the linguistic characteristics and translation of advertising english(英语专业论文)本科学位论文

英语专业毕业论文题目•相关推荐英语专业毕业论文题目紧张又充实的大学生活即将结束，毕业生要通过最后的毕业论文，毕业论文是一种比较正规的、比较重要的检验学生学习成果的形式，毕业论文我们应该怎么写呢？以下是小编整理的英语专业毕业论文题目，欢迎大家分享。

英语专业毕业论文题目11、新闻英语的特点及其翻译2、网络英语及其翻译3、浅谈国际商务合同的翻译4、计算机英语的特点及翻译5、论中国古诗词的英文翻译6、广告英语的词汇特征与翻译7、浅谈汉诗英译的几个难点8、英文歌词翻译浅析9、文化差异与翻译10、文体学和翻译11、论商务英语翻译原则12、初涉外事口译的特点及翻译技巧13、外交会议中的口译错误现象及应对14、广播电视中的翻译艺术15、英汉称谓语的比较及翻译16、英汉成语跨文化研究与翻译策略17、指环王及欧洲奇幻文学专有名词翻译浅析18、从颜色词看英汉互译中的文化忠实与文化转化19、浅析颜色词的语义特征20、中西文化差异对商务谈判的影响21、中西思维方式差异的成因及表现形式22、从习语看中西文化差异23、中西言语禁忌对比24、中西方禁忌习俗比较25、从李阳的“疯狂英语”探讨英语教学中的情感因素26、浅谈学生口语交际能力的培养27、焦虑对大学生英语学习的影响及对策28、小学英语课堂的互动教学29、如何处理精读和泛读的关系30、如何对付英语阅读材料中的生词31、如何通过阅读扩大词汇量32、提高阅读能力和提高英语听力的关系33、英语听说读写四种技能的关系34、通过英语阅读提高英语写作能力35、英语快速阅读能力的构成成分36、中学生英语自主学习能力的培养37、英语教学中的语言焦虑及解决策略38、简笔画 -英语教学中简单高效的教学手段39、提高英语听力理解能力的策略和技巧40、电子辞典与英语教学41、文学批评方法之我见42、解读布莱克诗篇《老虎》的象征意义43、弥尔顿创作目的和结果的矛盾之我见44、华滋华斯诗歌的自然观45、简析《秋颂》的美学价值46、由《云雀颂》看雪莱的诗歌创作观47、论叶芝诗歌中的象征主义48、狄金森诗歌的现实意义49、论现代诗歌与后现代诗歌的异同50、解读《麦克白》的创作意义51、由海明威的《杀人者》理解客观叙述法52、解读福克纳的《干燥七月》53、中外文学作品比较54、不同英语文作品比较55、英文作品中的人物分析56、英文作品的社会意义57、英文作品的文体风格58、 Life with Struggle59、 A Character Analysis of the Heroine of Emma60、Thought of Marriage in Jane Austen ' s “ Pride and Prejudice ”61、An Analysis of Edgar Allan Poe ' s “ The Raven ” and “ Annabel Lee ”62、 An Analysis of the Source of Tess ' Tragedy63、 Heroism in Hemingway ' s Works64、“ Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty ”65、 The Light of the Dark : the Greatest Works of Conan and Agatha66、 The Ambiguity in The Scarlet Letter67、 About the Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter68、 On Wuthering Heights69、 Money and Marriage70、 The Literature Characteristics in A Tale of Two Cities71、 Jane Eyre, a Symbol of Feminism72、 Desalination and Optimization73、 To Champ with the Changes74、 Hawthorne ' s Theory of Romance and The Scarlet Letter75、The Cuban Culture Contest of “ The Old Man and the Sea ”76、Comment the Themes of “ The Merchant of Venice ”77、 An Analysis of the Characters in Jane Eyre78、 The Real Theme of the Adventure of Huckleberry Finn79、 On the Bronte Sisters and theirs Writings80、 To Love or To Be Loved? Analysis of Major Characters in Wuthering Heights81、 Gothic Features in Wuthering Heights82、 The Beauty in Sense, in Sound and in Form83、 Return and Transcendence - Comment on the Bear and The Old Man and The Sea84、Comment on the Biblical Images in Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes85、 Reexamination of Santiago - Hero of The Old Man and The Sea86、 Comparison of Gone with the Wind and The Collector - An Analysis of Women ' s Problem87、 Satire in Catch - 2288、 On Pair Work and Group Work and Their Use in English Language Teaching89、 Cultural Difference and English Teaching90、International Communication College Culture and Education91、 Initiation and Situation in English Learning Motivation92、 Cognitive Approach in Oral English Teaching93、 Self- access Learning s E'ffects on the Application of the Balanced Activities Approach94、International Communicative Activities into College English Language Teaching95、 The Application of Communication Approach to English Teaching96、A Comparative Study of Compliments: Cross-culture Perspectives97、 Cross-cultural Communication and English Teaching98、Increasing Cultural Awareness of English for Middle School Students99、How to Improve Listening Skills of the Secondary School Students in English Teaching100、 An Exploration of Body Language101、 The Linguistic Characteristics of Advertising English102、On the Merit and Application of Computer-assisted Instruction103、 Multiple Intelligence Theory and Language Teaching-Considering Student-Countered104、 Body Language on Nonverbal Communication105、Analysis of Language Characteristics in Advertising English106、 Proverbs and Culture107、 Body Language Functions in Cultures108、 Difference and Similarities of the Word: Black109、 Culture, Language and Communication110、 Euphemism ---Their Construction and Application111、 Culture Difference and Translation112、 Exotic Cultures Influence on English Vocabulary113、 The Future Emergence of Chinese English114、 Euphemism in English115、The Differences Between Chinese and Western Cultures and English Education116、 Differences Between American and English on Lexis117、 On Translation Methods of Numerals in Chinese and English118、 On the Du Fu ' s Poems Translation119、The Comparison and Translation of Chinese andEnglish Idioms120、 Loyalty in Translation121、 Equivalence and its Application in Translation122、 Cultural Equivalence in Translation123、 Onomatopoeia and its Translation124、On the Cross-Culture Pragmatic Failure in English Translation125、 Remarks on the Translation of Chinese Set-Phrase126、A study of English Transitional Words and Expressions 英语过渡词及表达法的研究127、Sex Differentiation and Sexism in English Language 英语中的性别及性别歧视128、Pragmatic Failures in Communication 交际中的语用失误探析129、Euphemistic Expressions in English Language 英语中的委婉语表达130、On the Functions of Ambiguity in English 论英语歧义的功能131、Cultural Factors and Limitations of Translation 翻译的文化因素局限性132、On Translation of Trademarks in Ads and Names of Export Commodities论广告商标、出口商品名称的翻译133、On Translation of Tourist Guide 论旅游指南的翻译134、On Translation of Computer Terms论计算机的术语翻译135、On the Writing and Translation of Foreign Trade contracts论涉外经济合同写作及翻译136、On Equivalent Translation and Its Application in E-C Translation论等效翻译及其在英汉翻译中的应用137、Lexical Gaps in Translation 英汉互译的词义差异138、Translation of Rhetoric Devices in EST科技英语修辞手法的翻译139、On “Negation”论正说反译、反说正译英语专业毕业论文题目21、航海英语教学中培养跨文化交际能力的意义2、医学检验专业双语教学的思考3、“微时代”下的军事医学英语微课教学研究4、浅析中医五行学说一些术语的英译5、传统美学视角下的散文翻译中情感美的传递6、目的论视角下的文学翻译策略研究——以《红楼梦》两个英文译本为例7、英汉句法的差异与翻译8、《长恨歌》中认知隐喻的翻译9、高罗佩《武则天四大奇案》英译之诗学探析10、诗歌翻译中的“意、音、形”之美——唐诗《江雪》四种英译的对比分析11、《红楼梦》角色姓名“归化”译法探究12、论戏剧翻译的可表演性原则13、《越人歌》的审美再现——从语内翻译到语际翻译14、早期西方汉学家英译《聊斋志异》中的跨文化操纵15、“西语哲”视域下的英汉句子形态的差异及启示16、中英文日常交际用语的差异探析17、网络环境下英语教学模式改革初探18、基于图式理论的高职商务英语专业听力作业设计研究19、翻译工作坊教学模式研究20、高校英语教学中目的语文化的渗透和本族语文化的回归研究21、新课改下高校教育硕士(英语)培养模式的探索与反思22、中小学英语衔接工作的探索与实践23、信息技术与高校英语教学整合研究24、探究基于计算机辅助模式的大学英语课堂教学情感因素25、开元数字化平台大学英语教学模式研究——基于建构主义理论26、非英语专业大学英语教师课堂话语的互动特征分析——以实习教师课堂为例27、西部农村中学英语写作在线同伴反馈和教师反馈的对比研究28、基于网络的高职英语自主学习生态化研究'))));基于网络的高职英语自主学习生态化研究29、小学英语课堂激励方法的应用策略研究30、高中英语以读促写的“读写一体化”教学模式探究31、研究生英语学术论文语体特征多维度对比分析32、MOOC下的中国职业英语教育改革探索与应对33、初中英语教学策略初探34、西北地区初中生英语自主学习浅见35、浅议小学英语教学中的词汇教学36、试析模块教学法在中职酒店英语教学中的应用37、英语词汇增长路线图理论研究38、语法及语法教学:从知识到技能的转变——D.拉森-弗里曼的语法观及语法教学刍议39、周作人的直译观及其嬗变40、新教学环境下的英语专业第二课堂建设分析41、论翻转课堂模式下英语课堂提问策略的转变42、支架式教学模式对中职英语教学的启示43、基于“输出驱动假设”的警务英语教学策略研究44、跨文化交际意识对商务英语翻译的影响45、从目的论视角浅谈英文电影片名中译46、浅析英语新闻标题的翻译47、论《论语》英译中的语用充实48、翻译目的论视角下的汉语典籍英译——以《论语》英译为例49、英美影视作品中“神翻译”的定义及方法探析50、电影片名翻译的跨文化解读51、“讨论”与“演讲”相结合的大学英语课堂教学实践52、单词配对法对双语词汇翻译的影响53、素质教育视野下农村中小学教师心理资本开发与学生英语学习的关系54、硕士研究生公共英语课程的元认知策略55、语境中语块的加工及其影响因素——以中级汉语学习者为例56、激发和培养学生英语学习兴趣之管见57、浅谈如何提高小学英语教学质量58、如何更好地利用多媒体辅助英语教学59、平行文本视域下的企业简介汉英翻译策略研究60、文化差异的导入对大学英语教学的意义英语专业毕业论文题目31、“Over”的意象图式、隐喻意义及跨语言映射规律研究2、英语学习词典中形容词源强化词的处理研究3、英语学术论文摘要中被动句的语篇功能分析4、语调对揭示英语听力材料中隐含信息的作用5、美国情景喜剧《成长的烦恼》中的言语幽默的产生及其汉译6、从功能对等理论看电影《功夫熊猫2》的字幕翻译7、评价理论态度视角下中国高校网站英文简介的态度意义研究8、基于会话原则对情景喜剧《生活大爆炸》言语幽默的修辞分析9、毕业典礼演讲语篇的系统功能分析10、系统功能语法视角下的服饰广告语篇分析11、语域理论视角下的幽默研究12、英汉基本颜色词的文化内涵对比研究13、从汉译英看汉语对中式英语产生的影响14、系统功能语言学视角下英语政治新闻语篇中的名物化现象研究15、商务英语口译中的跨文化语用失误16、 2012年**竞选视频“前进”中人际意义的多模态分析17、基于语料库的《红楼梦》说书套语英译研究18、莫言作品在英语世界的译介19、英语话语中责任型情态表达度的研究20、接受美学理论视角下情景喜剧的字幕翻译研究21、英文广告中的情态人际功能分析22、 **就职演说与上海科技馆演讲系统功能语法对比分析23、中外学者学术论文引言部分中综述性动词使用特征的对比研究24、内向型汉英词典中成语条目的译义策略25、英语介词短语功能识别及其在翻译中的应用26、 TED文化交流类演讲的概念功能分析27、赛珍珠《水浒传》翻译研究28、海事新闻中的词汇衔接研究29、国际商务期租合同中指示语的语法化研究30、基于语料库的商务信函中谢意词的修饰语研究31、《功夫熊猫》字幕翻译中的跨文化传播因素32、新闻语篇中转述话语的批评性分析33、罗格2008和2012奥运开幕致辞的预设触发语研究34、对《基督教科学箴言报》就2012年中日**争端报道的批评性话语分析35、搭配词典中复合名词处理的改进36、从认知的角度解读英文新闻标题中的动词名化现象37、高阶英语学习词典的多模态释义研究38、英语学习词典中同词反义现象的处理策略研究39、英文产品说明书中情态动词的认知研究40、图形-背景理论下英文广告仿拟语的认知研究41、美国2012年总统竞选辩论中情态附加语的人际意义分析42、 NBA即席解说的人际意义研究43、 **总统医疗改革演讲的批评话语分析44、基于语料库的中国学者和英语母语学者英文经济管理类论文模糊限制语使用对比研究45、模糊修辞的语用功能46、英语身体词汇一词多义的概念隐喻分析47、英汉基本颜色词跨范畴现象对比研究48、英汉借词范畴化认知研究49、解构视角下翻译中的二元对立分析50、汉英广告语篇中的预设研究51、英汉植物隐喻的跨文化理解研究52、《推销员之死》中话语标记语之语用研究英语专业毕业论文题目41 从《远离尘嚣》看偶然与巧合2 从亨伯特看纳博科夫的流亡观3 透过餐具看中西方饮食文化4 从女性主义角度解读《太阳照常升起》中的女主角——勃莱特5 从文化视角探讨隐喻的翻译6 从生态批评角度看威廉·福克纳的《熊》中人与自然的关系7 从功能对等角度分析常用英语修辞格汉译8 任务型语言教学法的优势9 自我身份的探寻—评拉尔夫·埃里森《看不见的人》10 浅析英文报纸中体育新闻用语的模糊修辞11 从电影《肖申克的救赎》和《当幸福来敲门》中探究美国人的个人主义12 中美恭维言语行为跨文化比较研究13 表现主义技巧在《推销员之死》中的'运用14 中国非英语专业学生在英语学习中使用元认知策略的情况调研15 浅析英语中六种基本颜色词的英美文化内涵16 浅析广告翻译中的文化顺应处理17 从文化角度分析中美房地产广告的差异18 浅析动画《加菲猫》和《加菲猫之双猫记》中的享乐主义和利己主义19 圣经原型解读《弗洛斯河上的磨坊》20 论《卡斯特桥市长》中哈代的进化向善论思想21 顺从的女人——分析《荒凉山庄》中埃斯特的形象22 从中美传统节日对比看节日的文化内涵23 成人的童话——《爱丽丝漫游奇境记》中象征主义的体现24 简析网络时代英语全球化25 《查泰莱夫人的情人》的生态女性主义解读26 从社会文化价值方面比较中美情景喜剧差异27 论《喧哗与骚动》中昆丁的宿命28 《蝇王》的启示：理性的呼唤29 中文旅游文本英译中的歧义现象分析30 从中美婚宴差异看集体主义和个人主义31 影响非英语专业大一新生口语输出的因素32 《走出非洲》：走出迪内森的矛盾态度33 旅游宣传资料中的误译与解决方法34 从女性主义角度解读华顿《纯真年代》中的埃伦35 电子词典与英语学习36 英语习语与基督教37 《伤心咖啡馆之歌》中爱米利亚性别身份分析38 从关联理论的角度欣赏幽默翻译39 英语缩略语及其语用功能40 英专和非英专学生英语作文中错误的对比研究41 武汉方言对英语语音的影响及其对教学的启示42 中西行星命名的文化探源43 英语新闻中的新词44 中国古典诗歌英译中对“三美”理论的探索45 从电影《七宗罪》浅析原罪46 浅论体态语的社会功能47 中西思维方式差异对中英语篇的影响48 中国和西方国家婚俗的比较49 浅析合作原则的违背在广告语言中的运用50 浅析电影《推手》中中美家庭的文化冲突51 从广告语言看中美文化价值观差异52 用言语行为理论浅析英语广告中的双关语53 论新闻英语汉译中的归化与异化策略54 以Of Study(《论读书》)的两个中译本为例浅析译者主体性55 美国二十世纪六十年代反战文化研究56 中国英语热的真相——文化帝国主义57 中美恭维语对比研究58 论民族中心主义与美国媒体近年来涉华报道59 从文化的角度看中美商务谈判风格的差异60 《推销员之死》中威利与比夫的父子关系61 从拉康的镜像理论看杨克的悲剧根源62 从正负值面子理论简析中美面子差异63 中国菜名翻译中的文化翻译策略64 从旧南方到新南方——斯佳丽·奥哈拉在内战前后的成长历程65 探究家乐福公司的企业文化:基于其网站内容的文本分析66 汉语对英语写作词汇的负迁移作用67 《美国悲剧》的消费文化分析68 从二语习得角度对比分析英语习语学习中的翻译导向模式与文化导向模式69 礼貌原则在英文商务信函中的应用70 南方哥特式小说特征在《心是孤独的猎手》中的体现71 城市公示语的汉译英探索72 归化与异化理论在汉语歇后语翻译中的应用73 《婚礼的成员》中弗兰淇·亚当斯双性同体现象的研究74 论《喜福会》中的文化冲突与共存75 广告语言模糊性的语用研究76 利用美剧进行英语听力自主学习77 大学生英语口语学习动机研究78 从文化视角看中国白酒广告79 从功能翻译看《围城》英译本中文化信息的传递80 对《达罗卫夫人》中克莱丽莎和塞普提默斯形象的研究81 公示语汉译英错误及对策探析82 探究美国安利公司的企业文化：基于其网站内容的文本分析83 运用写长法促进英语写作能力的提高84 中美“面子文化”对比分析85 英汉恭维语和告别语的对比分析86 英汉爱情隐喻的对比研究87 新闻英语汉译的翻译技巧浅析88 中美家庭文化比较89 从文化的角度浅析中美企业人力资源管理的差异90 华中农业大学英语专业学生高级英语学习状况调查91 跨文化交际中中西方馈赠礼仪刍议92 解读《双城记》中的人道主义思想93 论《了不起的盖茨比》中的消费主义94 从戴姆勒克莱斯勒事件看文化因素对跨国企业合并的影响95 对中美离岸外包过程中跨文化交际案例的分析96 从"老友记"中看合作原则在英语称赞语及其回应语中的应用97 浅论美国文化与美语词汇98 英汉植物词语联想意义的跨文化对比99 一个被忽视的“准则英雄”——论《永别了，武器》中的女主人公凯瑟琳。

Linguistic characteristics of standard English These notes were prepared by members of the joint Committee for Linguistics in Education (CLIE) to provide a statement by experts in the field of English sociolinguistics, as a basis for CLIE's work in education. We have tried to cover the complexities of what is involved in standard English (SE) in a form accessible to non-experts, but without addressing popular misconceptions, nor drawing pedagogical conclusions about how standard English should be taught. We hope that others will be able to use this statement in their own work on these important issues.BackgroundWhat does linguistics tell us about SE? SE plays a crucial role in our educational system as the kind of English that all children are expected to be able to use, in speaking as well as in writing, by the end of compulsory education. It is often mentioned in official documents such as the National Curriculum for England, but it is never defined, so teachers are left to interpret it as best they can. Linguistic and sociolinguistic scholarship (e.g. on processes of standardization, language variation and change) may usefully inform educational discussion of standard English (see bibliography).The present status of SE is the result of a historic process of standardization. This process started many centuries ago, and is still continuing as part of the ongoing development of English as a whole. Set against the process of standardization are other linguistic processes such as the maintenance of features of non-standard varieties and ongoing change within and across all varieties.In contemporary England and Wales there are now relatively few linguistic differences between standard and non-standard varieties of English, though SE can be combined with a wide range of different accents. The relationship between these varieties is, however, fairly complex, as we discuss below. The situation in Scotland and Northern Ireland is different again.What is standard English?Linguistic characteristics of standard EnglishSE is one variety of modern English, alongside a wide range of non-standard varieties. SE may be distinguished from non-standard varieties according to a relatively small number of linguistic features, exemplified in the following incomplete list:Almost all these differences consist of alternative ways of expressing the same meaning, and in almost every case the differences are linguistically trivial and show no communicative advantage either for standard or for non-standard. For example, the sentences He ain't done nothing and He hasn't done anything are different ways of expressing the same meaning, each of which follows a clear set of grammatical principles. It is not the case that non-standard shows worse logic or less care in speaking, any more than this would be true of (say) French. English and French are very different linguistic systems, and similarly, standard and non-standard varieties of English are slightly different linguistic systems.In discussing language variation, it is conventional to distinguish between dialects (varieties that differ in terms of pronunciation, grammar, lexis, semantics) and accents (varieties that differ just in terms of pronunciation). According to this distinction, SE is a dialect that may be spoken in a range of accents, including received pronunciation (RP) and regional accents. A distinction may also be made between standard/nonstandard varieties (based on the social and regional background of speakers) and registers, associated with particular contexts of use (e.g. the language of law, education, casual chat between friends). There is however a relationship between these different dimensions of variation, in that SE is commonly associated with more formal registers such as those of law and education though it also has a range of casual registers like any other dialect. While it is possible to identify some linguistic characteristics of standard and non-standard varieties of English, as in the list above, the relationship between these varieties is more complex than the list suggests:∙While some non-standard features are widespread (e.g. Nobody said nothing, He ran real quick), many are local so they vary from place to place (e.g. us forstandard our, as in We had us tea, found in Yorkshire, Central and EastLancashire and parts of the East Midlands)∙Equally important is the regional variation in SE, with small but recognisable differences even between England/Wales and Scotland (e.g. standard ScottishEnglish That mustn’t be true meaning the same as standard English English Thatmay not be true), not to mention the international variation discussed below.∙Differences within SE also occur because informal SE is different from formal writing (e.g. There's about ten people outside). Equally there are hyper-correctforms such as between you and I, which are hard to classify as either standard ornon-standard.∙Because differences between standard and nonstandard varieties are relatively small, there are also considerable overlaps between varieties.∙All varieties, including SE, change over time (e.g. the older Have you any children? is giving way to Have you got any children? or Do you have anychildren?).∙Individual speakers vary in the way they use language, and may also shift between varieties for stylistic effect.Varieties of language, therefore, do not exist as discrete, fixed, unified entities, and indeed ‘SE’ may be better regarded linguistically as an idealization.Geographical variation in standard and non-standard EnglishIn Scotland, a standard variety of English (Scottish Standard English) exists alongside a minority language, Scots. Both Scots and English have similar roots (as Germanic languages), which distinguishes them from Gaelic (a Celtic language). Scots shows some significant differences from Standard English in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar. Some examples of grammatical differences (taken from the SCOTS corpus, ) are presented below:Like the differences between Standard and non-standard varieties of English, the differences between Scots and English tend to cluster around particular aspects of grammar, such as negation, question formation, and the use of auxiliary verbs.The spread of English around the world, and contact between speakers of English and other typologically distinct languages, has resulted in the development of a wide variety of 'new Englishes'. Some of these new Englishes have developed standard and vernacular varieties of their own. For instance, in Indian English, there are some significant differences between standard and non-standard wh-question formation and embedded question formation. The standard form is identical to standard British English: What has she read?He was wondering what she has readHowever, vernacular Indian English uses different structures:What she has read?He was wondering what has she readContact with other languages may also mean that structural characteristics and lexical items of one language may be transferred into the English spoken in a given area. For instance, it has been suggested that the high degree of contact between English and Chinese in Singapore may be one reason for the prevalence of null-subject sentences in Singapore English, even in fairly formal circumstances. The following example (from Deterding 2007: 58) comes from an interview with a Chinese trainee teacher; the asterisks mark places where UK SE would require an overt subject:so in the end ... * didn't didn't try out the rides, so initially * want to to take theferris wheel ... but then ... the queue is very long and too expensive, so * didn't,didn't take any ... * spent about two hours there looking at the thingsIndeed, a fascinating aspect of English in such contact situations concerns the emergence of standard forms which don't correspond to the standard forms of other Englishes: what constitutes the standard is often negotiated at a fairly local level, so there is a range of standard Englishes across the world.Social characteristics of standard and non-standard English SE is often defined socially, rather than linguistically as a ‘language of wider communication’, i.e. a variety which is widely understood and used. This definition suggests a neutral medium that facilitates communication between people from different regional and social backgrounds. However, there is no evidence that it is in fact more widely understood than non-standard varieties, and indeed it is likely that accent is more of a barrier to understanding than dialect.Moreover, SE tends to be spoken at home by members of higher social classes (estimates put the number at not more than 15% of the population in Britain). The association of SE with social class and level of education is inconsistent with ideas of social neutrality and SE is sometimes seen more critically as a class dialect that serves to exclude rather than include other speakers. SE will have a range of associations for speakers – as neutral, educated, a language of social advancement, posh, exclusive, snobby. Such social meanings will affect how SE forms are taken up and used by speakers – something that needs to be taken into account in any attempt to teach SE.Most economically advanced nations have one or more official or national standardized languages which at least some children learn at school and which are used in public and formal situations. In many countries, however, non-standard dialects have much higher social status than in Britain; for instance, in German-speaking Switzerland and in most parts of the Arabic-speaking world everyone uses the local non-standard variety at home so the link to social class is absent. Such evidence shows that standard and non-standard dialects can co-exist in a complementary relation, without being seen as in competition. This ‘bi-dialectism’ is comparable with the bilingualism of many speakers of community languages in Britain. This seems a satisfactory and sustainable outcome, and, in spite of the proscriptive attitudes of previous generations, there is no reason to assume that SE has to replace non-standard varieties.Standard and non-standard English in educationSE and education are closely entwined, since education is the main channel for transmitting SE to speakers of other varieties and of teaching formal and written registers to all; and SE is the medium of most lessons and of the formal discourse of education. At one time there was a debate about whether schools should teach SE at all, and in particular about the need to teach spoken SE, but this debate has now been replaced by general agreement that schools should teach both written and spoken SE. (In practice, given the overlaps between varieties mentioned above, this would involve teaching, or drawing attention to, features that distinguish standard and non-standard forms.) CLIE sees no reason to disagree with this view.A similar consensus exists, at least on paper, about responses to non-standard forms. These are no longer described in educational circles as 'wrong' or as 'mistakes', but are recognised as linguistically equivalent to their standard alternatives: official publications contain few negative references to non-standard varieties. Indeed, it would be fair to say that official publications hardly mention non-standard varieties at all (and equally rarely try to define SE).This benign neglect is not enough to give non-standard varieties the status they should have as the varieties used by most school-children. The principle of 'starting where the child is' demands more serious attention, both in policy documents and in the classroom, to the varieties of English that most children know already. The arguments are familiar from the literature on community languages and English as an Additional Language; but they are rarely applied to non-standard varieties.CLIE therefore believes that local non-standard forms should be much more ‘visible’ in the curriculum. As the normal speech of most pupils, they should be the starting point both for learning about SE and for exploring general principles of language –‘Knowledge About Language’. We urge educationalists to devote more research to the question of how best to realise this principle.Paradoxically, therefore, we end a statement about the teaching of SE by focussing on the importance of teaching about non-standard varieties.References and further readingDeterding, David. 2007. Singapore English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hogg, Richard. 2000. The standardiz/sation of English. Paper presented to the Queen’s English Society.Kerswill, Paul. 2007. Standard and non-standard English. In D. Britain (ed.) Language in the British Isles (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 34-51. Trudgill, Peter. 1999. Standard English: What it isn’t. In Tony Bex & Richard J. Watts eds. Standard English: the widening debate. London: Routledge, 1999, 117-128 Williams, Ann. 2007. Non-standard English in education. In D. Britain (ed.) Language in the British Isles (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 401-416.Williams, Ann. 2008. Discourses about English: Class, codes and identities in Britain. In Marilyn Martin-Jones et al, (eds.) Encyclopedia of Language and Education (2nd edition)Vol 3: Discourse and Education, Springer, 237-50.。

US-China Foreign Language, October 2021, Vol. 19, No. 10, 270-275doi:10.17265/1539-8080/2021.10.003A Study on the Characteristics and Translation Strategies ofEnglish News HeadlinesLU Danli, ZHANG LeUniversity of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, ChinaWith the rapid development and gradual maturity of the information age, the news media has become the basicmedia for people to obtain information from all over the world. Due to the differences between English and Chinesein cultural background, rhetoric tradition, and linguistic expression, news translation is confronted with thechallenge of overcoming language barriers in information transmission. The headline is the soul of news anddetermines the attention of news. Mastering the headline information can help readers effectively understand thegist of the news. Therefore, when translating English news headlines, we should first understand the characteristicsof the headlines and apply translation strategies in a targeted way. By analyzing the characteristics of newsheadlines, this paper studies the principles and strategies of translation of English news headlines.Keywords: linguistic characteristics, English news headlines, translation strategiesIntroductionThe headline of a newspaper story usually gives the main idea or the gist of the story. It is a very importantpart of a news report. This paper will discuss the characteristics and translation strategies of English news headlines. This paper consists of three major sections. Section one introduces major characteristics of English news headlines. Section two describes the translation principles of English news headlines. Section three discusses the translation strategies of English news headlines. The final section will conclude the whole paper. Characteristics of English News HeadlinesConcise and Vivid ExpressionThe purpose of a headline is to give a summary of what is going on in the news so that readers can quickly get to the heart of the story. In order to meet the requirements of the popularity of English news headlines, short and simple words are often used. This can not only save the space of the newspaper, but also enable more readers to understand English news and improve the readability and practicability of English news. So, acronyms appear frequently in English news headlines, especially in the description of organizations. Appropriate shortening of some common words in news headlines can not only reduce the length of news headlines, but also enhance their novelty. Abbreviations are roughly divided into two categories. One category includes shortened words. For example, “expo” is the abbreviation of “exposition”. The other categoryLU Danli, Master, postgraduate student, College of Foreign Languages, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.ZHANG Le, Doctor, associated professor, College of Foreign Languages, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology,Shanghai, China.All Rights Reserved.CHARACTERISTICS & TRANSLATION STRATEGIES OF ENGLISH NEWS HEADLINES 271combines the capital letters of each word in a phrase into one word, such as AQ (Adversity Quotient), EST(Eastern Standard Time). No matter readers are familiar with them or not, they can find the full names ordefinitions of them in news chapters.“Newness” is the life of news language, which is determined by the content of news reports. In order to keep close to social life and grasp the pulse of the times, news reports need to create a large number of newwords to spread new ideas and fashions, so as to attract public attention. Therefore, frequent use of new wordsis a prominent feature of English news, which usually includes two types of situation (Xu, 2018). In onesituation, a new meaning is derived from an old word, such as “clone”, which means “copy” now. In the othersituation, a new word is purely created, such as “computernik”, which means someone addicted to computers.News reports have a high requirement for information dissemination and effectiveness, so words often change their part of speech (such as from a noun to a verb, or vice versa). For example, the headline“Cooperative Operation Profits Farmers” has changed “Profit” from noun to verb, making the headline moreconcise and clear. In addition, English news has wide audience, so a large number of easy-to-understand wordsare used to enhance the overall accessibility of the headlines. Among them, using proper nouns and specialnames to refer to specific meanings is one of the ways to improve the popularity of the headlines. For instance,it is common to use the name of a building or place to refer to a country, such as “the White House” for theUnited States and “the Louvre” for France.Distinct Grammatical FeaturesThe grammar of English news headlines is different from that of normal use and has its unique characteristics. The news story that appears in the newspaper has already happened; so according to the basicrules of grammar, it needs to be expressed in the past tense. But the use of past tense deviates from the essentialcharacteristic of news. In order to enhance readers’ experience of news events, editors should abide by thespecial principle of “news present tense”, and use the simple present tense to formulate news headlines (Zhu,2008).A news headline should be a complete sentence, but in order to be concise and highlight importantinformation, function words such as articles, auxiliary words, link verbs, conjunctions, and pronouns are oftenomitted from the headline on the premise of not affecting the expression of the main theme of the news. In thisway, the length of the headline is shortened to a large extent, so as to avoid procrastination and redundancy. Forexample, the headline “It’s Time to Organize Your Book” could be shortened to “Time to Organize YourBook” and the headline “Japan Is in Danger of Reform” could be shortened to “Japan in Danger of Reform”.Punctuation marks are auxiliary recording symbols of the written system, which can divide meaning groups, substitute words, emphasize information, and highlight the sense of reality (Zhang, 2020). Punctuationmarks can make news headlines simple and lively, leaving people with thinking space. Headlines focus onstructural clarity and often use three types of punctuation. The first is comma, which is used to replace theconjunction “and” to save space, such as in the headline “US, Japan Meet in Women’s World Cup”. Thesecond is dash, which is often used to quote a statement to make the headline more intuitive and clear. Forinstance, the headline “Next iPhone Update Will Let You Disable Intentional Slow Down—Tim Cook” meansthat Tim Cook says that next iPhone update will let you disable intentional slowdown. The third is colon, whichis used to mean “to say” or “to think” or to replace the related verb “to be”, so as to make the headline moredirect.All Rights Reserved.CHARACTERISTICS & TRANSLATION STRATEGIES OF ENGLISH NEWS HEADLINES272 Abundant Rhetorical FeaturesIn order to highlight the novelty of English news headlines, rhetorical devices are often used in order to achieve humorous, vivid, or ironic effects. The first type is pun. In a specific context, homophone or polysemy can be used to generate double meaning. In English, there are a lot of words with the same spelling but different meanings. Applying this kind of puns in news headlines can increase their connotation and arouse readers’ interest. For example, the headline “Champagne Economy or Bubble Economy?” highlights the difficulty of maintaining production in France in the economic decline caused by champagne losses. And when headlines are created, champagne can be used to both illustrate economic losses and allude to the bubble economy. Pun can not only induce readers’ associations, but also add humor or irony to headlines.The second type is exaggeration, which can quickly attract the attention of readers and enhance the influence of the headline, causing readers’ imagination of news content. However, editors should highlight the essence of the matter when applying exaggeration so as to avoid overreaching. For example, “A Vow to Zip His Lips” not only rhetorically indicates the action of “sew up the lips”, but also can be translated as “keep a secret”.The third type is euphemism. For taboo contents in a specific culture, the direct expression is not elegant, so obscure and polite words can be used to express them, which makes the language more appropriate and generally accepted by the public. For example, after Watergate, people often use the word “Watergate” to describe similar political events, followed by “Monica Scandal” and “Korea Scandal”.The fourth type is alliteration and end rhyme. “Soldiers Salary Soars”, for example, is a headline with each word starting with an “S”. From the perspective of lexical meaning, “Rises” or “Goes High” can replace “Soars”, but the beauty of rhythm in the original headline will be lost. It can be seen that alliteration could more easily attract readers’ attention and leave a deep impression on readers. In the headline “After the Boom Everything Is Gloom”, “Boom” is similar to “Gloom” in the form of final rhyme. End rhyme can not only enhance readers’ audio-visual pleasure, but also stimulate readers’ interest in this news content. In addition, the double rhyming rhetoric of “alliteration + end rhyme” makes English news headlines more orderly, which has a strong sense of rhythm. In the headline “From Monster to Martyr?”, “Monster” and “Martyr” have completely opposite meanings but with the same pronunciation of the first and the last sound. The simultaneous appearance of alliteration and end rhyme, which concentrates on a single person in a news headline, is highly ironic and highlights the excellent writing skills of news editors.Translation Principles of English News HeadlinesAccuracyIn the translation of English news headlines, the first principle is to ensure the accuracy of the headlines, which is not to go against the original author’s idea and which is to grasp the important content of the news. Once the key content of the news is not grasped in the translation, the translator may not be able to feel the error of the translation, trapped in the dilemma of catching the meaning of words literally. The accuracy of the news headline directly determines the quality of the whole report, so it should be regarded as the primary standard in the translation and the theme content of the news should not deviate. As Chinese and foreigners have different ways of thinking, it is necessary to take into account cultural differences and accurately express the connotation and mood of the news headlines.All Rights Reserved.CHARACTERISTICS & TRANSLATION STRATEGIES OF ENGLISH NEWS HEADLINES 273RefinementWhen the requirement of accuracy is met, another important point of translation of English news headlines is refinement. Due to the differences between languages, it is difficult to find the corresponding words inChinese for some words in English, which leads to procrastination in translation. Therefore, it is necessary toensure the refinement of translation. In order to ensure that the headlines achieve the effect of refinement,translators need to analyze the headlines of English news. Abbreviations are often used to make English newsheadlines more concise, so abbreviated words can also be used in translation, which is also a common methodfor translating English news headlines.VitalityWith the special nature, English news headlines have a unique way of presentation. In most cases, news headlines are often made vivid by rhetorical devices. A good news headline can not only make readersunderstand the important content of the news, but also stimulate readers’ interest and deepen readingimpression. However, due to cultural differences, translators must have a deep understanding of the culture ofrelevant English-speaking countries, and fully consider the Chinese language and culture to translate withappropriate words. In addition to ensuring the similarity in form, it is more important to ensure the mutualcommunication of connotation, so as to express the original charm of language.Translation Strategies of English News HeadlinesLiteral TranslationWhen English news headlines are clear and easy to understand, literal translation can be used. The greatest advantage of literal translation is that it retains the language features, expression forms, and content meaning ofthe original text. Although there are some differences between Chinese and Western cultures, people have a lotin common in terms of feelings and thinking patterns. Therefore, literal translation is the most commontranslation method and also the preferred strategy of translators.Free TranslationIf literal translation cannot accurately express the content of the original headline, or its readability cannot be accepted by the reader of the target language, free translation can be considered. In general, free translationdoes not need to strictly maintain the original structure, but only needs to clearly and completely express itscorresponding meaning, without paying attention to too many details in grammar. But this does not mean thatthe translator can freely adjust the patterns and structure; instead, the translator must translate on the basis ofthe original meaning. It allows readers to capture the true content of news from hidden information. Forexample, the headline “Believing the Believers” can be translated into “人类的信仰” and “Looking Back toLook Ahead” can be translated into “回首往昔，展望未来”. Free translation can not only accurately expressthe meaning of the original headline, but also better reflect the rich and profound connotation of Chinese.Amplification Method in TranslationIf the readers of target language lack the relevant background knowledge, the addition of annotations or related information becomes necessary. For instance, the translation of “Tyson’s Trade Treatment” is “美国女贸易经济学家泰森的贸易对策”. For the readers familiar with the content of the original text, “Tyson” in theheadline is easy to understand. Accurately grasping the main point, however, can be difficult for the targetreaders, who will mistake “Tyson” for a champion boxer. Therefore, it is necessary for the translator to add All Rights Reserved.CHARACTERISTICS & TRANSLATION STRATEGIES OF ENGLISH NEWS HEADLINES274 some information about Tyson as an economist, so that the target audience can accurately receive the information. As another example, the translation of “Jack Ma: Don’t Use Trade as a Weapon” is “马云出席达沃斯：不要把贸易当作武器”. The original headline only tells what Ma said, but the translator added specific conference details to help the target readers better know the news information. The translated version gives the readers background information on Ma’s stance on the trade war. Such translation is helpful to improve the accuracy of expression and shorten the distance between events and readers. More importantly, it can stimulate the reader’s interest to continue reading.Method of Using Rhetorical DevicesAlthough news needs to be concise and accurate, distinctive headlines are a magic weapon to attract readers. The use of various rhetorical devices can make a news report sparkling. If the headline contains some rhetorical devices, such as puns, metaphors, and rhymes, the translation should also use the corresponding rhetorical devices, in order to achieve the same rhetorical characteristics as the original as much as possible. For instance, the headline “After the Booms, Everything Is Gloom” is translated by “一别繁荣，一片愁容”. “Boom” and “Gloom” form the end rhyme and the Chinese translation perfectly shows the rhyme feature of the original through “Rong” and “Rong” with the same pronunciation to form the end rhyme. Also, the two “yi” achieve the effect of alliteration, fully showing the rhetorical effect with a feeling of unity. As another example, the headline “A Bowl of Soup a Day Could Keep the Pounds at Bay” applies the pattern of an old saying “An Apple a Day Keeps Doctor Away”, achieving the rhyme effect. So, it can be translated by “一天一碗汤，脂肪减光光” by imitating the format of this proverb. This translating method not only accurately conveys the intended meaning of the original headline, but also makes the news headlines more interesting.Conversion Between Positive and Negative Words In the process of translation, we should also pay attention to the different nature of words between countries and understand the context of the original news. For example, in the headline “The Chinese Market, a Bottomless Pit”, the phrase “A Bottomless Pit” in Chinese has a negative meaning. If we literally translate it into Chinese, the Chinese market will be described as derogatory. Through reading the content of the news, the phrase “A Bottomless Pit” comes from the mouth of the president of the famous sports brand Nike, which happened when he inspected Shanghai. After analyzing the context, it can be found that what he wants to express is that the market potential of China is great. In this headline, if the relevant context and expression of the words are not analyzed, it is easy to cause negative understanding and even affect the relationship between the two countries. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should focus on the meaning of each word in different countries to make it fit with the original context, so that we can translate and express it accurately and play a positive role in communication.ConclusionNews headlines, whether in Chinese or English, reflect their own language and cultural characteristics. So, the translation of news headlines is not only the conversion between different languages, but also a cultural communication which must be carried out on the basis of the characteristics of English news headlines. In the process of translation, translators will be affected by many cultural differences, such as different cultural backgrounds, thinking patterns, and historical allusions. Therefore, it is particularly important to adopt different translation strategies according to the specific situation.All Rights Reserved.CHARACTERISTICS & TRANSLATION STRATEGIES OF ENGLISH NEWS HEADLINES 275The purpose of news headline translation is to enable the readers of the target language to accurately obtain the information in the source language. Readers tend to pay more attention to the content of the originalnews headline, but less to its form. In order to ensure the readability of the news headlines, translators shouldnot only accurately convey the information of the original headline, but also make the target language conformto the reading habit and thinking mode of the readers. Only in this way can the cultural information hidden inthe original news headlines be excavated and transmitted accurately and effectively, which helps readers of thetarget language better understand the news content.ReferencesDuanmu, Y. W. (2011). Functions and language features of English newspaper headlines. Foreign Languages Research, (2), 43-45.Dou, H. L. (2016). Lexical features and translation strategies of news English. News Junkie, (2), 66-68.Xu, M. W. (2018). News English and translation. Beijing: China International Translation Press.Zhu, Y. G. (2008). Linguistic features & translation. Shanghai: Shanghai Jiaotong University Press.Zhang, X. (2020). English news headline translation based on functional theory. Journalistic Research Guide, (1), 225-226.All Rights Reserved.。

Chapter 1 Linguistics and Language◆Teaching Objectives✓To know the scope of linguistics roughly✓To understand the definition, the design features and the functions of language in details✓To have some ideas about several important distinctions in linguistic study◆Time Arrangement✓Altogether 2 periods.1.1 What is Linguistics?1.1.1 Definitions of Linguistics (p.1)◆Linguistics is the science of language.◆Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Linguistics is a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulatetheories as to how language works.◆In linguistics, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation. That is, atheory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without beingexplained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.◆The process of linguistic study: observing linguistic facts (displaying somesimilarities) & making generalizations → formulatinghypotheses based on the generalizations → testing thehypotheses repeatedly by further observations to fullyprove their validity → constructing a linguistic theory 1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics (p.2)1.1.2.1 Main branches of linguistics (phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic &pragmatic)Phonetics –the study of human speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received, thedescription and classification of speech sounds, words and connectedspeech, etc.Phonology -- he study of sound pattering, the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllableMorphology – concerned with the internal organization of words.Syntax – the study of sentence structure, the arrangement of words.Semantics – the study of meaning.Pragmatics – the study of meaning in context.1.1.2.2 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学(p.3)Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. Therefore, the study of language has established close links with other branches of sciences or social studies, resulting in some interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study.Sociolinguistics – the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristicsof their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers.Psycholinguistics – the study about how humans learn language and the relationship oflinguistic behavior and the psychological processes in producing andunderstanding language.Applied linguistics – 1) the study of the application of linguistic theories and methods toother fields2) the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to thestudy of language learning and teaching.Neurolinguistics – the study of the function of the brain in language development and usein human beings, examining the brain’s control over the processes ofspeech and understanding.Anthropological linguistics – the study of variation and use in relation to the culturalpatterns and beliefs of human race; the study of therelationship between language and culture in a community,e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure.Computational linguistics – the study of language using the techniques and concepts ofcomputer science, the basic goal of which is to “teach”computers to generate and comprehendgrammatically-acceptable sentences., including:Machine translation – (MT) the use of computer software to translate texts fromone natural language to another. At its basic level, MTperforms simple substitution of words in one naturallanguage for words in another.(Computer-aided) corpus linguistics – dealing with the principles and practice ofusing corpora in language study. Usually, a computercorpus is a large body of machine-readable texts.1.1.3 Some Distinctions in LinguisticsThese distinctions can help to understand the difference between modern linguistics and the linguistics before the 20th century and to gain a general understanding of the nature of linguistic inquiry and the aims and approaches in linguistics.The beginning of modern linguistics is marked by the publication of F.de Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”in the early 20th century. Before that language had been studied for centuries in Europe by such scholars as philosophers and grammarians. The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar”.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive （p.3）---- purposes of prescriptive and descriptive linguistic studyPrescriptive: aim to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say; prefer absolute standard of correctness; rely heavily on rules ofgrammarDescriptive: aim to describe and analyze the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not---- transfer of attention:Earlier study: prescriptive, based on “high”(religious. Literary) written language,setting models for language users to followModern linguistics: mostly descriptive, more scientific and objective ---- difference (divergence) of opinion1.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic (p.4)---- concept of synchronic and diachronicSynchronic study: the description of a particular state of a language at a single point oftimeDiachronic study: the description of the historical development of a language over aperiod of time---- transfer of attention:In the 19th century: primarily of the diachronic descriptionIn the 20th century: the priority of the synchronic description over the diachronic onebecause without the successful study on the various states of alanguage in different historical periods, it would be difficult todescribe the changes that have taken place in its historicaldevelopment1.1.3.3 Speech vs. Writing (p.4)---- transfer of emphasis:Traditional grammarians: overstress the importance of the written wordModern linguists: regard the spoken language as primary and maintain that writing isessentially a means of representing speech in another medium ---- blurred distinction between speech and writing with modern technology Public speeches written in advance and read out orally;Chatting on internet while typing on the computer screen;Reading in the form of moving text, line following line up the screen1.1.3.4 Langue vs. Parole (p.4)---- proposed by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century---- concept of langue and paroleLangue Parole1) the abstract linguistic system shared by the realization of langue in actual useall the members of a speech community2) the set of conventions and rules which the concrete use of the conventions andlanguage users all have to abide by the application of the rules3) abstract, not the language people actually concrete, the naturally occurringuse language events4) relatively stable, do not change frequently vary from person to person, and fromsituation to situation---- transfer of attention in the linguistic study :langue parole in the latter part of the 20th century (recognizing varieties within languages, social and regional dialects, registers, styles, and so on) ---- objection to the distinction:Skinner from a strictly behavioristic point of view1.1.3.5 Competence vs. Performance (p.5)---- proposed by the American linguist Noam Chomsky in the late 1950’s and similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole---- concept of competence and performanceCompetence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationAccording to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language,which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. Despite his perfectknowledge of his own langue, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g.,slips of the tongue, and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety, and embarrassment.---- similar ideas possessed by Chomsky and SaussureBoth think that what linguists should study is the knowledge of language, langue orcompetence, the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by thespeaker-hearer. Although a speaker-hearer possesses the rules and applies them inactual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.---- difference between Chomsky’s distinction and Saussure’sSaussure: taking a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is socially shared, common knowledge, a matter of social conventions.Chomsky: examining language from a psychological point of view and competence isa psychological phenomenon, a genetic endowment in each individual, aproperty of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar vs. Modern linguistics (p.5)◆modern linguistics ---descriptive;spoken language as primary ;not Latin-based framework◆traditional grammar ---prescriptive;written language as primary;Latin-based framework1.2 What is Language?1.2.1 Definitions of Languagep.7Some additional ones:Language is the most frequently used and most highly developed form of humancommunication we possess.语言是音义结合的词汇和语法的体系，是人类最重要的工具，是人类思维的工具，也是社会上传递信息的工具。

Linguistics: The Science of LanguageLinguistics is the scientific study of language, its structure, development, and variation. It is a diverse field that encompasses many sub-disciplines, each exploring different aspects of language. Linguistics combines the analytical power of the scientific method with the rich complexity of human communication.The field of linguistics has its roots in the 16th century when European scholars began to systematically study language. However, the idea that language is deserving of a scientific study is much older. The ancient Greeks, for example, developed a theory of language that attempted to explain the origin and structure of Homer's epics.Over the centuries, linguistics has grown and developed into a wide-ranging field. Today, linguists investigate the structure and function of languages across the globe, studying topics such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, and sociolinguistics.Phonetics is the study of the sounds of language and how they are produced. Morphology is the study of word structure, including word formation and inflection. Syntax is concerned with the structure of sentences, exploring how words combineto form grammatically correct sentences. Semantics focuses on the meaning of words and how they are combined to create meaningful messages. Sociolinguistics examines how language is used in social contexts and how it varies across different social groups.In addition to these sub-disciplines, computational linguistics explores the intersection of language and computers, paving the way for advances in machine translation, speech recognition, and natural language processing. Applied linguistics focuses on using knowledge about language in practical applications, such as second language acquisition, language teaching, and cross-cultural communication.The importance of linguistics cannot be overstated. Language is central to human experience, serving as the primary means of communication and expression. Understanding language allows us to comprehend how people think, express ideas, and share experiences. Linguistics also informs our understanding of human cognition and social organization. It provides insights into how languages change over time and how they are transmitted across generations.Moreover, linguistics has practical applications in areas such as education, communication disorders, translation andinterpretation, and language policy. Language teachers use insights from linguistics to inform their teaching practices, helping students learn new languages more effectively. Speech pathologists rely on linguistic knowledge to diagnose and treat communication disorders. Translators and interpreters use linguistic expertise to convey messages accurately across languages. And language policymakers draw on linguistic research to inform decisions about language education and official language policies.In conclusion, linguistics is a vibrant and multifaceted field that offers valuable insights into the nature of human communication. It contributes to our understanding of how language works, how it varies across different languages and cultures, and how it shapes our worldview. The field of linguistics continues to grow and evolve as new technologies and methods are developed, revealing more about the complexities of human language.。

翻译理论知识《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲一、翻译定义：1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。

3. 刘宓庆——翻译的实质是语际的意义转换。

4. 王克非——翻译是将一种语言文字所蕴含的意思用另一种语言文字表达出来的文化活动。

5. 泰特勒——好的翻译应该是把原作的长处完全地移注到另一种语言，以使译入语所属国家的本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受，如同使用原作语言的人所领悟、所感受的一样。

6. 费道罗夫——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割的统一中所业已表达出来的东西准确而完全地表达出来。

7. 卡特福德-- 翻译的定义也可以这样说：把一种语言（Source Language）中的篇章材料用另一种语言（Target Language）中的篇章材料来加以代替。

8. 奈达——翻译就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近的自然对等物，首先就意义而言，其次就是文体而言。

“ Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” ---Eugene Nida纽马克——通常（虽然不能说总是如此），翻译就是把一个文本的意义按作者所想的方式移译入另一种文字（语言）。

“ Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”. --- Peter Newmark10. “ Translation is the expression in one language （ortarget language 译入语） of what has been expressed in another language （source language 原语）, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.” --- Dubois12. 13.Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.二、翻译标准1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothnesS”忠实指的是忠实于原文。

英语语言学【 Linguistic】第一节语言的实质一、语言的广泛特点（Design Features）1.随意性 Arbitratriness ： shu 和 Tree 都能表示“树”这一观点；相同的声音，各国不一样的表达方式2. 双层结构 Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构构成（the structure ofsounds and meaning ）3.多产性 productive:语言能够理解并创建无穷数目的新句子，是由双层结结构成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences ）4.移位性 Displacemennt ：能够表达很多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、未来可能发生的事情，或许表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化流传性 Cultural Transmission ：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能 Informative ：最主要功能 The main function2.人际功能 Interpersonal ：人类在社会中成立并保持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能 performative ：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming， and curses4.表情功能 Emotive Function：表达激烈感情的语言，如叹息词/ 句exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能 Phatic Communion：应酬话 phatic language ，比方“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等6. 元语言功能Metalingual Function ：用语言来讨论、改变语言自己，如 book能够指现实中的书也能够用“book 这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1.中心语言学 Core linguistic1)语音学 Phonetics ：关注语音的产生、流传和接受过程，侧重观察人类语言中的单音。

第三章区别性特征3.1 区别性特征概念的滥觞上文提到具有相同语音特征的音才能成为音位，音位与音位之间有相同语音参数的音构成自然类音，一个语言的语音参数越少，系统中的空音越少，越合乎经济原则。

所谓「语音参数」(parameter)用更专门的术语来说就是「区别性特征」(DISTINCTIVE FEATURE)。

结构主义语言学派音韵学家把「音位」定义为「能够区别意义的最小语音单位」，既说是「最小」的，言下之意，这「音位」是不能再细分了。

不过布拉格学派的俄籍学者特鲁别茨柯伊(Trubetzkoy)站在类型的(typological)观点，将语音特征加以分类，采用了几个有限的语音参数，把音位组织成一个系统。

比如英语的双唇塞音有两个：/p/, /b/，两者的区别是/b/多了一个[浊音] 特征，需要标示[浊音]特征，谓之「有标」(marked)；而清音的/p/则不需要标示[浊音]特征，谓之「无标」(unmarked)，只有两个音有双向对立(two-way opposition)时才需要标上标示值(markedness)。

特鲁别茨柯伊的做法实际上已经在把「音位」作了分析。

当特鲁别茨柯伊热中于语音类型的研究时，同属布拉格学派、又同为俄籍的学者雅各逊(Jakobson)及其同僚在研究音韵对立的普遍性问题，他们假设人类的语音变体虽然多到无以数计，但是区别音位对立的「特征」(feature)却是有限的，当时发现的区别性特征只有十几个。

雅各逊坚持音位分析的「二分法」(binarism)，一对最小区别的自然类音位的区别就是特征值有(+)或无(–)的区别。

比如下面塞音的区别是[＋浊音]或[－浊音]的区别。

一个系列的音，如果统统加上一个特征值，比如「清塞音」的一类，加上了[+浊音]值，就增加了一类「浊塞音」，两两相对，这就是「对称」。

：[－浊音] p t k[＋浊音] b d g特鲁别茨柯伊和雅各逊的区别性特征分析在音韵学史上具有非常重大的意义。

The Linguistic Characteristics of Advertising EnglishIntroductionWith the development of international communication, translation has played an importantrole in our society, so when we are choosing the translation standard, we should consider lots ofsocial factors. The purpose of the research is very valuable. So we do the research to find theinfluence on choosing the translation standard so that help us understand the social factorsaffected the translation in the world perfectly.In our society, there are many experts who have explored the field, that’s to say, this t has a big significance to give a research. Therefore this paper based on the previous studies,intends to give more understanding to this subject study. In details, by giving the definition oftranslation, social factors and translation standard, we will attain better comprehension about thetranslation, the social factors and the translation standard. Then this paper will connect the relationship between them and discuss some influence on choosing translation standard. In brief,it intend to research into the culture factors’ influence on choosing the translation standa aim to prove the cultural difference in translation. The most important is that it will provide someinteresting examples to display the validity and to spring the influence on choosing translationstandard and create a special beauty. So this paper can give a fresh impulse to continuous studyin the research of the influence on choosing translation standard.From the related materials, the thesis has gotten a brief understanding about the translationand social factors that forms a considerable part of language. And linguistic translation is one ofthe most important part in international communication, although great success has been achieved in the research of this thesis, during recent years, which regards as a topic of interest indifferent field, its use in translation has been achieved more attention.The theory of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is the footstone in Chinesethe give us a standard to obey (Yanfu, 1912).According to Yanfu’s study, translation theory”　“faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are the highest standard in translationthere are a lot of factors will affect the translation standard. In the natural world, the culturalfactor is one of the most influential factors.In the world, there are several kinds of the definition of the translation standard. it will makeclear the definition of the translation standard of language in this paper. For example, the founderof translation theory Yanfu gave his translation theory. He holds the opinion that we should obeythe criterion of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance when we are translating any stuff,rather than depending on our own wishes. As Nida considered translation as “translatio in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source languagee two authors have some message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”. Thsimilarity with the definition. However, translation is increasingly acquiring gravity and attention.To sum up, there are still many literature reviews related to the influence of social factors onchoosing translation standard, and here this paper just choose some most representative onesamong them. However, no matter from whatever kind of perspective, we can discussion the mostinfluential factors, and then we can find the interest of surveying. So the whole thesis consists offour parts to introduce the influence of social factors on choosing translation standardChapter One The view of translation definitionThere are narrow and broad translation criteria. The narrow one refers to that the translator should followsome rules when they do some translation activities, such as Yanfu’s principles of faithfulness, expressivenessand elegance; and broad one refers to some translation methods and some standards that the reader judge thequality of an article. It also includes the use of "literal translation" and "free translation", "domestication" and"alienation". The selection of translation standards is a complex problem, not only it involves the social factorsof the translation activity, and the background, but also with the translator's personality, ability, personalfactors on life. Due to generally existing personal difference, even though translators live in the same age, thesame area, it also can have the completely different translation standards, thus in the research of translationstandards, it’s impossible to try to include all the translators and standards, and it’s also unnecessary. Thispaper will discuss the translation of specific historical period and particular social conditions when translationactivities happen in a generalized selection of translation standards.1. The definition of translation1.1 General definition1.1.1 "Citing": to express the meaning of a language in another kind of language1.1.2 "The Oxford English dictionary": to change the meaning from one language into anotherlanguage change under reserving the original meaning.1.1.3 "The modern French Canon": from one language into another language1.2 Literature definition1.2.1 "literature translation" From the Angle of literary translation, the explanation is thattranslation is a form of art creation, emphasize the creative function of language, it’s particular about the artistic effect, literary translation try to convey all intentions by artisticeffect in order to impact readers thoughts, feelings.1.2.2 MAO dun: literary translation is that using another language to convey artisticconception of the original.1.2.3 Translation is a creative activity which transfers the contents and artist style from onelanguage to another language exactly.1.3 Linguistics definition1.3.1 Catford: Translation is a kind of language that changing the source language text intoanother target language text.1.3.2 BarrHuDarove: translation is a language product which is under the invariable conditionchange into another language product (in another word to distinguish langue and parole.1.3.3 Federove "Translation theory summary": translation is one language to another language inwhich content and form are inseparable in the unity expressed in the things that have beenaccurately and full expressed.1.3.4 Nida: From the semantic style to reproduce the source language information in thelanguage which is the closest natural and equivalent language.1.4 Other definition1.4.1 Fan zhongying's "practical translation tutorial": translation is a kind of languageinformation expressed by another language, making the readers can get the author's original ideas, get the same feelings as the author does.1.4.2 Zhangjin's "the principles of literary translation": translation is the communication processand communication tool between two languages, its purpose is to promote the political, economic and cultural progress in this language society, its task is to put the logic imageand artistic image in real world move from one language to another language intact.Overall, language school and information school emphasize conversion process that the discourse or information. Art school emphasize the recreate of artistic conception, its focusis in literary translation while did not pay attention to the literature translation.Translation is a practical activity which reappear the content, the form and style faithful, smooth from one language to another language (words and thoughts).No matter how to define, interpreters must pass the procedures: understanding, transfer, restructuring/expression, testing.Chapter2 Inevitability influenced by social factors in translationEveryone lives in a certain social historical condition. As the people live in a society, its thought, language, behavior all marked deeply in the society and era he lives. Translators haveno exception. And the translation standard as the guiding principle for translator to engage in translation activities and to evaluate the quality of the version, it will also be influenced by thesociety. This mainly manifest in the following aspects.2.1 Translation purpose always service for the certain social class and the class requirements will affect the selection of translators’ translation standard.There is no class in the translation work, it is able to service everyone who masters it, but the translators are always in a certain social class, and the translation activities with a certain purpose, and shall satisfy himself or the support of social class membership the needs of reading translated works. Therefore, the translation activity of translator always put the tastes and needsof the class as an important factor in establishing standards. For example: the Buddhist translatorof the Three Kingdoms Period ZhiQian Taoist Metaphysics to blend into the translation to go with the text of the original Lai briefly paraphrase the language to suit the ruling class at thattime and the gods of the flowery language of surgery-loving party to facilitate the spread of Buddhism; Yan Fu reason for making "the letter, and Elegance," the translation of the standard, although the reasons for their understanding, but its fundamental purpose is to Huxley, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and others, put on Modern Thought "Hanwords before the law, "the coat, investment Qing literati appeal to their preferences in order to attract their attention to new ideas.2.2 The culture of source language and target language with different statuswill effect the selection of translation standards.Ethnic culture in the process of interaction of the position is not equal. Political, economic or military dominance on the national culturein communication often have advantage, and weaker national culture isin exchange disadvantage. Due to the strong ethnic and national minorities when the national culture in an attitude is different, the translator on process often to consciously to bring strong national cultural translation, language characteristic to please the reader.In choosing translation standards of the culture of the disadvantaged, the translator translating into strong culture literary works, often using "domestication" approach, and the works in the strong culture disadvantaged culture through translation "alienation" technique isadopted. In the third century BC, powerful Roman although military conquered Greece but had to learn to Greece by translation of culture.Proud Roman from think more remarkable than the greeks, and to the Greek literature as a "trophies" arbitrary dismemberment, adopted a "inthe translation with the original competition" practice, trying to create better than the original translation.Investigation of the United States and Britain, it is not hard to find trough from Britain and the United States inpolitical and economic aspects in the world have a lead and its culturalstatus is also climbs in British and American literature translation, sinceit rarely take "alienation" gimmick, mostly use "domestication" means the literary works to other culture into the British and American culturevalues, catering to the general reader and most commentators needs. Pound (t. Pond) translation of Chinese tang poetry and hawk Hawks, (D."a dream of red mansions") translation is the best example. In contrast,political and economic development are relatively backward former colonies and semi-colonies nation in translation powerful culture literaryworks exhibited obvious when the "alienation" tendency.Such as Egyptin literary translation into colonies before adopted a "more", namely free translation; translation of "domestication" After entering the colonial period, with "cultural split personality" appear, literary translation gradually adopted the "alienation" of the western translation ", imposedon classics above our culture, and don't doubt such replacement westernvalue system of the correctness of the practice "; In colonial times, despite political has obtained independence, in the culture of trying to get rid of attachment status in literary translation, but respect or multi-purpose "alienation" strategy.2.3 The progress of social science and natural science promote the development of translation practice and theory and affect the choice of translation standard.Translation is the essence of a build in philosophy, linguistics, literature and art, anthropology, psychology, communication, semiotics multidisciplinary across languages, on the basis of cross-cultural comprehensive art creation activities. Every step of human cognitive ability enhancement, to the development of translation practice and theory will be a more or less stimulative effect, and understanding ability the enhancement is the demand of social development as the prerequisite.The 20th century art school, language school, communication school, symbols school, interpretation school wide variety of translation theory, such as the emergence of philosophy, linguistics, relies on information communication, social and natural scientific development and perfection, and these subjects only in certainsocial historical conditions will exist and developed, they produce is not accidental. During the late 19th and 20th century, in the previous capitalist society productivity gain considerable development,international trade flourished, powers for world hegemony between thestruggle in the colonies and the establishment of the international organizations to promote the development of international politics.In order to meet the demand of social development, linguistics, anthropology, communication, information, and other disciplines emerged, and quickly with various kinds and increasing demand for combining translation activities, promote the further development of translation theories. For the complexity of the interpreter translated thanever also a more profound understanding of, in view of the different style, different readership using different standards of translation has become the consensus of translation.Chapter3 The main social factors which affecting the selection oftranslation standard.Religious, political, economic and social ideology is the main translation criteria affect social factors. They criteria for translation is primarily throughselect effects from two aspects of mental and physical pressure translation the translator to influence the selection of materials and standard of social public opinion, and people's thoughts to control to influence the assessment to the reading public in two aspects to achieve.3.1 The influence of religious factorsReligious factors affect the translation criteria choice the oldest factors.Ancient religious texts in the trough, the proportion of translation occupies considerable, and this kind of literature on whether to translator or critics is sacred and that contain XuanYi among the literal. Thus past dynasties in translation, translators all religious literature with emphasis on the faithful, translators are original honeycombed by "or" standard, just had to "literal translation" and had to "free" in the preface of the translation BaYu repeatedly stressed that, the purpose is to faithful to the original version mean "and" style ".They want to do so, one is for the fear of god, on the other hand is due tofear of religious persecution. Even so, the French much Etienne Do2et), ray (British side-or dyer (William. Tyndale) or by churches to "misconstrued the bible, publicize heresy" charges was hanged and burned, and "first people the bible" translator Martin Luther also nearly so in prison.3.2 The influence of political factorsPolitical influence mainly displays in the ruling class used his power to intervene in translation, translators translation standards to affect choice. Loose and free translation political environment conducive to the healthy development of the right choice and translation standards, and high pressureand autocratic it will seriously affect the selection of criteria for translationthe translator, resulting in translation geek generation.Cultural revolution has organized a large number of domestic famous translators translation "chairman MAO poetry, however this set of wisdom in a famous among thetranslation of some translators translation and cultural revolution personal the translation of the MAO zedong's poetry, instead of poorer quality than some.Investigate its reason, but because the fear during the cultural translators translation works great leader backs disorderly charges of political persecution, can't play by their creativity, and adopted the "letter to follow suit, and hurt the translation principles of beauty and readability original; Andafter the cultural revolution free and relaxed political environment dismissed concerns, the translator before they can make a determined according to their own understanding suitable translation standards, so that can more fully playtheir own initiative and creativity, a relatively high quality translation work.3.3 The influence of economic factorsEconomic factors are modern social influence the translation criteria choose the most main factors. First, translators are people too, they need tohis family. Especially in the modern society, translation what material, how translation, achieve what effect, is composed entirely of translation of the labor employment decisions, tend to have too much freedom interpreter.For example, the advertising translation purpose is to promotion, then interpreter will revolve around promotion this purpose translation, and judgethe quality of translation standards is tasted a product is in the receptor language environment can sell well; Translation popular literature or bestseller, publishers are demanding the translator take out smooth, understandable, suitable for mass taste of taste, and translation is abridgedtranslation is faithful to the original text fall doesn't seem to care about.Secondly, the economic developed countries and regions of the countryand backward economy bumptious on economic developed country, region of human society fetish is endemic, clip in one of the translator unavoidably not affected. The translator is comparatively backward economy in the country's literature translation into the economy developed regions or countries tend touse when "domestication" gimmick; And the economic developed countries literature translation into economic relatively backward country is tend to usethe "alienation" gimmick.3.4 The influence of social ideologySocial ideology criteria for translation select effects also nots allow to ignore. Living in different social cultural background people with different social ideology, and different kinds of social ideology often forced translatoron some works have to consider what should "whole translation of" or "Evans", whether to need to make some changes to avoid original readers displeasure.For example, in many foreign masterpiece, like Shakespeare's plays, Arab "Arabian night's entertainment" in the "the decameron" BuJiaQiuhas more or less some obscene, of obscene language or describe, these works when translated into Chinese are different degree of exclusions for adolescents and alter, lest readers harmful effects. In addition, different social ideology can also affect the translator of works appear in person or thing likesand dislikes, thus unconsciously give translation bring your own emotional.The most obvious example to calculate the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, thetranslator in the United States and the former Soviet union leaders emotionalcolor difference name. Former Soviet leader nikita Khrushchev's name in Taiwan was translated into "black LuXiaoFu", "black" in the Chinese have "darkness" and "vicious" meaning, and former US President Ronald Reagan "", bush" has been translated as "Ronald Reagan" and "bush", "ray" have the emotional power, magnificent, and "contain" "hope" meaning. This reflects Taiwan interpreter pro-american enmity Sue feelings tendency.3.5 Influence of cultural factors in translation3.5.1 Cultural context -- the important factors affect words translationCultural context belongs to the category of non-linguistic context, this concept was originally established by nowski Mali - (1923) put forward, it isthe study of language use and function of the study of pragmatics, refers toone category a speech community specific social norms and custom, it mainly divided into material culture and spiritual culture. In recent years, as pragmatics the deepening of the research and development, the cultural context to broaden the range.Samovar (1998) think cultural context including knowledge storage, experience, value, behavior, attitude, religious beliefs, time concept, spatial relationships and discipline, and other aspects. ClaireKramsch (1998) further explains the concept of a cultural context. Think tribal economic, social organization, family pattern, reproductive custom, seasonal cycle, time and space concepts are key elements of cultural context.On the one hand, super regional cultural commonalities relative guarantee the readers from their own culture Angle can get from the original readers roughly the same feelings. On the other hand, because of all ethnic groups in personality, cultural and not seek countermeasures of heterogeneous easy things, different cultural ideas will forming local crossover collision and conflict. For foreign culture, people's most easy to understand and accept the surface structure is the foreign culture, namely "hard culture" section.3.5.2 Influence of thinking modeThe western nationality idiomatic by a more abstract, the analysis of the mode of thinking, the sentence type often in subject and predicate for the core, multiple phrases and clauses, and stood by the Lord to The Times, but well-knit fits and meaning. And Oriental nation idiomatic by many to a specific, the more comprehensive thinking mode, the sentence with verbs asthe center, in time sequence, transverse PuXu, pay attention to integral harmony.Sometimes English a long sentence need several short sentences are translated into Chinese language, while some a group intended for a short sentences but can co-translator long sentences in English. Both Chinese and English understanding and thinking-mode difference determines its in the process of translating sentence choice, construct sentences, words. Different omission So e.g：“It h ad been a fine, golden autumn, a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth, and some of them their lives, before the。

英语作文学习东北普通话的建议Learning the Northeast Dialect of Mandarin Chinese can be a valuable and enriching experience for those interested in the diverse linguistic landscape of China. The Northeast dialect, often referred to as Dongbei Hua, is a regional variation of Standard Mandarin Chinese that is spoken in the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning. While it shares many similarities with the standard language, the Northeast dialect possesses its own unique characteristics and cultural nuances that make it a fascinating subject of study.One of the primary reasons to consider learning the Northeast dialect is the opportunity to immerse oneself in the vibrant and distinct culture of the region. The Northeast of China has a rich history and tradition that has significantly influenced the way the local dialect has evolved. From the influence of the Manchu and Mongolian languages to the unique culinary and folk customs, the Northeast dialect serves as a window into the cultural heritage of this dynamic part of the country.Moreover, the Northeast dialect is widely spoken and used in daily life throughout the region. By learning this dialect, you will be able to engage more effectively with the local population, whether you are traveling, conducting business, or simply seeking to build meaningful connections. The ability to understand and communicate in the Northeast dialect can open doors to a deeper understanding of the local way of life and can greatly enhance your overall experience in the region.Another compelling reason to learn the Northeast dialect is the opportunity to expand your linguistic repertoire and gain a deeper appreciation for the diversity of the Chinese language. While Standard Mandarin is the most widely spoken and recognized form of Chinese, the country's vast geographic and cultural landscape has given rise to numerous regional dialects, each with its own unique characteristics and nuances. By learning the Northeast dialect, you will not only broaden your linguistic skills but also gain a more comprehensive understanding of the richness and complexity of the Chinese language as a whole.One of the key features of the Northeast dialect that sets it apart from Standard Mandarin is its distinctive pronunciation and intonation patterns. The Northeast dialect is known for its strong and guttural sounds, with a tendency to emphasize certain consonants and vowels more than the standard language. This can take sometime and practice to master, but the effort can be incredibly rewarding as it allows you to better blend in with the local community and understand the cultural context of the language.In addition to pronunciation, the Northeast dialect also features a unique vocabulary and set of idiomatic expressions that can be quite different from Standard Mandarin. Many of these linguistic elements are rooted in the region's history, traditions, and way of life, and learning them can provide valuable insights into the local culture and mindset. For example, the Northeast dialect is known for its use of colorful and expressive slang terms, which can add a layer of nuance and personality to your language skills.To effectively learn the Northeast dialect, it is important to immerse yourself in the local culture and language environment as much as possible. This can involve engaging with native speakers, watching local television shows and movies, and even exploring the region's literature and poetry. Additionally, it can be helpful to seek out language classes or tutors who specialize in the Northeast dialect, as they can provide valuable guidance and feedback on your progress.One of the challenges in learning the Northeast dialect may be the relative lack of resources and materials available compared to Standard Mandarin. However, with a little persistence and creativity, you can overcome this obstacle. Seek out online forums, socialmedia groups, and language exchange platforms where you can connect with other learners and native speakers, and don't be afraid to ask questions and seek out feedback.Another potential challenge in learning the Northeast dialect is the regional variations that exist within the dialect itself. While there are some common features and characteristics that are shared across the region, the specific pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar can vary quite a bit from one city or province to another. This can make it challenging to achieve a truly "authentic" Northeast dialect, but it also presents an opportunity to explore the rich diversity of the region and tailor your language skills to the specific context in which you find yourself.Despite these challenges, the rewards of learning the Northeast dialect are numerous and well worth the effort. By immersing yourself in this unique linguistic and cultural landscape, you will not only enhance your language skills but also gain a deeper appreciation for the diversity and complexity of the Chinese language and culture. Whether you are a student, a business professional, or simply a curious traveler, the Northeast dialect can offer a fascinating and rewarding learning experience that will enrich your understanding of China and its people.In conclusion, learning the Northeast dialect of Mandarin Chinese isa valuable and enriching endeavor that can open up new opportunities for cultural exchange, personal growth, and linguistic exploration. By embracing the unique characteristics and nuances of this regional dialect, you can unlock a deeper understanding of the Chinese language and its diverse cultural landscape. So, if you are interested in expanding your linguistic horizons and immersing yourself in the vibrant and dynamic culture of the Northeast, consider taking the first steps to learn this captivating dialect.。

一、绪论语言学的定义语言学的研究范畴几对基本概念语言的定义语言的甄别特征What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。

语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。

The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. Prescriptive: it aims at laying down rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written languageSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic studyThe description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic studyIn modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing(3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole refers to the realization of language in actual useCompetence and performance 能力与运用Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationWhat is language? 什么是语言？Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性Language is a rule-governed systemLanguage is basically vocalLanguage is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”)Language is used for human communicationDesign features of language 语言的甄别特征American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:1) arbitrariness 武断性2) productivity 创造性3) duality 二重性4) displacement移位性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性二、音系学语言的声音媒介什么是语音学发音器官音标……宽式和严式标音法英语语音的分类音系学和语音学语音、音位、音位变体音位对立、互补分部、最小对立几条音系规则超切分特征Two major media of communication: speech and writingThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

The Utility of Linguistic Theory to the Language TeacherPininta Veronica SilalahiIntroductionThis paper discusses about the utility of linguistic theory to the language teacher. The linguistic theory discussed in this paper will be limited to Transformational Generative Grammar which is first introduced by Chomsky in his book entitled "Syntactic Structures" (1957). The investigation of generative grammar described in Syntactic Structure was motivated in part by an interest in the capability of a native speaker of a language to provide and understand an infinite number of sentences which have never been heard or read before (Chomsky, 1976). This limitation is intended to focus the discussion on more specific things that generative grammar might contribute to the language teacher. The reason to limit the discussion to generative grammar is because it is not really clear whether linguistic theory especially generative grammar gives contribution to the language teacher. However, this does not mean that this paper will contain a thorough discussion on generative grammar, it will be limited to some extent of the aspects that might contribute to the language teacher or language teaching. This paper is intended to give a bird's eye view, it does not discuss about the details.What is Linguistic Theory?Let us begin with what is meant by theory. Hjelmselv (1973) says that theory can mean as a system of hypothesis and every theory is freed with a methodological requirement. Linguistic theory is a meta-theory dealt with the properties of linguistic description of natural languages (Fodor and Katz, 1964:19). SO we can infer that the aim of linguistic theory is to provide a procedural method in order to comprehend a given text through self-consistent and exhaustive description (Hjelmslev, 1973:206). In a simpler way, Corder (1973) says that linguistic theories are made to do two things, i.e. to explain language and to make descriptions of languages.The description of the definition itself does not promise that it can be directly applied to elaborate how the linguistic description might be useful to language teaching. SO it is reasonable if one raises a question like, "Does linguistic theory--generative grammar--contribute something to language teacher or language teaching?"Generative GrammarIf one talks about generative grammar, it means that it is sufficiently explicit to determine how sentences of the language are in fact characterized by the grammar (Chomsky, 1980a:220, in Cook, 1988:24). He further says that generative means that the description is rigorous and explicit. Allen (1974:63) says that Chomsky's grammar is generative in the sense that it constitutes a procedure for testing any combination of words in order to decide whether it is a sentence or not in a certain language. He added that the generation of sentences must be present in the rules themselves, the rules must be fully explicit.Nevertheless, many teachers of English as a second language assume that generative grammar is pedagogically unadaptable to the needs of a secondary curriculum, it means that it is not applicable to language teaching. There are two important reasons for this, the first reason is that the explication of the theory is directed more towards linguists, psychologists and mathematicians than toward teachers of English. The second reason is that the criticism of this theory by other linguists made the concept more complicated.The reasons might be plausible, but Thomas (1976) does not agree with the assumption that generative grammar is not applicable to language teaching. He conducted a summer course at Indiana University in 1961; the material is concerned with linguistic theory and the participants are teachers of various length of experience in teaching.At the end of the course the thirty students are hoped to answer the question: "What do secondary school teachers--not professional linguists--think of generative grammar?"The answer is positive, the students were convinced that certain deductions from Chomsky's theory could be applied to the teaching of grammar. The students have some strong reasons for this: The students found that the traditionalists were not united, even on basic definitions, and they concluded that there was no single traditional grammar, but they agreed that it provides a useful terminology. Their common on structural grammar was not much different from the traditional grammar, they said that the structuralists were as divided as the traditionalists. Structural grammar was far too complex to be readily adapted to the needs of secondary school.At this point they realized that they were ready for any theory that would justify traditional grammar or simplify structural grammar.The Contribution of Generative Grammar to Teaching GrammarThere are still some controversies when we are talking about the contribution of generative grammar to language teaching as it is explicitly stated by Allen (1974:63), "It is far from clear what contribution transformational grammar (Generative grammar) is likely to make to language teaching methodology."There might be still many other linguists who are in the same position with Allen, but I would concentrate more on the opinions which can see the contribution of generative grammar to the teaching of grammar.Saporta (1973:271) claims that the main contribution of generative grammar is to provide relevant data which enables textbook writers to base their material on the most adequate description. If one wants to apply this generative grammar, there should be a clear difference between scientific grammar and pedagogical grammar.A scientific grammar enumerates the grammatical sentences of a language and provides each with a structural description and a semantic interpretation. It is based on a formal theory of language (Allen, 1974). He further defines that a pedagogic grammar is a collection of material extracted from one or more scientific grammar and used as the basis for language teaching. It attempt to develop the native speaker's ability to recognize and produce sentences. The explanation can be interpreted that it is possible to elaborate and apply generative grammar in the form of pedagogical grammar. Daily experience says that when we study grammar, we study how to construct grammatically correct sentences.Related to the above description, Thomas (1976:412-413) who is convinced with he contribution of generative grammar, suggests that we teach the use of kernel sentence first (simple, declarative, active with no complex verb or noun phrase). Later on the students are taught to construct passive, negative sentences.If we relate the proposition suggested by Thomas concerning the application of Chomsky's theory to the teaching of grammar, it seems that it meets the requirement of the goal of linguistic theory formulated by Hjemslev (1973:208): Linguistic theory end by constructing several possible methods of procedure, all of which can provide a self-consistent and exhaustive description of any given text and there by of any language whatsoever, then among those possible methods of procedure, that on shall be chosen that results in the simplest possible descriptions.The Utility of Linguistic Theory According to ChomskyChomsky (1973) wrote and article which discusses about the utility of linguistic theory to the language teacher. From the beginning he frankly confesses thathe is not an expert on any aspect of the teaching of language; he is an expert on the structure of language and the nature of cognitive processes. According to him, linguistics and psychology play important roles related to language teaching; although the two subjects or disciplines are in a state of flux and agitation.Within psychology, the view which has been long accepted i.e. principles of association and reinforcement, gestalt principles, the theory of concept formation are nowadays sharply challenged in theoretical as well as experimental work. And Chomsky himself could not accept the view that linguistic behavior is a matter of habit which is slowly acquired by reinforcement, association, and generalization. Chomsky has a strong reason not to agree with this theory. This theory does not account for the creative aspect of normal language use. He added that there is no obvious analogy between the experimental results obtained in studies of concept formation and the actual processes that seem to underlie language learning. His point in case is that the relevance of psychological theory to language acquisition is a questionable matter; nevertheless, teachers can certainly draw what suggestions and hints they can, with a constant realization that the principles are fragile and tentative.The same situation happened to linguistics which had its share in retaining myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed stock of patterns is acquired through practice and used as the basis for analogy. He said then, anyhow, it must be recognized that well established theory, in fields like psychology and linguistics is extremely limited in scope.So, he is always sure and claiming that one of the qualities that all languages have in common is their creative aspect which provides the means for expressing indefinitely many thoughts (Chomsky, 1965:6). And language teaching cannot be separated from linguistic theory and language acquisition; so according to him there are some tendencies and development within linguistics and psychology that may have some potential impact on the teaching of language. They can be summarized under four headings: (a) the creative aspect of language use; (b) the abstractness of linguistic representation; (c) the universality of underlying linguistic structure; (d) the role of intrinsic organization in cognitive � process.According to him, generative grammar can give explanations to the four tendencies. The first step is to recognize whether the native speaker of a language has internalized a generative grammar--a system of rules that can be used in new and untried combinations to form new sentences and to assign semantic interpretation to new sentences.The first tendency has been discussed above, now we turn to the second and third tendencies. It is the task of linguists to discover the rules of the generative grammar and the underlying principles on the basis of which it is organized. And it must be remembered that in order to be universal, any theory of language must be in close combat with the fundamental property of normal language.The last heading is supposed to be one of the most important, the reason is that even a native speaker has internalized a generative grammar, he is not aware of the facts or properties of the language. The problem facing the linguist in this case is to discover what constitute unconscious, latent knowledge or the speakers' intrinsic linguistic competence. It is claimed by Chomsky as the generative grammar, the theory of speaker's competence.This shows that the underlying principles of generative grammar are not acquired through experience and training. Chomsky argues that it must be part of the intellectual organization which is a prerequisite for language acquisition. It can be inferred that they must be universal properties of any generative grammar.Teacher's AttitudeConcerning the teacher's attitude, Chomsky has the opinion that teachers have the responsibility to make sure that any ideas and proposals of theories are evaluated on their merits and not passively accepted on grounds of authority, real, or presumed. He has the reason not to say what the teachers should do dealt with any theories as many people claimed that language teaching has been going on a long time quite satisfactorily without teachers knowing about linguistics (Corder, 1975:275).Another thing that he thinks important is that principles of linguistics and psychology may supply insights useful to the teacher, but this must be demonstrated and cannot be presumed. The conclusion is that it is the teacher's decision to validate or refute any specific proposals as they are directly involved in the application of those.If Chomsky does not talk explicitly about the direct relation of generative grammar to language teaching. Newmark (1964:70) suggested that ordering rules in a transformational grammar has implications for the ordering of material in a teaching syllabus which may be different from conventional principles of grading.Viewed from the concepts of scientific and pedagogic grammar, I have the opinion that any theory of language can be transferred into practical teaching material. The problem is, "Do teachers of language have a strong will andcapability to grasp the whole idea of the theory?" Perhaps, the perception and recognition of the concept of the theory and the enumeration of the theory is the most difficult thing to grasp. If an understanding of a theory is well established, teachers will be able to decide what hints they can draw from it.For instance, I have the experience that the teacher training college will not focus the curriculum on linguistics. Linguistics is given very little, only the surface, so when they become teachers another question might be raised, "how many of them will do their best in understanding a theory by their own effort?"This situation might be found in any teacher training colleges, not only in Indonesia. It is clearly known that the teacher training colleges educate their students to be teachers, not to be linguists. Maybe the best way to do is to carry out an intensive cooperation between linguists applied linguists, and language teachers. But, in the meantime, I could not propose the real form of cooperation.I believe that it will be more valuable if every teacher is provided with a clear concept of theories of language which are already known up to the present time. And the last decision remains on theory hands as the language teachers. ReferencesAllen, J.P.B. 1974. "Pedagogic Grammar" in J.P.B. Allen and S. Pit Corder (Eds.). Techniques in Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press. Chomsky, Noam. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press.-------------. 1973. "The Utility of Linguistics Theory to the Language Teacher." in J.P.B. Allen and S. Pit Corder (eds.), Readings for Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press.-------------. 1976. "Some Methodological Remarks on Generative Grammar." in Harold b. Allen (ed.), Readings in Applied Linguistics. New Delhi: Amerind Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.Cook, V. 1988. Chomsky's Universal Grammar. New York: Basil Blackwell.Corder, Pit. 1973. "Linguists and the Language Teaching Syllabus." In J.P.B. Allen and S. Pit Corder (eds.), Readings for Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press.Fodor, Jerry A. and Katz, Jerold J. 1964. The Structure of Language. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc.Hjemselv, L. 1973. "The Aim of Linguistic Theory". In J.P.B. Allen and S. Pit Corder (eds.), Reading for Applied Linguistics. London: Oxford University Press.________________________Pininta Veronika Silalahi, lecturer at the Faculty of Letters, Universitas 17 Agustus 1945 Surabaya.。

LinguisticsThree words you must know before learning:Language ['læŋgwidʒ] 语言Linguistics [liŋ'gwistiks] 语言学Linguist ['liŋgwist] 语言学家What is the relation between linguistics and the courses we have learned in the previous two years?listening, speaking, reading , writing they are language skills ;linguistics, including literature…language knowledge 知其然,知其所以然Course objectives: 1.mastery of basic linguistic terms concepts and theories.2.T o arouse your interest in language and language phenomenon.3.Let you know the branches of linguistics. 4.preparation for further study and research about language.Chapter One An Introduction to language and Linguistics1. The Definition of Language语言的定义：(1)语言是一种社会现象……语言区别于其他社会现象的专门的特点是它是作为人们交际的工具、作为人们交流思想的工具来为社会服务的; (2) 它是作为人们的思维工具来为社会服务的。

……就语言自身而言,它是由语音和语义结合而成、由词汇和语法所构成的符号系统。

Some important distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs. Descriptive（规定性与描述性）Synchronic vs. Diachronic(共时性与历时性)Speech vs. Writing（口头语与书面语）Langue vs. Parole（语言与言语）Competence vs. Performance（语言能力与语言行为）Modern Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar（现代语言学与传统语法）Design Features of Human Language1) ArbitrarinessThe arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity3) Duality4) Displacement5) Cultural transmissionPhonetics & phonologyBoth are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology is language-specific. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a specificlanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Supra-segmental featuresstress (重音)tone (音调)intonation (语调)What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.Deep structure / D-structure深层结构: syntactic structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure表层结构: the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformationsWhy English is rich in synonyms:---native words: originally used in the speech of the native inhabitants of the British Isles: the Anglo-Saxons (migrants from northern Europe)---borrowed (loan) words: French, Latin, Greek, Italian, GermanEnglish pairs or triplets of words: subtle differencesComplete synonyms are rare。