2. Susanna did not hear the knock on the door because she was immersed in her reading and knew nothing beyond the book.3. I have preserved the photo for 20 y ears, which brings back happy memories of my early childhood.4. I like to take a walk along the beach in leisure time so as to look for beautiful shells as the tide recedes.5. In order to ensure the practice of having six classes in succession before noon on Sunday, even the lunch hour was pushed back to 3 p.m.6. Here and there in the suburbs are newly built houses in clusters, which reduces the gap between and urban and suburban areas.7. Experts believe that children at the age of two to three are able to learn any language if they are exposed to it.8. The revolutionary government acts on behalf of the masses and against the privileged few.9. The ambitious official is unwilling to turn the right over to someone else for fear that one would replace him.10. The famous movie star once said that she would rather have been remembered as a common person than as a celebrity.1. His actions do not correspond to his words.2. I’m writing on behalf of my mother, to express her thanks for your gift.3. The engine gives off smoke and steam.4. The diamond sparkles with brilliant light.5. Had it not been for your help, I would not have overcome the psychological pressures and tensions.6. It is time he took strong action against thosegangsters.7. He hasn't enough money for food, let aloneamusements.8. The crime was not discovered till 48 hourslater,which gave the criminals plenty of time to getaway.9. Without a proper education, people couldcommit all kinds of crimes.10. He betrayed his friends to the enemy.1. The changes our city underwent in the past fewyears are little short of miraculous.2. Every year about 78,000 women die fromcomplications related to childbirth.3. A remote-controlled bomb exploded outside ahotel near the town square yesterday, havinginjured at least 12 people.4. The government has promised to introducelegislation to limit fuel emissions from cars.5. Often there is no clear evidence one way or theother and you just have to base your judgment onintuition.6. A successful bone marrow transplant can helpcure cancers of the blood.7. The terrorist action has been condemned as anact of barbarism and cowardice.8. Professor Wang received the Presidential Awardfor his excellence in stimulating students’ creativeimagination.9. In recent y ears, some psychologists have tried toexplain intelligence from a biological standpoint.10. With policies and monitoring in place,we canensure that therapeutic cloning is used safely.11.Medical experts debated whether the cloning ofhuman beings should be permitted and what itspotential effects on society might be.12. Mr. Jones and his two sons are the joint ownersof the business.13. Four people were killed in the explosion, butpolice have not yet name the victims.14. Don't walk on that broken glass with bare feet,you will get hurt.15. She told me that the moon was made ofcheese. What nonsense!16. In the fierce fighting the lightly woundedrefused to leave the front line.17. In the last hundred y ears, the wind has wornthe rocks away.18. Though people say nobody can survive in suchan accident, she still clings to her belief that herson is alive.19. Let's call in the old granny for some minutes,she lives just in this neighborhood.20. She divorced with her husband because theyhad nothing in common.21. When you get some important information,make a note of it lest y ou should forget it.1.My job varies between the extremely tediousand the annoy ingly busy. On balance I think I’mhappier during the really busy times; no time tothink about how bored I am.2.It is the nature of the wise to resist pleasures,but the foolish to be a slave to them.3.I figure out a good team of dogs, hitched to alight sled, can haul 1,000 pounds of goods.4.In the story ,the little girl has a wickedstepmother, who makes her life a misery.5.Nothing ever becomes real till it isexperience-even a proverb is no proverb to you tillyour life has illustrated it.6.Nowadays almost all libraries are finding itincreasingly difficult to remain within their budget.7.You can increase a tyre’s grip in winter by slightlylowering its pressure.ke Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario areshared by the United States and Canada, and frompart of the boundary between the two countries.9. The police are investigating the three menallegedly involved in organizing and carry ing outthe bank robbery.10.I do not doubt in the least that inflation leads toeconomic decline.11.A blizzard was blasting great drifts of snowacross the lake.12.Tim say s just about everybody will be affectedby the tax increase, but I’m sure he’s exaggerating.1.Some 80 art masterpieces will be brought toSouth Korea for an annual French cultural festival.2.Ben’s very sensitive and emotionally fragile. Hecraves approval and will do almost anything to gainit even from complete strangers.3.As information bombards(轰炸) us, we must relyon our own experience and intuition to distinguishfact from fancy.4.He can get quite a big headache from listening toher nonsense, but he knows she just can’t help it.5.These window decorations are made from softflexible plastic. They cling to glass and other shinysurfaces like magic!6.Those who endure hearing loss are at adisadvantage, because they are unable to geteverybody sound signals.7.Once I knew I was experiencing acute panic oranxiety, I followed the tips recommended by mydoctor to deal with the sy mptoms.8.This dog is well trained-she’ll come running backto me every time I whistle to her.9.True, this football team is comparatively weak.But it is absolutely wrong to mock at their attempt to qualify for the World Cup Finals.10.It is said the corporation has already subtracteda number of expenditures from the total cost; y et it still runs as high as 300 million dollars.11.He had a favorite song he used to sing to us in the old days-“It’s a Sin to T ell a Lie”-and I shall alway s associate it with him.12.On bright spring day s, you can see lovely birds flutter among the bushes.1.Holding such a sporting event as the Paraly mpics （残奥会）will help arouse public awareness against discrimination（歧视）and indifferencetowards the disabled.2.If you are habitually impatient, then developing patience will not only benefit y our own life, but also the life of everyone around you.3.It’s still a mystery to me whether I became a writer because of my desire for solitudeor being a writer I became more solitary.4.Early this morning a seven-year-old girl was run over and crushed to death by a large pickup truck which went out of control on an icy road.5.“I feel like going for a walk. Won’t you join me?”“OK.”6.Five straight day s of heavy rains lashed southern California and Mexico last week, causing mudslides （泥流）and killing more than 35 people.7.My life experiences have merely served to confirm the wisdom of his remarks, so over the years they keep echoing in my mind.8.The Presidential candidate（总统候选人）paused during his speech while supporters waved their cards with campaign slogansto show their support.9.To a very real extent, Jean has betrayed her boyfriend’s trust and invadedhis privacy by checking his private communications.10.“If I’m going to weed the garden, who’s going todo the laundry?”11.An additional 100 million pounds is scheduledto rebuild the poorest section of the city over thenext five years.12.He tilted his chair backward and put his feet upon his desk while he was talking on the phone.1. A recent survey reveals a grim fact that everyyear in that asian country 78,0000 women die fromcomplication related to childbirth.2.When we are faced with a challenge, self-discouragementand self-encouragement can makea tremendous difference between a life of fear,frustration and alife of joy and harmony.3. When spring is at last freed from winter’sbond(束缚), silent birds arrive in their full songsand lifeless flowers burst forth in brilliant bloom.4. Behavior analysis is a natural scientific approachto the study of all behavior, and behavior analy stsare concerned with how our surroundings andpersonal histories determine who we are.5. A successful bone marrow transplant can helpcure cancers of the blood. It is a tragedy thatnearly one-third of all patients seeking a transplantare unable to find a donor whose bone marrowclosely matches their own.6. “In a sense, the stark reality of the financialcrisis provides arare opportunity to rethink aneconomic sy stem that has lost touch with the realworld,” said our professor of economics at a recentlecture.7. On the rare occasions when he consented to dointerviews, he usually sat silent and still, staringstone-faced(面孔铁板的) at puzzled journalists.8. In some ways, you’re like your mother. Shedidn’t care who she hurt, just as long as she gotwhat she wanted.9. Deaf dogs can manage surprisingly well, withtheir eyesight and sense of smell helping tocompensate for(补偿) their lack of hearing.10. These nursing homes are meant to give oldpeople a sense of dignity and worth, but in realitythey live in an isolated world cut off from bothfamily and the wider community.11. Is it sickening to think of a time when embryoswill be implanted in a man’s body, and develop.And be born, perhaps by caesarian section(剖腹产)?12. You can increase the life of your air-conditionerby performing simple, routine cleaning proceduresin accordance w ith the owner’s manual(手册).在感恩节的气氛中Amid the atmosphere ofThanksgiving, George was immersed in the diaryleft to him by his father, who died at sea after hecompleted two successive trips around the world.The diary brought back every moment George hadspent with his father and many of the specificthings his father did on his behalf. George's fatherused to impress on him the need to undergo allkinds of hardship in quest of excellence. He alsotaught him that nothing in the world could betaken for granted. Eventoday, George stillremembers how his father would quote Aesop'sfamous say ing "Gratitude is the sign of noble souls"and tell him to accord the greatest importance toit.我们到处都能看到Here and there we see youngartists who stand out from other people. They maybe in worn out jeans all the year round, or walkbarefoot / in bare feet even in winter, or drink toexcess, or cling to the fancy of creating amasterpiece without actually doing any creativework. In fact, many of them act like this just to lookthe part, or to be "in tune with" other artists. Theyhave forgotten that only through persistent effortcan one achieve success.1997年Dolly the sheep resulted from a cloningexperiment by a group of Scottish scientists in1997. A fierce debate on human cloning has eversince been going on. This contentious issue hasfocused on ethical and social implications of thetechnology:what the technology might do to thevery meaning of human reproduction,child rearing,individuality, etc.The majority of scientists are adamantly opposedto reproductive cloning and supporttherapeuticcloning for treating diseases. The reason is thattherapeutic cloning does not involve any type ofrisk to human life and actually providestremendous potential for the relief of suffering inhuman beings. Scientists believe that with politicsand monitoring in place to ensure that therapeuticcloning is used safely, we can all benefit from thisprocedure.He was scared by some ads.They may throw firecrackers at people.He should have put his wallet in a safer pocket. The man dislikes them but the woman sympathizes with them.Cancel his credit card and get a new one.Aisle——window——middleTwo business class tickets at reduced price.The British Airway s counter is Counter 26. Because he has a metal plate in his body. Security guards search her check-in baggage.The man paid last time.Reading the texts time and time again.He can’t remember people by sight.To remind the woman to take her key s when she leaves.His memory is declining.I was raised speaking English, but I also spoke Spanish at home. When I went to school for the first time, I was enrolled in ESL classes -- classes of English as a Second Language. I was also put in the Limited English Proficiency Program. In all these classes, I alway s got the highest grades. I was the best reader and speaker. There was no reason for me to be in any of those classes.When my parents discovered that I was in those classes instead of in regular classes with other English-speaking students, they went to the school administration to complain about the discrimination. The school had nothing to say. My parents tried to get me out of the ESL classes, but the school fought very hard to keep me there. And then we found out why -- for every student the school had in the ESL and Limited English Proficiency Program, they would receive $400. Thiswas pretty devastating. The school's only excusefor keeping me there was because I lived in aSpanish-speaking household, and that I wasinfluenced by the way my parents spoke. Myparents were outraged, but I remained in the ESLand Limited English Proficiency Program until I wasin the fifth grade.Then my parents transferred me to another schoolwhere they had friends. The new school gave mean English proficiency test. I aced it. So I didn'thave to attend those programs for non-nativeEnglish speakers. I was finally on the right track andback at the head of the class. The first school I hadattended would have never let me out of thoseprograms or even let me take the test. I was too""Spanish"" for them."An airline is an organization which providesaviation services for passengers and cargo. It ownsor leases airliners to supply these services and mayform partnerships or alliances with other airlinesfor reasons of mutual benefits.The scale and scope of airline companies rangefrom those with a single airplane carrying mail orcargo, to full-service international airlinesoperating many hundreds of airplanes of varioustypes. Airline services can be categorized asintercontinental, intra-continental, regional ordomestic and may be operated as scheduledservices or charters.These variations in the types of airline companies, their operating scope, and the routes they serve, make analysis of the airline industry complex. But one thing is certain: The industryis heavily influenced by the market now. In the past 50 years or so, the general trend ofownership has gone from government-owned or government-supported to independent, for-profit companies. This is a result of the government permit greater freedom. This trend is not yet consistent across all airlines in all regions. The demand for air travel services dependson other things: needs for cargo transportation,business passenger demand, leisure passenge rdemand, which are all influenced by macroeconomic activity in the market. These trends are highly seasonal, and often depend on day-of-week, or time-of-day. The industry is cyclical.Four or five y ears of poor performance are followed by five or six years of gradual improvement in performance.Six skills are recommended here to help youremember things better.1. Focus your attention. Often we forget things notbecause our memory is bad, but rather because wedo not concentrate or pay attention. For instance,often we don't learn people's names at firstbecause we aren't really concentrating onremembering them. If y ou make a conscious effortto remember such things, y ou'll do much better.2. Create vivid, memorable images. You rememberinformation more easily if you can visualize it. Ifyou want to associate a child with a book, try notto visualize the child reading the book – that's toosimple and forgettable. Instead, come up withsomething more dramatic, like the book chasingthe child, or the child eating the book.3. Repeat things you need to learn. When you wantto remember something, be it your newco-worker's name or your best friend's birthday,repeat it, either out loud or silently.4. Record important tasks. Write down what youwant to do in a diary. If you don‘t have a pen, wearyour watch on your right wrist or wear it upsidedown; this will help you remember the task. Youcan also leave y ourself a telephone messagereminding yourself of something important.5. Group things y ou need to remember. Randomlists of things such as a shopping list can beespecially difficult to remember. T o make themeasier, try categorizing the individual itemson thelist. If you can put 10 things into three groups, youcan remember them more easily.6. Organize y our life. Keep items that youfrequently need, such as key s and eyeglasses, inthe same place every time. Improved organizationcan help free up your powers of concentration sothat y ou can remember routine things.。

荣获“学术新星”称号展开全文中国人民大学第十三届研究生“学术新星”评选活动获奖名单公布。

博士生王鹏程（导师为雷雳教授）荣获“学术新星”称号。

中国人民大学第十三届研究生“学术新星”评选活动初评环节，评分人根据“公平避嫌”原则领取材料进行打分，复核人负责审核所有材料的真实性和有效性。

评分严格执行《第十三届中国人民大学研究生“学术新星”评选章程》。

经过初评，各学部排名前4位的同学进入答辩评审。

答辩评审环节于2019年5月17日举行，各学部邀请相关学科3-4名专家学者组成评委会，通过参评人自我陈述和专家提问两个环节进行综合评分。

组委会按照初评成绩占60%、答辩评审成绩占40%的比例计算最终成绩，并按照成绩排名评选出各学部“学术新星”与“学术新星提名奖”获奖人选。

王鹏程科研成果如下：迄今共发表SSCI论文25篇（其中10篇为第一作者, 2篇为共同一作和通讯作者，另有2篇作为通讯作者的文章已接收但尚未为见刊）、CSSCI论文4篇（2篇已接收未见刊）；截止2019年8月13日，发表论文被外文引用超过100次。

2019年发表论文：1. Wang, P., Wang, X.,& Lei, L. (2019). Gender differences between student–student relationshipand cyberbullying perpetration: An evolutionary perspective. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260519865970 [SSCI,JCR Q1区期刊，2018年影响因子3.064, 五年影响因子2.821]2. Wang, P.,Liu, S., Zhao, M., Yang, X., Zhang, G.,Chu, X., … Lei, L. (2019). How is problematic smartphone use related toadolescent depression? A moderated mediation analysis.Children and Youth Services Review. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104384 [SSCI,JCR Q1区期刊，2018年影响因子1.684, 五年影响因子2.138]3. Wang, P., Wang, X.,Nie, J., Zeng, P., Liu, K., Wang, J., … Lei, L. (2019). Envy and problematicsmartphone use: The mediating role of FOMO and the moderating role ofstudent-student relationship. Personality and Individual Differences, 146, 136–142. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.04.013[SSCI, JCR Q2区期刊, 2018年影响因子1.997, 五年影响因子2.419，被外文引用3次(Google学术数据)]4. Wang, P., & Lei, L.(2019). How does problematic smartphone use impair adolescent self-esteem? Amoderated mediation analysis. Current Psychology. doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00232-x [SSCI, JCR Q2区期刊, 2018年影响因子1.468, 五年影响因子1.582，被外文引用1次(Google学术数据)]5. Yin, L., Wang, P., Nie, J., Guo, J., Feng,J., & Lei, L. (2019). Social networking sites addiction and FoMO: Themediating role of envy and the moderating role of need to belong. Current Psychology. doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00344-4[SSCI, JCR Q2区期刊, 2018年影响因子1.468, 五年影响因子1.582;共同一作、共同通讯]6. Wang, J., Wang, P., Yang, X.,Zhang, G., Wang, X., Zhao, F., … Lei, L. (2019). Fear of missing out andprocrastination as mediators between sensation seeking and adolescentsmartphone addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. doi:10.1007/s11469-019-00106-0[SSCI, JCR Q4区期刊, 2018年影响因子1.420, 五年影响因子1.719; 共同一作、共同通讯]7. Wang, X.,Yang, J., Wang, P., & Lei, L. (2019). Childhood maltreatment, moraldisengagement, and adolescents' cyberbullying perpetration: Fathers' andmothers' moral disengagement as moderators. Computers in Human Behavior, 95, 48-57. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.031[合作文章，SSCI, JCR Q1区期刊]8. Nie, J., Li,W., Wang, P., Wang, X., Wang, Y., & Lei, L. (2019). Adolescent type Dpersonality and social networking sites addiction: A moderated mediation modelof restorative outcomes and affective relationships. Psychiatry Research, 271,96–104. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.036 [合作文章，SSCI, JCR Q2区期刊]9. Yurdagül, C.,Kircaburun, K., Emirtekin, E., Wang, P., & Griffiths, M. D. (2019). Psychopathologicalconsequences related to problematic Instagram use among adolescents: Themediating role of body image dissatisfaction and moderating role of gender. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. doi:10.1007/s11469-019-00071-8[合作文章，SSCI, JCR Q4区期刊]10.楚啸原、理原、王兴超、王鹏程、雷雳。

annals of actuarial science soa jounral list -回复Annals of Actuarial Science is a prestigious academic journal published by the Society of Actuaries (SOA). It focuses on the discipline of actuarial science, which involves the application of mathematical and statistical methods in the assessment and management of financial risk.This article aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the Annals of Actuarial Science journal, including its history, scope, submission process, and significance in the actuarial science community.History:Established in 2006, the Annals of Actuarial Science is a relatively young journal. However, it quickly gained recognition for itshigh-quality research papers and contributions to the actuarial science field. The journal publishes original research articles, rigorous academic papers, and insightful literature reviews.Scope:The journal covers a wide range of topics related to actuarialscience. It includes research on insurance, pension plans, risk management, financial mathematics, applied probability, and statistics. Actuarial science professionals and academics from around the world contribute to this journal, making it a comprehensive platform for the exchange of ideas and advancements in the field.Submission Process:Authors interested in submitting their work to the Annals of Actuarial Science journal must follow a rigorous submission and review process. The journal employs a double-blind peer-review system, ensuring the anonymity of both the authors and the reviewers. This process ensures the unbiased evaluation and selection of high-quality papers for publication.To submit an article, authors must adhere to the journal's guidelines, which include formatting, referencing, and citation requirements. They need to provide an abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussions, and conclusion, following the standard structure of a research paper. Furthermore, the paper should demonstrate originality, significance, and contribution to the actuarial science field.Significance:The Annals of Actuarial Science journal is highly regarded in the actuarial community. It serves as a platform for academics, researchers, and professionals to exchange knowledge, share findings, and collaborate. The journal contributes to the advancement of actuarial science by publishing cutting-edge research, innovative methodologies, and empirical studies that enhance the understanding and practice of actuarial science worldwide.The articles published in the Annals of Actuarial Science are cited by scholars and professionals in various disciplines, including economics, finance, and insurance. The journal's impact factor measures its influence within the academic community, reflecting the number of citations its papers receive over a specific period. The high impact factor of the Annals of Actuarial Science attests to its significance and recognition in the field.Conclusion:The Annals of Actuarial Science, published by the Society of Actuaries, is a leading journal in the discipline of actuarial science.Its rigorous submission process, wide scope, and reputation make it an essential platform for researchers, professionals, and academicians in the field. The journal's published articles contribute to the advancement of actuarial science, enhancing the understanding and practice of this discipline. By publishinghigh-quality research, the Annals of Actuarial Science provides a valuable resource for individuals interested in actuarial science and related fields.。

Literature ReviewC12 英语〔1〕 X X XTess of the D’Urbervilles is generally regarded as Tomas Hardy’s finest novel. Since its publication in 1891, it has encountered considerable concern in literary criticism. Among these numerous essays dwelling on Tess, most criticisms and interpretations focus on probing into the root of Tess’s tragedy. These scholars ponder Tess’s tr agedy from various perspectives and give a multitude of interpretations on this topic. But no one can exhaust such a great work，there is still much room for further consideration about Tess’s tragedy. Through several months’ efforts in searching, collectin g and reading an abundance of scholars and professors’ literature concerning causes of tragedy of Tess, I have learned much and gained a lot of data and create the following essay which summons up the essence of the literature.1．Analyses of Objective F actors in Tess’s Tragedy.The Age Characteristic and the Rebel in Tess of the D’U rbervilles – A Feminine Decoding on Tess of the D’U rbervilles by Jiang Lu introduces the economic background of the story. Jiang states that the story of Tess happened during the late half of 19th century, which witnessed the decline and destruction of the English peasantry. It was an age of transition and great social upheavals. With the development of capitalism, England was slowly developing from its former state of a mainly agricultural country to its new condition of a primarily industrial society, because of which the traditional self-sufficient society order in the country was broken. Helplessly confronted with the change, the country villagers were deprived of their lands, houses and other possessions. Then, in possession of few things they were forced to immigrate away from their accustomed land and to be employed as farm workers. Therefore, country peasants were inflicted tragically by the industrial development. This part clearly demonstrates the economic situation of the farmer at Victorian age which is quite beneficial to my paper.An Ecofeminist Reading of Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles by YuKun discusses the tragedy of Tess from the perspective of Ecofeminism, this paper practically explores the close relationship between women and nature and women’s tragic fate as the result of industrialization and patriarchal society, which helps me understand Tess’s tragedy from a new angle. It points out that at the late Victorian Age when industrialization began to encroach upon the countryside rapidly and capitalism developed further, the peasants lost their land and many of them were impoverished. Tess’s family,without exception, was poverty-stricken, which turned out to be the very root of her tragedy. Tess, impelled by the economic pressure from her family, had to go to claim kindred with prosperous D’Urbervilles family where she met evil Alec who deprived of her virginity; and it was her poor family that made Tess return to Alec. Besides, the society in the Victorian period was a man-dominated society, woman had to suffer the injustices of man-made law, the law by which man and woman were not equally treated in terms of morality. Angel who set a double moral standard for man and woman certainly couldn’t conceive of a relationship of equality with Tess. He couldn’t forgive Tess for her lost of virginity although he himself had dissipated past. Thus he finally abandoned Tess because of her “impurity〞, which gave Tess a fatal blow.The Connotation and Characteristic of “Angels in House〞in Victorian Period of England by Zeng Yayin demonstrates perfect women’s image in people’s mind in Victorian period. It says that a traditional Victorian woman is supposed to be a perfect woman. First, they should be gentle, graceful and charming, that is to keep an attractive appearance. Second, they should be submissive. They were taught to be sympathetic, gentle and considerable to other people. And the most important thing was to be submissive to their father or brothers, and after being married, their submission turned to their husbands. Third, they should have pure bodies. Traditionally, virginity was worshipped as a symbol of honor for an unmarried woman. It was very important for a younger woman to be a virgin before marriage and be loyal to her husband after she married him, and virginity was a girl’s virtue and value as well. Fourth, home was her whole world. She should sacrifice herself for her husband and the family. Taking care of the family and making the home healthy andcomfortable was undoubtedly all her duty. Besides, they were economically dependent, what they should do was to stay at home which was the shelter for them, and to seek for support and protection from them, so marriage was pretty much their best choice. All in all, the idle Victorian woman should be devoted, pure both mentally and physically and submissive. This paper gives me a general idea of the image of women in Victorian period, which will help me a lot in my paper.Analysis of Tragedy of Tess by Tang Xuan points out that Tess is a typical female tragedy, considering the convention and the bourgeois morality of her time. The last years of the nineteenth century were the Victorian period. Victorian morality imposed rigid norm on women, which demanded women to be pure. The loss of virginity was a fatal blow to Tess as she was turned against and crushed by the social convention. It was a man-dominated society, in which woman had to suffer the injustices of man-made law, the law by which man and woman were not equally treated in terms of morality and the use of double standard in sexual matters was the essential feature of the Victorian society. This was why Tess, being violated by Alec, unfairly suffered from being morally and socially spurned and punished while Alec remained free from any social reprimands. What is more, according to the Victorian customs, a man could live a dissipating life as he had once done while a woman could not. This double standard for man and woman made it impossible for Angel who was dominated by the conventional social custom and the bourgeois view of morality to forgive Tess. This part helps get a better idea of the impact of social convention and morality on Tess’s tragedy.The Ruin of a Pure Woman — Analyses of the Tragedy of Tess by Zhou Hong says that Tess is the victim of capitalist law and hypocritical religion. It states that Alec dared to do evil at his pleasure not only because he was a man of money and power, but also because he was under the protection of bourgeois law which was employed as a tool to rule ordinary people and was always at bourgeois’ interest. According to the law, it was ironic that the man who seduced Tess was justified while Tess who suffered damage was sinful. Oppressed by so strong social prejudice, Tess was deprived of the right to protect herself and forced to accept the unfair treatmentimposed on her. Thus, she was doomed to be a victim of power and violence. Besides, hypocritical religion was also closely related to Tess’s tragedy. In capitalis t society, religion was just used as a tool to lull and enslave people. When Tess met Alec again, to Tess’s as tonishment , Alec, the man who seduced her and ruthlessly pushed her into the abyss of tragedy, could resort to Christianity and became a priest who asked people to do good deeds. From this part I can see that both bourgeois law and religion are hypocritical.2. Reflection on Subjective F actors in Tess’s Tragedy.Analysis of Tess’s Character by Xu Haibo focuses on Tess’s character to explain the cause of Tess’s tragedy. It points out that the character of Tess is closely related to her fate, it is the tension in her character that leads her to the tragedy. The most obvious ones are those between humility and pride, and between innocence and sensuality. Ultimately it can be said that the tension is the one between obedience and rebellion within her character. It presents that both historical conditions and living environment contribute to the formation of Tess’s character. Tess has the qualities of kindness, honesty, diligence and loyalty which are shared by the label people, besides, she also inherits the pride traditionally associated with noble families, but her pride is conflicted with her social and economic position. In this paper, the author gives a detailed explanation with examples about the tension in Tess’s character which helps me better understand his idea. Besides it points out that there is also conflict between acquired conventional belief and instinctive independence of mind, and between ignorance and education in Tess’s character, which can also be seen from many cases. From this article, I get a good knowledge of Tess’s character as well as its relationship with her fate.Study on the Tragic Fate of Tess by Zhou Zhongxin and Wang Yanwen points out that Tess is a pure woman, but, ironically, her purity becomes the decisive factor of her tragedy. It states that Tess’s pure nature is fully embodied by her strong sense of responsibility and self -sacrifice to her family. When their horse is killed in an unexpected accident, nobody blames Tess as she blames herself, therefore, she doesn’trefuse once more her parent’s suggestion to claim kin with the wealthy D’Urbervilles family although she is not willing to do so. This is the very action that ruins all her life, she is seduced by Alec and later gives birth to an illegitimate baby. Moreover, her sense of responsibility is also clearly revealed when she becomes a mistress of Alec because of the desperate situation of her family. Tess’s purity is also displayed in her honesty and loyalty to love. When she is seduced by Alec, she bravely chooses to leave him at once irrespective of the pressure of her family and the society, because she realizes that she has never loved Alec.As to Angle, she falls in love with him deeply, but she continuously refuses Angle’s wooing because she thinks her being his wife is a shame for him. In order to protect Angle, she is willing to sacrifice her own feeling and happiness. Although she accepts Angle at last, she decides to disclose her past to him because of her honesty and true love for Angle. But her confession only results in an end of their marriage, she is deserted by her heartless husband, which leads to her miserable life soon afterwards. This paper offers me a good idea of the relationship be tween Tess’s purity and her tragedy.A Multi Perspective of the Tragedy of Tess of the D’Urbervil les by PengYan mentions the persecution of religion on Tess. Brought up in a heavily religious environment, Tess is deeply poisoned by religious thought, which forces Tess to bear enormous psychological pressure and induces her to sink into tragical abyss. Tess is a victim of religious doctrine. When her baby is dying, she suddenly realizes that she hasn’t been baptized and therefore will die without salvation a nd go to hell, but no parson is willing to do it for her baby, so she decides to baptize her baby by herself. Obviously, all her terrors about the hell are coming from the religious doctrine taught to her. Besides, although she used to doubt the existence of God when she feels desperate toward life, she can’t free herself from the shadow of religion. She always uses religious thought to imagine, explain and symbolize her miserable life. When she meets a man writing biblical texts on walls, she consciously feels ashamed and guilty for her loss of virginity, although it is not her fault. She is always self-contempt and keeps torturing herself by hypocritical religion thought. From this part I get to know religion’s impact on Tess.My Opinion about Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Li Honglan points out her family’s role in causing her tragedy. It says that Tess’s parents are ignoran t and vain，which leads directly to Tess’s tragedy. Tess’s father, Jack is lazy, selfish and foolish. When he hears of the news about his noble ancestry, he thinks his family will surely become rich if only Tess go to claim kinship with the wealthy family. When Tess is seduced by Alec, he doesn’t care about his daughter’s feelings and lock the door to prevent Tess from going out, the only thing that worries him is what others will think of this collapse of his family pride.Besides, Tess’s mother Joan is no better than Jack. The news of ancestry also affects her, she wants her daughter to rise in the world by making a successful marriage and thus bring fortunes to the whole family. When Tess chooses to leave Alec, she blames Tess for not marrying him and when Tess is deserted by Angle, she thinks it is all Tess’s fault. At the same time, her father doesn’t show sympathy for Tess either, he even doubts about her marriage, which makes Tess unable to live at home any more. Since her parents cannot be relied on, Tess takes on her younger shoulder the family burdens. She has a strong sense of responsibility towards her family and at almost every stage of her life it is her concern for family that influences her actions-from her agreement to claim kinship to family D’Urberville right to her final decision to return to Alec is totally due to her responsibility to support her family. From this analysis, I get a comprehensive knowledge about the influence of Tess’s family on her tragedy.Tess一A Pure but Tragic Woman by Zhang Qun discusses the influence of two men —Alec and Angle on Tess’s tragedy. It explains that Alec, typical of a bourgeois villain, m etamorphoses himself into the more dignified style of Alec D’Urberville and decorates himself as a man of nice heart. He takes advantage of Tess’s poverty and innocence, and seduces her on purpose. Thus , Tess intends to look for a way out but is driven by him to a way with a dead end. On the other hand, Angle is a representative of bourgeois intellectuals. He regards himself as a man full of new thoughts who isn’t bound by social customs. However, as a matter of fact, he couldn’t free himself from it. He idealizes Tess as symbol of purity and pursues her enthusiasticaly, but desert her as soon as Tess’s confession. Given up by her husband,Tess can’t support her family on her own and she is foeced by the death of her father and consequent loss of their cottage to succumbe to Alec to be his mistress. But out of her expection, Angle comes back, she is so shocked and regretfull that she kills Alec, because she thinks it is the only way out. From this analysis, I get a sense of these two men’s impact on Tess and I will use some of his idea in my paper.3. Introduction to the A uthor’s Outlook Reflected in the Novel.On Fatalism and Pessimistic View in Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Hu Ye says that Tess’s t raged y is related to Thomas Hardy’s fatalisti c outlook on life. Tess’s life can be divided into several stages and every stage is sprinkled a series of coincidences that push Tess to the doomed abyss. In this paper, it gives details about these coincides. At the outset, Tess’s father John Durbeyfield is so excited at the news of her ancestor that he drink himself drunk, so Tess has to replace her father to send the beehives to the market. Then the accidental death of the horse Prince destroys the family’s livelihood, so Tess is forced to go to claim k in with the wealthy D’Urbervilles family, where she is seduced by Alec.After this great frustration, she happens to meets Angle and falls in love with him. When she is about to marry him, Tess decides to write her past in a letter and thrusts it from unde r the door into Angel’s bedroom. But the paper gets mislaid under the carpet and Angel does not see it, which directly leads to the break of their marriage. When Tess eventually decides to visit Angel’s parents and asks them for help, she unfortunately ove rhears the conversation of Angel’s brothers, then she give up asking help from them. There is also the coincidence that she reencounters with Alec at exactly the moment when she is most vulnerable, then she becomes her mistress. Considering these coincides, I think that there is close relationship between Tess’s tragedy and these coincidences, although they all happen by chance.Tragic Consciousness Inherited and Future Developed in Hardy’s Novels On The Tragical ness in Tess of D’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure by Zuo Yanru says that Thomas Hardy is an inheritor of classical tragedy, so he naturally transplanting the ideas of fatalism into his tragedy novels, and Tess of the D’Urbervilles is a typicalone. It tells that Hardy’s perspective of fatalism ha s two distinctive features. First, his fatalism often arises from the external environment, both social and physical, and the internal character of the protagonists. This realistic concern is a new aspect of fatalism. Second, in order to achieve the desire d tragic effect, Hardy’s destructive forces are reflected as the combination of accidents and inevitabilities, which aims to produce a strong sense of fate. The two features makes Hardy’s novels produce a strong sense of fatalism. This introduction lets me know the character of Hardy’s fatalism and its influence on the novel.Having read the above literature concerning the analyses of Tess’s tragedy, we have no difficulty to find that more and more scholars and professors both at home and abroad begin to p ay attention to the field of the cause of Tess’s tragedy. Most of them probe into this field from the perspective of social background, the heroine’s inner factors or the heroes destructive impact, there are not many other interpretations, however, all of them give me good guide to this topic and help me gain a better understanding of various elements relating to Tess’ tragedy, it also evokes my interest towards this topic and stimulates me to study this topic from a new perspective. In my paper, I tend to analyze the tragedy of Tess from individual choices with the help of the achievements of the critical study done by the former Hardy scholars, and I hope that I can make some contribution to this field by reading extensively and analyzing the literature.ReferencesXu Haibo. Analysis of Tess’s Character [J]. ?语文学刊(高教·外文版)?2007(06) Zhang Qun. Tess—A Pure but Tragic Woman [J]. Journal of Donghua University (Eng.Ed.) 2003(20).胡艳.论哈代?德伯家的苔丝?中的宿命论和悲观主义色彩[J].?太原科技大学报?2021(02).蒋橹.?苔丝?中的时代特征与叛逆形象—苔丝的女性主义视觉解析[J].?电影评介?2006(14).[J].?青海师专学报(教育科学)?2005(05).彭焱. “苔丝〞悲剧的多层次透视[J].?内江师范学院学报?2005(20).唐璇.?苔丝?悲剧根源剖析[J].?南华大学学报(社会科学版)?2006(01).于坤. An Ecofeminist Reading of Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles[J]. ?高等教育与学术研究?2007(01).—?苔丝?悲剧分析[J].?电影评介?2007(11).左燕茹.Tragic Consciousness Inherited and Future Developed in Hardy’s Novels On The Tragicalness in Tess of D’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure [D].济南：山东师范大学. 2004.“家庭天使〞的内涵和特点[J].?达县师范高等专科学校学报(社会科学版)?2005(04).[J].? 电影评介?2021(11).。

培根Of Studies三个译本的比较摘要：王佐良先生的翻译尤其是《谈读书》的译文堪称翻译史上的一篇绝世佳作。

本文将其与水天同先生以及曹伦明先生的Of Studies的译文进行比较研究王佐良先生的翻译风格与特色。

关键词：Of Studies王佐良译文水天同译文曹明伦译文风格特色弗兰西斯·培根的《论说文集》（Essays）是英国发展史上的重要里程碑，开创了英国文学的随笔体裁。

Of Studies是其中最具影响力的一篇文章,因此至今已经有许多的翻译版本。

其中以王佐良先生的版本最为文化界推崇。

本文将其与水天同先生以及曹明伦先生的Of Studies译文进行比较研究王做良先生的翻译风格。

首先，我先介绍一下三位译者的整体翻译风格。

水天同先生的译文是以白话文为主,中间有个别文言虚词如“底”字等，也间或用文言文。

水天同先生抱定传达原作意思口吻之宗旨”。

水天同先生所谓的“传达原作意思口吻”有两层含义:一是忠实于原文的意思,二是符合原作的写作风格。

总体来看,水天同先生也是按照这一宗旨来翻译培根的Of Studies的；从总体上看,曹明伦先生的译文把握得不温不火,恰到好处。

他采用半文半白的语体,语言简练隽秀。

曹明伦先生在“译序”中提到:“译散文作品的原则也应和译诗原则一样,即在神似的基础上最求最大限度的形似。

”应该说在《培根随笔集》中曹明伦先生严格遵守他自己的翻译原则,以求最大限度的神似和形似。

而王佐良先生在翻译这篇散文时，采用的是“浅近的文言文”，从作者的历史背景契合的角度上来讲，选用文言文与原作的艺术风格最为接近。

他主张“尽可能地顺译，必要时直译；任何好的译文总是顺译与直译的结合；一切照原作，雅俗如之，深浅如之，口气如之，文体如之。

”这里“一切照原作”有两层含义：一是忠实原文的意思，二是符合原文的写作风格。

他还十分注重译者的地位，认为翻译不应该仅仅是机械的模仿，翻译的过程实际上也是一个再创作的过程。

现在我们就以一些例句具体来比较一下三位译者的翻译，从而体现出王佐良先生这篇翻译为什么可以得到如此高的评价。

THE EFFECTS OF DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE APPROACHES OF TEACHING ON JORDANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS' USE OF THEACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE IN ENGLISHBy: Mohammed, Azmi Adel, Jaber, Hanna Abu, College Student Journal, 01463934, Jun2008 Part B, Vol. 42, Issue 2. Database: Academic Search Premier1.Related LiteratureThis empirical study presented the description of two teaching methods called "deductive" and "inductive" approaches. The first involved providing a group of participants with rules and then examples directly and separately, but the second approach involves providing another group of participants with examples or content without offering explicit grammar rules, and so the students should induce such rules by themselves. This study investigated the effects of each approach and the interaction between "the type of teaching approach" and "the use of the active and passive voice sentences" in English as a foreign language (EFL). Ninety-three freshman and junior university students participated in this study. They were chosen randomly from three classes in two universities in Jordan. The method of the study included a pretest, two lessons for each group in the three classes and a posttest. The results of the study reveal a significant statistical result at the level of 0.05 between the two approaches for the deductive group. But there is no significant difference between classes for the same type of approach. There is also no significant effect for the interaction between approach and class.1.1 The Importance of Teaching GrammarEnglish is today the world's most widely used language. The desire to learn it is at the present is so immense. The future of English as an international language has always been said to rest on the practicability of teaching the language. For more than 2000 years of debate regarding whether grammar should be a primary focus of language instruction or should be eliminated entirely, or should be subordinated to meaning-focused use of the target language is continuing in the tradition. But once again, the need for grammar instruction is attracting the attention of researchers and teachers of second language acquisition. A debate was theoretically represented by Krashen's (1981) distinction between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of language. The claim was that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not learned through formal instruction (Ellis, 2002; Skehan, 1998). Despite such research findings, Nassaji and Fotos (2004) indicate that current research in second language learning, however, has led to a reconsideration of the role of grammar in second language classroom. The research suggests that some types of focus on grammatical forms were necessary if learners were to develop high levels of accuracy in the target language.Most second language investigators agree that noticing or awareness of target structures and forms plays an essential role in second language learning was necessary if learners were to develop high levels of accuracy in the target language (Doughty, 2001; Ellis, 2002). Briefly, the reconsideration of grammar teaching in second language classroom, according to many researchers and investigators, is evidence for the positive effects of grammar instruction as their empirical and classroom based studies.1.2 The Deductive Approach of TeachingThe deductive approach of teaching English grammar refers to the style of teaching students by introducing the grammatical rules first, and then applying them by the students. This means that a teacher works from the more general to the more specific in a deductive approach called informally a "top down" approach. Decoo (1996) understands education as a process that goes from the general to the specific. Whereas Mountone (2004) states that the deductive methods seem to work best if you want students to be able to quickly and accurately solve problems like those worked out in class or in the work. Younie (1974) believes that the deductive approach is more predictable because the teacher selects the information and the sequence of presentation.Shaffer (1989) criticizes the deductive approach clarifying that the problem many students have applying these various rules indicates that they may not fully understand the concepts involved and that the deductive approach tends to emphasize grammar at the expense of meaning and to promote passive rather than active participation of the students. But Goner et al (1978) state that the deductive approach can be effective with students of a higher level, who already know the basic structures of the language, or with students who are accustomed to a very traditional style of learning." Schrampfer and Spack (2005) introduce a program where the presentation-practice-production-evaluation pattern adopted by the program is a feature of the deductive approach to the teaching grammar assuming that potential users will understand the rule governing the target grammar pattern.1.3 The Inductive Approach of TeachingThe inductive approach refers to the style of introducing language context containing the target rules where students can induce such rules through the context and practical examples. In other words, the sequence in this approach goes from creating a situation and giving examples to the generalization where students should discover such generalization by themselves or with the teacher's help. Mautone (2004) says that with an inductive approach, teachers show their students a series of examples and non-examples, and then guide them toward noticing a pattern and coming up with the generalization or concept rule.Some scholars such as Ausubel (1963) and Carroll (1964) indicated that the inductive approach was too difficult for weaker or slower students, and that only brighter students were capable of discovering the underlying patterns of a structure, but the results of Shaffer's research (1989) indicate that weaker students do benefit from an inductive approach.Among several studies supporting the idea that the inductive approach has proved its success in achieving students' retention or memory and deep understanding, Younie's (1974) states that students tend to remember when learning occurs inductively. Some teachers support such ideas and believe that engaging with the meaning of forms and words through an inductive approach leads to better understanding and retention. Bluedorn (1989), and Shaffer (1989) view that it has been very successful in teaching adults conversational ability with modern foreign languages, but not with classical languages. No doubt, we agree with those researchers and teachers who focus on the importance of student’s involvement, which may come through the inductive approach of teaching. We also share them the idea that students should depend upon their mental ability and prior information as this approach may sometimes represent a kind of challenge for learners.1.4 Comparison: the Deductive and Inductive ApproachesTeacher' approaches of teaching English grammar play an important role in classrooms where students should understand what they are taught and how to use it correctly. Here, we are interested in the deductive and inductive approaches. This interest leads us to review some previous studies which compared between the two of them, or focused on their advantages and disadvantages.In comparing between the two approaches, one of the differences is that a deductive approach is most close with the grammar-translation method of teaching languages, while an inductive approach is considered close to audio-lingualism, where meaning and grammar induced from practice with examples in situations and substitution tables (Gollin, 1998). According to Shaffer (1989) an inductive approach was formerly always equated with the audio-lingual method of the sixties, defined as habit-formation unless the teacher gave the students at the end of the lesson the appropriate rule.The second main difference between these two approaches is regarding the steps or procedures of each one. Whereas the deductive approach begins with the step of introducing rules or principles, the inductive approach begins with language context involving application of such rules. In the deductive sequence, ideas proceed from generalizations, principles, rules, laws, propositions, or theories to specific applications. The deductive sequence involves presenting generalization and then seeking or providing examples as Younie (1974) states.The third difference is related to what is explicit and implicit of knowledge or grammar through the teaching-learning process. Donate and Adair-Hauck (1992) relate between deductive approach and explicit explanations by the teacher, and also between modalities of inductive approaches and implicit learning by the student. In a comparison of explicit and implicit teaching strategies, Chaudron (1988) points at the large number of product-studies that have investigated the effects of explicit versus implicit grammar instruction on achievement calling the implicit approach "pattern practice or inductive". In a follow-up study, however, Scott (1990) defines the explicit strategy as the " deliberate study of a grammar rule, either by deductive analysis or inductive analogy."Littlewood's (1975) viewpoint is that the approach that makes the grammar explicit is one of these two ways: 1) when the rule is regarded as a summary of behavior, which comes after presenting a piece of language, and may be after practicing it for a time. 2) when "command of the rule through explanation is regarded as the starting-point for language use", but "it does not exclude using inductive classroom techniques", which means that the grammar explicit can come through the two approaches.Age is the fourth difference or controversial issue discussed by scholars. Rivers (1975) finds the use of the deductive approach most useful for mature, well-motivated student, or for adult student in intensive courses, and finds the inductive approach more appropriate for young language learners. In fact, we don't know the exact ages suggested by Rivers who recommends using age as a factor of choice between the two approaches.But time is the fifth difference, which distinguishes between the two approaches. Younie (1974) hypothesizes that the deductive approach is faster and can be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and concretes. We agree with Younie that "the deductive approach sticks directly to the point, and so it saves time." In other words, explaining the offered rules or generalizations takes less time than leaving them to be elicited by the learners themselves. Therefore, the learners have more time for practice or application.The sixth different factor between the deductive and the inductive approaches is student involvement. It is available when teaching inductively but passive rather active when teaching deductively (Shaffer 1989). This conclusion is also given by other researchers or teachers who see that in the deductive approach the teacher explanation in a classroom often minimizes student involvement and interaction. But in the inductive approach students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than simply passive recipients.The seventh difference or controversial factor is related to the terms "easy" or simple and "difficult" or complex. The similarity and dissimilarity between the rules in the first language and the rules in the foreign language should be taken into consideration Traditionally, deductive approach is used to teach grammar because it is easy to control, and efficient, but it becomes boring when used repeatedly. Inductive approach, on the other hand, is rather demanding and rewarding, but it needs more time and more effort to control. Fischer (1979) comes to the criteria that if the foreign language grammar rule is simpler than the native language rule, then an inductive approach is the most appropriate; if the foreign language of equal or greater complexity than the native language rule, a deductive approach is to be preferred.2. MethodologyIt is noticed that teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) often tend to use a deductive approach in teaching parts of speech or grammatical structures, that is, by presenting rules before giving examples. But those who want their students to be creative through their deep thinking tend to use an inductive approach, that is, by presenting examples and asking the students to induce rules by themselves. We, as teachers of EFL as well as researchers, tend to use both approaches eclectically according to content or goals or situation.2.1 Questions of the StudyThis empirical study focuses on the effects of the deductive and inductive approaches of teaching the passive and the active voice for university students as learners of EFL. The deductive approach is based on providing the learners with rules and explanation with examples. But the inductive approach is based on giving examples without providing the learners with rules where they should induce such rules by themselves. The questions of this study are as follows:A. Is there a significant difference between the results of the students taught the active and the passive voice by the deductive approach and those taught by the inductive approach?B. Is there a significant difference between the results of the classes taught the active and the passive voice by the deductive approach?C. Is there a significant difference between the results of the classes taught the active and the passive voice by the inductive approach?2.2 ParticipantsThis study was conducted in two universities in Jordan: Al-Balqa' Applied University and Jerash Private University. Three classes (sections) of students shared in the study. Two classes from Amman Faculty of Engineering Technology in the first university and one class from the Faculty of Arts (English Department) in the second university. The first class consists of freshman students studying English skills 99 (Elementary English Course); the second class consists of junior students studying English skills 102 (Intermediate English course); and the third class consists of freshman students studying English skills 101 (Pre-intermediate English course). All the students of the three classes studied the active and the passive voice during the secondary stage when they were secondary students.The students of each class were divided randomly into two groups: one group was taught the passive and the active voice by "deductive approach" and the other group by "inductive approach", so we call them "deductive group" and "inductive group". Those who were taught deductively were exposed to specific grammatical rules where they paid conscious attention to language so as to understand such rules. But those who were taught inductively were given examples without being exposed to such rules. Instead, they were left to induce the rules by themselves.All together, ninety-three students from the three classes in the two Jordanian universities participated. The three classes were divided randomly into six groups. The age of the students ranged from eighteen to twenty. Two teachers who are the researchers of this study participated in the study. It should be noticed that two students didn't perform the posttest, and so they were not involved in the results.3.TestingA pre-test was used as a means of feasible evaluation. The participants completed the pretest a few days before being taught two lessons about the active and the passive voice. One group was taught deductively, and the other group inductively. A posttest was completed by the participants about one week after the instructional lessons. All the pretest and posttest exams completed by the three classes took place during timetabled university lecture hours. The version used as a pretest or as a posttest consisted of two main questions: the first was a multiple-choice question where the participants answered twenty items by circling a, b, c or d that represents the best answer (distracter) and the second consisted of twenty items and was about changing the active voice sentences into the passive voice wherever possible. The full mark for the first question was 40 marks whereas it was 60 marks for the second question.4.Conclusion and DiscussionThe statistical results of this study showed that students in the deductive group made significant better gains than those in the inductive group on the use of the passive and the active voice. These results came to support Ausubel (1974) and Carrol (1964) whose idea is that since adults are endowed with a cognitive network enabling them to understand abstract concepts, teachers should speed up the language acquisitionby giving the learners explicit rules in a deductive learning framework. Similar results were given by Erlam (2003) revealing a significant advantage for the deductive instruction group. The study highlighted the difficulty of designing language measures that access implicit language knowledge.The results which showed a greater effect for deductive than for inductive instruction made this study in contrast to ideas in papers for researchers such as Dulay and Burt (1973) and Krashen (1980) who believed that teachers could provide their students with comprehensive input without a need for explicit rules. We noticed that the deductive approach groups showed that they were able to apply the rules immediately after given written questions and their answers were approximately accurate whereas the inductive approach group needed more time to answer the questions during the lessons.It may be argued that students are not involved enough when a deductive approach is used, but this is up to the teachers who can make their involvement more through discussing exercises with the class, giving them enough time to think deeply before choosing the most appropriate answer. This minimizes the role of the teacher, which is well-known as the center of the class when the traditional deductive approach is used. The conclusion of the study makes us agree with the hypothesis saying that when teaching grammar for the sake of grammar, the deductive approach helps more than the inductive approach. We can also claim that writing all the rules on the board, giving the model answers of the exercises and discussing the differences and similarities with the class led to successful lesson taught deductively.This study proposes both approaches can be used in the teaching-learning processes, but before teaching the active and passive voice, it seemed that the deductive approach was more appropriate because the nature of the content is based on the grammatical rules of the active and the passive voice. But in other cases, particularly, when the teaching-learning process of grammar is complex some improvements might be needed, such as introducing concepts using a combination of both deductive and inductive approaches and reviewing patterns so as to avoid an entirely linear presentation (Schrampfer and Spack, 2005). Regarding the problem that applying rules indicates that students may not in fact fully understand the concepts involved where the deductive approach tends to emphasize grammar at the expense of meaning and to promote passive rather than active participation (Shaffer), we were able to solve such a problem by asking the students questions related to the meaning of active and passive sentences and why or when should we use one of them and not the other so as to keep the better meaning.Among other reasons behind getting higher marks by the deductive group is that the deductive group were able to get more feedback when comparing their answers with the teachers model answers on one hand and with the given rules on the other hand. We agree with Bluedorn, (1998) that the deductive method is effective to the degree it is clear, comprehensive and digestible, and Rivers (1975), who finds the use of the deductive approach most useful for mature, well-motivated students, or for adult students in intensive courses.。

[丹尼尔笛福简介]丹尼尔笛福英文简介丹尼尔·笛福简介Daniel Defoe (1660 ~ 1731), British writer. British Enlightenment era realism rich novels founder, known as the “father of the novel", "the father of British novels" and "the father of the British newspaper" and so on. His works are readable. Believe in Protestant William III. His representative "Robinson Crusoe", optimistic and brave Robinson through the efforts, by virtue of wisdom and courage to e the difficulties, the performance of the pursuit of adventure, advocate personal struggle of the social atmosphere.丹尼尔·笛福人物生平Daniel Defoe (1660 ~ 1731), British novelist, founder of the British Enlightenment era of realism novels, known as the "father of European novels." Was born in the British capital of London, father camp slaughtering industry (one that is oil candle business), so instead chose to do business. He travel extensively, operating underwear in the early years, tobacco and alcohol, wool fabric, brick industry, went to the mainland business.In 1684, Defoe married a daughter of a wine business, gotthe woman's home worth 3700 pounds of dowry. He strokes his brother and brother and brother as a partner to start a small department store trading. In addition, it is still doing business in Europe, often making wine trade to increase revenue. However, he followed the Puritan principle in the "drunken" business, against the sale of gin and the usual spirits.In 1685 Defoe attended the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth against the Catholic kings.In 1688 the Dutch believe in Protestant William led his army to land in England, inherited the British throne, Defoe participated in his army.In 1692 he was bankrupt, debt amounted to 17,000 pounds, and later failed, and thus had to use a variety of ways to make a living. He has acted as a secret intelligence officer of the government, designed various development undertakings, and engaged in writing.In 1698 he published "on the development", to promote highway construction, bank, bankruptcy law, set up crazy homes, do water and fire insurance, levy e tax, school and so on.In 1701 he published a satirical poem "real British", that there is no purebred British, against the aristocratic Catholic forces, forthe foreign faith in Protestant William III defense. This song is printed with version 9.1702 issued a political theory "to eliminate the different sects of the shortcut", with irony, against the national religion oppression of different sects, clever writing, began to be seen is against Christians, after being found, by the fine and jail punishment, imprisonment 6 Month, flog three times, but by the people of London as a hero. In the prison he imitated the Greek poet Pinarross's song to write a "lie" (1703), satirical law unfairly.In 1704, Daniel Defoe won the "Review" magazine for Whig's party leader Harry, which was supported by Harry's England-Scottish coalition policy. After 11 years he has been between England and Scotland, as Harry and his successor Toli Pie Gordorfen secret intelligence officer, to collect public opinion. During this period, he wrote a short term imprisonment, but never terminated for the Whig party in power to collect intelligence, newspaper, write articles.Defoe began writing novels at the age of 59. In 1719 the first novel, "Robinson Crusoe" published, popular, he succeeded in shaping the image of an idealized bourgeois, in the history of European novels is a pioneering work. The same year andpublished a sequel.1720 and wrote "Robinson's pensive set." Since then, he has written several novels: "Captain Singleton" "Moore Flanders" "Colonel Jack" and so on. In addition, he also wrote a number of biographies, such as "deaf man Campbell", "Peter Emperor Ji", several domestic and foreign travel, such as "New Global Travel" "Roberts Captain four travel" and so on. His novel to "Robinson Crusoe" spread the most widely, is considered his masterpiece.It is said that Flute has been associated with 26 magazines, some people call him "the father of modern news reports." His works, including a large number of political books, a total of 250 species, and both are the need to develop the development of the bourgeoisie, write the city middle class interested and concerned about the issue. (1722), written in 1665 London plague, the occurrence of the plague, the spread of the plague, the plague of the plague, the plague of the plague, It caused terror and panic, as well as the number of deaths, the situation of the escape was written as immersive. At that time the French Marseille plague epidemic, causing people's special attention, Defoe's work to meet the public's curiosity on plague.After the "Robinson Crusoe", he wrote some excellent works,including "Moore Flanders" and "Colonel Jack", which were classified as British literary classics."Robinson Crusoe" best-selling prompted him to write "Robinson Crusoe sequel", he let his hero made a global travel, Robinson's most journey is starting from Beijing, across Siberia to Russia Hangeersk. He has not been to China, but in the sequel talked about the time the European people do not know Heilongjiang.Defoe was too fortable in his later years, and wrote a few books, some creditors have died, he sold a small brick factory with a small amount of money back to other people's debt, still not far from London to purchase A suite. However, he also has ups and downs, and creditors live in harmony, and could not expect a creditor's widow made a new lawsuit, the judicial machine again spin up, he was to avoid the property was confiscated, the housing and property transfer to his son The His son is a capable journalist, who wants him or a villain. Defoe wrote: "I put myself in his subordinate position, trust him, entrusted him to other children who have no living security, and he has not even passionate, tortured the children, tortured himself The unfortunate mother, who lived a very rich life.The flute of the seventies had to hide from the debt, and he had rented rooms in the center of London's old town.On the day of the 1731 day, the London Courier reported that the evening of the evening, the famous Daniel Defoe died in his own apartment in the Canakan Boulevard. The British love to write their own pretense, written cute, witty and brief. Defoe also wrote that he wanted to write on his tombstone: "Daniel Defoe". But they are another consideration, they wrote on his tombstone: "Daniel Defoe:" Robinson Crusoe "author.丹尼尔·笛福人物评价Defoe lives in the period of capitalist development, he belongs to the bourgeoisie, he is the middle class bourgeois spokesperson.Defoe life is most concerned about the development of capitalism, he strongly praised the bourgeoisie, he believes that the core issue of a country's development is the development of trade. "Give us trade is to give us everything", "trade is the world's prosperous life", which is his most fundamental proposition. Because he thought that trade made the manufacturing and maritime industry development, so that people have work, there are clothing to wear, have food, materials and therefore canmaintain high prices, and can maintain a high rent, so the upper society also benefit. As long as there are hard-working people to develop trade, any place will flourish. All his economic works and some political works have played this proposition, put forward a number of specific mendations. Defarge's idea of developing the economy is conducive to the development of the British society, but he enthusiastically supports the colonial system, proposes to seize and operate the colonies, propose ways to expand trade with backward countries, and embrace slaves. All this shows his class limitations.Defoe was so disgusted with the aristocrats who were proud of the door, and he tried to celebrate the bourgeoisie, not the upper class, and criticized the "gentleman" who looked down on "civilians". He said that the ancestor of the people is working. He stressed that businessmen are useful people, and gentlemen change businessmen, businessmen change the gentleman is a reasonable thing, and so on. Praised his class, he in the "Rosanna" where there is a paragraph of the most obvious:Baron Robert and my view of the businessman is exactly the same. Baron Robert said - I think he is perfectly correct - an authentic businessman is the best gentleman in the country, bothin knowledge, in the ritual or in judgment, the businessman is stronger than many nobles. Once they control the world, although there is no real estate, but also rich than the real estate of the gentleman.Defoe's attitude towards the working people is twofold. He believes that the root of the crime is poor, rich people are not guilty. Moore Flanders and Rohsana are embraced by the glorious path, because of poverty, so he is also sympathetic to the two characters. He advocated the development of industry and merce to make the people work. But on the other hand, he was the workers working long time, low wages, underage children will work and other brutal exploitation of the phenomenon as a matter of course. This is the employer's point of view.Defoe accepted Locke's political thought, opposes despotism, and advocates civil rights. At that time the British parliament was the upper echelon of politicians fighting infighting places, bribing and all kinds of dirty means of public. Workers, peasants and the petty bourgeoisie are not represented at all. Defoe advocates that the basic right of man is that no one, including the king, the cabinet, and the congress, can not be violated. "The British are neither kings nor slaves of Congress."Defoe advocated freedom of religious belief, although the British did not like France, Spain, as in the religious issue of extreme autocracy, but the religion outside the Protestant denominations and Catholic believers are also a variety of restrictions. He is a non-state religion Protestant, who is a petty bourgeoisie who demands a political system that is in line with the "revolutionary principle" and demands freedom of belief. Defoe is the spokesman for this faction. He argues that the people should be educated and advocated for women to be educated.In general, the thought of Defoe was progressive at the time, but the limitations of his thought were great. The bourgeoisie was still a progressive class and still struggled against feudal forces. Conservative aristocrats, landlords do not produce, sit huge rent e, the bourgeoisie organized large-scale industrial and mercial promotion of social development.The petty bourgeoisie, on the one hand, has the same place as the big bourgeoisie, and on the other, with the ruling class big bourgeoisie and aristocrats, and demand more liberal politics. Therefore, Defoe's views on the development of capitalism, against feudal forces, against political undemocratic, and against monopolies are all progressive. But he was subject to theconstraints of the times and class prejudice and colonial system and racial discrimination, which is consistent with the big bourgeoisie, is reactionary. To the working people, he is only concerned with making them work and producing wealth, which coincides with the demands of capitalism. Defoe thought on this duality, clearly manifested in his literary works.Defoe is deeply understood by the characters he describes, and he is good at writing individuals to e difficulties in an unfavorable environment. His hero is intelligent, energetic, unbelief, believe in "mon sense". Plot, structure does not fall ax chisel trace. He is particularly good at describing the environment, the details of the fidelity, fictional scene written so that people as immersive.Defoe was so disgusted with the aristocrats who were proud of the door, and he tried to celebrate the bourgeoisie, not the upper class, and criticized the "gentleman" who looked down on "civilians". He said that the ancestor of the people is working. He stressed that businessmen are useful people, and gentlemen change businessmen, businessmen change the gentleman is a reasonable thing, and so on. Praised his class, he in the "Rosanna" where there is a paragraph of the most obvious:Baron Robert and my view of the businessman is exactly the same. Baron Robert said - I think he is perfectly correct - an authentic businessman is the best gentleman in the country, both in knowledge, in the ritual or in judgment, the businessman is stronger than many nobles. Once they control the world, although there is no real estate, but also rich than the real estate of the gentleman.。

57中国听力语言康复科学杂志2021年（第19卷）第1期Chinese Scientific Journal of Hearing and Speech Rehabilitation康复教育收稿日期 2020-07-23责任编辑 李 晔an enhanced perceptual span in reading[J].Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,2018,71(1):291-301.[4] 姚佳欣,兰泽波,闫国利,等.手语与汉语语序差异对听障学生句子阅读的影响[J].中国听力语言康复科学杂志,2019,17(4):301-304.[5] Wauters LN,Van Bon WHJ.Tellings AEJM.Reading comprehension of Dutch deaf children[J].Reading and Writing,2006,19(1):49-76.[6]Qi S,Mitchell rge-scale academic achievement testing of deaf and hard-of-hearing students:Past,present,and future[J].Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,2012,17(1):1-18. [7]Kyle FE,Harris M.Predictors of reading development in deaf children:A 3-year longitudinal study[J].Journal Experimental Child Psychology,2010,107:229-243.[8]Harris M,Terlektsi E,Kyle FE.Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading for deaf and hearing children in primary school[J].The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,2017,22(2):233-242. [9]Allen TE,Morere DA.Early visual language skills affect the trajectory of literacy gains over a three-year period of time for preschool aged deaf children who experience signing in the home[J].PLOS ONE,2020,15(2)：1-29.[10] 袁茵.听觉障碍中小学生汉语阅读能力研究[D].辽宁师范大学博士学位论文,2004.[11] Pan J,McBride-Chang C,Shu H,et al.What is in the naming? A5-year longitudinal study of early rapid naming and phonological sensitivity in relation to subsequent reading skills in both native Chinese and English as a second language[J].Journal of Educational Psychology,2011,103(4):897-908.[12] Lei L,Pan J,Liu H,et al.Developmental trajectories of reading developmentand impairment from ages 3 to 8 years in Chinese children[J].Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,2011,52(2):212-220.[13] Li LP,Wu XC,Zhou NN,et al.The cognitive characteristics andinfluential factors of Chinese word callers in primary school[J].Acta Psychologica Sinica,2018,48(10):1270-1281.[14] 张厚粲,王晓平.瑞文标准推理测验在我国的修订[J ].心理学报,1989,(2):113-121.[15] Scott JA,Hoffmeister RJ.American Sign Language and academicEnglish: Factors influencing the reading of bilingual secondary school deaf and hard of hearing students[J].Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education,2017,22(1):59-71.[16] Johnson C,Goswami U.Phonological awareness,vocabulary and readingin deaf children with cochlear implants[J].Journal of speech,Language and Hearing Research,2010,53(2):237-261.[17] 高丽君.聋童智力研究述评[J].中国特殊教育,2007,(11):36-40.[18] 孟宪章,龚耀先.聋童与正常儿童智力比较研究[J].中国临床心理学杂志,1995,3(3):137-139.[19] 倪传斌.双语者智力优势的影响因素[J].外语教学,2014,35(5):45-49.[20] 闫国利,梁晓伟,宋子明,等.颜色交替文本促进小学高年级聋生篇章阅读的眼动研究[J].心理科学,2019,42(3):570-576.[21] 高宇翔.聋生中文阅读辅助策略的研究进展[J].北京联合大学学报,2019,33(4):69-73.《中国听力语言康复科学杂志》 2021年征订启事本刊为双月刊，大16开，80页，全年6期。

Of Studies 译文赏析14英法八班何静雨19原文分析从句法的角度来看，全文多使用短句，排比句，简洁明了，气势磅礴；同时多使用被动句，使文章更为严谨，周密。

从语义的角度来看，全文短小精悍，含义隽永，仅305个词，却把读书的妙用和读书的方法两个问题说得透彻，庄重典雅的大词语的运用体现出了作者的冷静和理性，散文的语言又蕴涵哲理的思想深度。

从文体上来看，培根的这篇文章有三大优点，其一：工整匀称的排比。

在这篇文章中．三部结构或三项排比的使用是非常普遍的修辞手段。

排比是把结构相同或相似、意义相关、语气一致的几个词组或句子并列使用。

排比的次序一般由轻到重，由低潮到高潮。

这种排列方式语言简洁明了，结构精致对称，形成视觉上的匀称美。

从文体功能方面来说，它便于表达强烈的感情．突出所强调的内容，同时能够增强语言的气势。

培根的《论读书》中的大多数排比句中同时又使用了省略手段，二者结合使用使句子更加简洁，信息重点更加突出。

其二：触类旁通的类比。

培根的散文除了大量使用排比和省略手段外，还不定时机地使用类比修辞手段。

类比是把难于理解的现象或非常陌生的事物同人们熟悉的事物或行为过程进行比较，这一比较是建立在二者某些方面特征相同或相似的基础之上，恰当使用类比不但能够易于切入主题，而且容易令人信服。

其三：平衡对称的节奏。

在培根的这篇文章中，语音和韵律的使用使文章更加朗朗上口，同时也有利于作品的流传。

从文化层面来看，在对译文进行分析之前,首要的应是对原作的深入理解,而理解作品的入口莫过于从作者及其生活的时代背景出发。

英国文艺复兴时期,弗兰西斯培根(1561―1626)坚持以科学方法思考,依靠观察获取知识,从而成就非凡思想,是杰出的哲学家,科学家及散文家。

培根散文的特点:语言简洁,文笔优美,说理透彻,警句迭出。

然而身为高官贵族的培根,他的这篇文章所面对的读者是贵族、官吏,或者他们的子孙，所以他面向的群体文化程度较高，文章也较为难懂。

THE EFFECTS OF DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE APPROACHES OF TEACHING ON JORDANIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS' USE OF THEACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE IN ENGLISHBy: Mohammed, Azmi Adel, Jaber, Hanna Abu, College Student Journal, 01463934, Jun2008 Part B, Vol. 42, Issue 2. Database: Academic Search Premier1.Related LiteratureThis empirical study presented the description of two teaching methods called "deductive" and "inductive" approaches. The first involved providing a group of participants with rules and then examples directly and separately, but the second approach involves providing another group of participants with examples or content without offering explicit grammar rules, and so the students should induce such rules by themselves. This study investigated the effects of each approach and the interaction between "the type of teaching approach" and "the use of the active and passive voice sentences" in English as a foreign language (EFL). Ninety-three freshman and junior university students participated in this study. They were chosen randomly from three classes in two universities in Jordan. The method of the study included a pretest, two lessons for each group in the three classes and a posttest. The results of the study reveal a significant statistical result at the level of 0.05 between the two approaches for the deductive group. But there is no significant difference between classes for the same type of approach. There is also no significant effect for the interaction between approach and class.1.1 The Importance of Teaching GrammarEnglish is today the world's most widely used language. The desire to learn it is at the present is so immense. The future of English as an international language has always been said to rest on the practicability of teaching the language. For more than 2000 years of debate regarding whether grammar should be a primary focus of language instruction or should be eliminated entirely, or should be subordinated to meaning-focused use of the target language is continuing in the tradition. But once again, the need for grammar instruction is attracting the attention of researchers and teachers of second language acquisition. A debate was theoretically represented by Krashen's (1981) distinction between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of language. The claim was that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not learned through formal instruction (Ellis, 2002; Skehan, 1998). Despite such research findings, Nassaji and Fotos (2004) indicate that current research in second language learning, however, has led to a reconsideration of the role of grammar in second language classroom. The research suggests that some types of focus on grammatical forms were necessary if learners were to develop high levels of accuracy in the target language.Most second language investigators agree that noticing or awareness of target structures and forms plays an essential role in second language learning was necessary if learners were to develop high levels of accuracy in the target language (Doughty, 2001; Ellis, 2002). Briefly, the reconsideration of grammar teaching in second language classroom, according to many researchers and investigators, is evidence for the positive effects of grammar instruction as their empirical and classroom based studies.1.2 The Deductive Approach of TeachingThe deductive approach of teaching English grammar refers to the style of teaching students by introducing the grammatical rules first, and then applying them by the students. This means that a teacher works from the more general to the more specific in a deductive approach called informally a "top down" approach. Decoo (1996) understands education as a process that goes from the general to the specific. Whereas Mountone (2004) states that the deductive methods seem to work best if you want students to be able to quickly and accurately solve problems like those worked out in class or in the work. Younie (1974) believes that the deductive approach is more predictable because the teacher selects the information and the sequence of presentation.Shaffer (1989) criticizes the deductive approach clarifying that the problem many students have applying these various rules indicates that they may not fully understand the concepts involved and that the deductive approach tends to emphasize grammar at the expense of meaning and to promote passive rather than active participation of the students. But Goner et al (1978) state that the deductive approach can be effective with students of a higher level, who already know the basic structures of the language, or with students who are accustomed to a very traditional style of learning." Schrampfer and Spack (2005) introduce a program where the presentation-practice-production-evaluation pattern adopted by the program is a feature of the deductive approach to the teaching grammar assuming that potential users will understand the rule governing the target grammar pattern.1.3 The Inductive Approach of TeachingThe inductive approach refers to the style of introducing language context containing the target rules where students can induce such rules through the context and practical examples. In other words, the sequence in this approach goes from creating a situation and giving examples to the generalization where students should discover such generalization by themselves or with the teacher's help. Mautone (2004) says that with an inductive approach, teachers show their students a series of examples and non-examples, and then guide them toward noticing a pattern and coming up with the generalization or concept rule.Some scholars such as Ausubel (1963) and Carroll (1964) indicated that the inductive approach was too difficult for weaker or slower students, and that only brighter students were capable of discovering the underlying patterns of a structure, but the results of Shaffer's research (1989) indicate that weaker students do benefit from an inductive approach.Among several studies supporting the idea that the inductive approach has proved its success in achieving students' retention or memory and deep understanding, Younie's (1974) states that students tend to remember when learning occurs inductively. Some teachers support such ideas and believe that engaging with the meaning of forms and words through an inductive approach leads to better understanding and retention. Bluedorn (1989), and Shaffer (1989) view that it has been very successful in teaching adults conversational ability with modern foreign languages, but not with classical languages. No doubt, we agree with those researchers and teachers who focus on the importance of student’s involvement, which may come through the inductive approach of teaching. We also share them the idea that students should depend upon their mental ability and prior information as this approach may sometimes represent a kind of challenge for learners.1.4 Comparison: the Deductive and Inductive ApproachesTeacher' approaches of teaching English grammar play an important role in classrooms where students should understand what they are taught and how to use it correctly. Here, we are interested in the deductive and inductive approaches. This interest leads us to review some previous studies which compared between the two of them, or focused on their advantages and disadvantages.In comparing between the two approaches, one of the differences is that a deductive approach is most close with the grammar-translation method of teaching languages, while an inductive approach is considered close to audio-lingualism, where meaning and grammar induced from practice with examples in situations and substitution tables (Gollin, 1998). According to Shaffer (1989) an inductive approach was formerly always equated with the audio-lingual method of the sixties, defined as habit-formation unless the teacher gave the students at the end of the lesson the appropriate rule.The second main difference between these two approaches is regarding the steps or procedures of each one. Whereas the deductive approach begins with the step of introducing rules or principles, the inductive approach begins with language context involving application of such rules. In the deductive sequence, ideas proceed from generalizations, principles, rules, laws, propositions, or theories to specific applications. The deductive sequence involves presenting generalization and then seeking or providing examples as Younie (1974) states.The third difference is related to what is explicit and implicit of knowledge or grammar through the teaching-learning process. Donate and Adair-Hauck (1992) relate between deductive approach and explicit explanations by the teacher, and also between modalities of inductive approaches and implicit learning by the student. In a comparison of explicit and implicit teaching strategies, Chaudron (1988) points at the large number of product-studies that have investigated the effects of explicit versus implicit grammar instruction on achievement calling the implicit approach "pattern practice or inductive". In a follow-up study, however, Scott (1990) defines the explicit strategy as the " deliberate study of a grammar rule, either by deductive analysis or inductive analogy."Littlewood's (1975) viewpoint is that the approach that makes the grammar explicit is one of these two ways: 1) when the rule is regarded as a summary of behavior, which comes after presenting a piece of language, and may be after practicing it for a time. 2) when "command of the rule through explanation is regarded as the starting-point for language use", but "it does not exclude using inductive classroom techniques", which means that the grammar explicit can come through the two approaches.Age is the fourth difference or controversial issue discussed by scholars. Rivers (1975) finds the use of the deductive approach most useful for mature, well-motivated student, or for adult student in intensive courses, and finds the inductive approach more appropriate for young language learners. In fact, we don't know the exact ages suggested by Rivers who recommends using age as a factor of choice between the two approaches.But time is the fifth difference, which distinguishes between the two approaches. Younie (1974) hypothesizes that the deductive approach is faster and can be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and concretes. We agree with Younie that "the deductive approach sticks directly to the point, and so it saves time." In other words, explaining the offered rules or generalizations takes less time than leaving them to be elicited by the learners themselves. Therefore, the learners have more time for practice or application.The sixth different factor between the deductive and the inductive approaches is student involvement. It is available when teaching inductively but passive rather active when teaching deductively (Shaffer 1989). This conclusion is also given by other researchers or teachers who see that in the deductive approach the teacher explanation in a classroom often minimizes student involvement and interaction. But in the inductive approach students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than simply passive recipients.The seventh difference or controversial factor is related to the terms "easy" or simple and "difficult" or complex. The similarity and dissimilarity between the rules in the first language and the rules in the foreign language should be taken into consideration Traditionally, deductive approach is used to teach grammar because it is easy to control, and efficient, but it becomes boring when used repeatedly. Inductive approach, on the other hand, is rather demanding and rewarding, but it needs more time and more effort to control. Fischer (1979) comes to the criteria that if the foreign language grammar rule is simpler than the native language rule, then an inductive approach is the most appropriate; if the foreign language of equal or greater complexity than the native language rule, a deductive approach is to be preferred.2. MethodologyIt is noticed that teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) often tend to use a deductive approach in teaching parts of speech or grammatical structures, that is, by presenting rules before giving examples. But those who want their students to be creative through their deep thinking tend to use an inductive approach, that is, by presenting examples and asking the students to induce rules by themselves. We, as teachers of EFL as well as researchers, tend to use both approaches eclectically according to content or goals or situation.2.1 Questions of the StudyThis empirical study focuses on the effects of the deductive and inductive approaches of teaching the passive and the active voice for university students as learners of EFL. The deductive approach is based on providing the learners with rules and explanation with examples. But the inductive approach is based on giving examples without providing the learners with rules where they should induce such rules by themselves. The questions of this study are as follows:A. Is there a significant difference between the results of the students taught the active and the passive voice by the deductive approach and those taught by the inductive approach?B. Is there a significant difference between the results of the classes taught the active and the passive voice by the deductive approach?C. Is there a significant difference between the results of the classes taught the active and the passive voice by the inductive approach?2.2 ParticipantsThis study was conducted in two universities in Jordan: Al-Balqa' Applied University and Jerash Private University. Three classes (sections) of students shared in the study. Two classes from Amman Faculty of Engineering Technology in the first university and one class from the Faculty of Arts (English Department) in the second university. The first class consists of freshman students studying English skills 99 (Elementary English Course); the second class consists of junior students studying English skills 102 (Intermediate English course); and the third class consists of freshman students studying English skills 101 (Pre-intermediate English course). All the students of the three classes studied the active and the passive voice during the secondary stage when they were secondary students.The students of each class were divided randomly into two groups: one group was taught the passive and the active voice by "deductive approach" and the other group by "inductive approach", so we call them "deductive group" and "inductive group". Those who were taught deductively were exposed to specific grammatical rules where they paid conscious attention to language so as to understand such rules. But those who were taught inductively were given examples without being exposed to such rules. Instead, they were left to induce the rules by themselves.All together, ninety-three students from the three classes in the two Jordanian universities participated. The three classes were divided randomly into six groups. The age of the students ranged from eighteen to twenty. Two teachers who are the researchers of this study participated in the study. It should be noticed that two students didn't perform the posttest, and so they were not involved in the results.3.TestingA pre-test was used as a means of feasible evaluation. The participants completed the pretest a few days before being taught two lessons about the active and the passive voice. One group was taught deductively, and the other group inductively. A posttest was completed by the participants about one week after the instructional lessons. All the pretest and posttest exams completed by the three classes took place during timetabled university lecture hours. The version used as a pretest or as a posttest consisted of two main questions: the first was a multiple-choice question where the participants answered twenty items by circling a, b, c or d that represents the best answer (distracter) and the second consisted of twenty items and was about changing the active voice sentences into the passive voice wherever possible. The full mark for the first question was 40 marks whereas it was 60 marks for the second question.4.Conclusion and DiscussionThe statistical results of this study showed that students in the deductive group made significant better gains than those in the inductive group on the use of the passive and the active voice. These results came to support Ausubel (1974) and Carrol (1964) whose idea is that since adults are endowed with a cognitive network enabling them to understand abstract concepts, teachers should speed up the language acquisitionby giving the learners explicit rules in a deductive learning framework. Similar results were given by Erlam (2003) revealing a significant advantage for the deductive instruction group. The study highlighted the difficulty of designing language measures that access implicit language knowledge.The results which showed a greater effect for deductive than for inductive instruction made this study in contrast to ideas in papers for researchers such as Dulay and Burt (1973) and Krashen (1980) who believed that teachers could provide their students with comprehensive input without a need for explicit rules. We noticed that the deductive approach groups showed that they were able to apply the rules immediately after given written questions and their answers were approximately accurate whereas the inductive approach group needed more time to answer the questions during the lessons.It may be argued that students are not involved enough when a deductive approach is used, but this is up to the teachers who can make their involvement more through discussing exercises with the class, giving them enough time to think deeply before choosing the most appropriate answer. This minimizes the role of the teacher, which is well-known as the center of the class when the traditional deductive approach is used. The conclusion of the study makes us agree with the hypothesis saying that when teaching grammar for the sake of grammar, the deductive approach helps more than the inductive approach. We can also claim that writing all the rules on the board, giving the model answers of the exercises and discussing the differences and similarities with the class led to successful lesson taught deductively.This study proposes both approaches can be used in the teaching-learning processes, but before teaching the active and passive voice, it seemed that the deductive approach was more appropriate because the nature of the content is based on the grammatical rules of the active and the passive voice. But in other cases, particularly, when the teaching-learning process of grammar is complex some improvements might be needed, such as introducing concepts using a combination of both deductive and inductive approaches and reviewing patterns so as to avoid an entirely linear presentation (Schrampfer and Spack, 2005). Regarding the problem that applying rules indicates that students may not in fact fully understand the concepts involved where the deductive approach tends to emphasize grammar at the expense of meaning and to promote passive rather than active participation (Shaffer), we were able to solve such a problem by asking the students questions related to the meaning of active and passive sentences and why or when should we use one of them and not the other so as to keep the better meaning.Among other reasons behind getting higher marks by the deductive group is that the deductive group were able to get more feedback when comparing their answers with the teachers model answers on one hand and with the given rules on the other hand. We agree with Bluedorn, (1998) that the deductive method is effective to the degree it is clear, comprehensive and digestible, and Rivers (1975), who finds the use of the deductive approach most useful for mature, well-motivated students, or for adult students in intensive courses.。

英语专业毕业论文中批判性思维实证定量研究桂林;张熙【摘要】以弗莱雷的"提问式教育"为理论框架,采用实证定量方法,研究在英语专业本科毕业论文写作教学过程中"自我加强"对培养学生批判性思维的作用,结果表明:1.经过"自我加强"的教学活动,实验组毕业论文中批判性思维的评分明显高于对照组;2.两组学生批判性思维七项评分中的各单项得分与总平均分之间均有显著的相关性;除评估学生提供假设和数据/论据的能力两项外,实验组其余各单项得分均高于对照组.可见,"自我加强"的教学活动有助于激发和提升学生的批判性思维,有益于充实英语写作内容、提高写作质量.【期刊名称】《宁波大学学报（教育科学版）》【年(卷),期】2010(032)006【总页数】4页(P103-106)【关键词】毕业论文;写作;批判性思维;自我加强【作者】桂林;张熙【作者单位】宁波大学,科学技术学院,浙江,宁波,315211;托莱多大学,教育学院,俄亥俄州,托莱多,43606【正文语种】中文【中图分类】G642一、引言批判性思维是个人对某一现象和事物的“独立的、综合的、有建设意义”的评断。

[1]《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》把独立见解和创新意识作为英语专业本科毕业论文评分的重要依据；而批判性思维是创新意识的前提、动力和基础。

在美国，华盛顿州立大学在20世纪90年代制定了《批判性思维评分指南》（以下简称《指南》）。

该校写作评估显示：将《指南》用于指导写作教学后，学生批判性思维评分比未用的高出2.5倍。

[2] 这说明学生批判性思维能力是可塑的。

在国内，唐丽萍评价了学生的批评性阅读能力[3]；刘伟和郭海云进行了批评性阅读教学实验研究[4]。

但将批判性思维理论与二语写作结合起来的研究较少。

聂龙提出通过批评性阅读来培养学生在写作中的批评性语言意识。

[5]余国良探讨了培养研究生英语学术写作中的批判性思维能力。

2009年第7期总第244期外语与外语教学F ore i gn Languages and The ir T eaching 2009,l 7Ser i a l l 244#版权所有 文责自负#*基金项目:本文为2007年浙江省教育厅科研项目/需求分析理论框架下独立学院大学英语教学改革研究0(项目编号:20070569)的成果之一。

作者简介:陈冰冰,副教授,硕士,研究方向:外语教学;王欢,讲师,硕士,研究方向:外语教学,跨文化交际收稿日期:2009-05-19(修改稿)国内外语需求分析研究述评*陈冰冰1王 欢2(1.温州大学,浙江温州 325035;2.浙江大学宁波理工学院,浙江宁波 315100)摘 要:本文对我国外语需求分析研究进行了回顾和评述,认为该研究目前还处于初级阶段,其核心性还没有在外语教学中得到相应的重视;此外,外语需求分析研究的工具、内容及过程等方面均存在着不足之处,亟需进一步加以完善。

关键词:国内;外语需求分析研究;述评A C ritical R eview of Needs Analysis Studies in ForeignLanguage T eachi ng i n Chi naCHEN B i n gbi n g ,WANG H uan(1.Wenzhou University ,Wenzhou 325035;N ingbo Instit ut e of Technol o gy ,2.Zhejiang Uni v ersit y,N i n gbo 315100)Abstrac t :This paper p rovides a cri tical revie w of t h e res earch developm ent i n studies ofn eeds anal ys i s i n l angu age teach i ng i n Ch ina and poi n ts ou tt hat t h e s i tuati on of the researc h is still i n a p ri m ary period ,t herefore ,its core positi on h as not b een pai d att en ti on to .To bett er the stud i es i n Ch i na ,it s ug -gests that so m e i m prove m en ts be done i n ter m s of the i ns tru m en ts used,t h e research conten t s i nvolved ,and the procedu re condu cted.K ey W ords :Ch i na ;needs anal ys i s st ud ies i n forei gn l anguage teach i ng ;critical rev i e w中图分类号:H 0 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1004-6038(2009)07-0018-041.引语需求分析(n eeds analys i s ,NA )指通过内省、访谈、观察和问卷等手段对需求进行研究的技术和方法。