Phonological system
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韩礼德系统功能语言学与其在外语教学实践中的应用本文来源于(论文网) 原文链接:/jiaoxue/yingyujiaoxue/0429234F2010.html摘要: 本文主要阐述了系统功能语言学的形成发展历程。
作为系统功能语言学的创始人和发展者,韩礼德更侧重于对语言学的纯理论研究,他研究如何把语言学应用到外语教学中比较少。
本文介绍了其他应用语言学家把他的理论应用到外语教学实践中去发展了许多新的教学方法及其语言学理论对于外语教学实践的深远指导意义。
关键词: 系统功能语言学外语教学实践应用1.理论概述1.1韩礼德与系统功能语法系统功能语言学理论的重要奠基者和代表人物——韩礼德,从上个世纪60年代致力于研究语言功能,并阐释了语言本身与语言社会功能之间的关系,坚持从系统和功能的角度研究语言。
《功能语法导论》(1994[1985])的出版标志着其系统功能语言学理论的整体性和系统性已基本形成并日趋成熟。
作为伦敦学派著名的语言学家,他继承并发展了弗斯的学术思想,对乔姆斯基的形式理论提出异议。
他的理论和思想得到前所未有的传播和世界范围内的普遍认同。
1.2系统功能语言学下的三大宏观功能韩礼德的系统功能语法侧重于语言的语用研究,从对人们语言学习的研究过程中完成了由工具功能(instrumental)、控制功能(regulatory)、反映功能(interactional)、表达功能(informative)、个人功能(personal)、启发功能(heuristic)、想象功能(imaginative)向“概念(ideational)功能”即语言具有反映客观世界事物发生的进程,以及人们内心世界的功能、“交际(interpersonal)功能”即语言具有建立、维系和反映人际关系的功能、“语篇(textual)功能”即语言具有组句成篇,并根据交际语境组织信息并传递信息的功能这三种纯理功能的凝练[1]。
这三大纯理功能的语法构成分别是“及物系统”、“情态系统”与“衔接手段”。
方言学名词作者:全国科学技术名词审定委员会来源:《中国科技术语》2012年第02期方言学 dialectology 语言学的一个分支。
调查、描写、分析和研究地域方言,以揭示其内在规律。
方言 dialect 俗称“土语”“地方话”。
一个语言的地域性变体,是相对于共同语或标准语而言的。
方言自身有自成系统的语音特征、词汇特征和语法特征。
汉语方言 Chinese dialect 汉民族语言的地域性变体。
汉语方言的内部在语音、词汇、语法方面都有自己的特点。
《中国语言地图集》把汉语方言分为官话、晋、徽、吴、湘、赣、客家、平话、粤、闽等十个方言区。
方言地理学 dialect geography 方言学的一个分支学科。
主要利用方言地图等方式研究方言的语言特征在地域性上的分布、特点及其规律。
方言地图集 dialect atlas 根据方言特征或分区等内容绘制成的地图集。
大致分为方言特征分布图、方言分布和分区地图两种类型。
前者根据方言区别性特点的异同,把方言材料分专题标示在地图上,例如《湖北方言调查报告》中所附的一组方言地图;后者根据方言区别性特征进行分区,并把分区结果标示在地图上,例如《中国语言地图集》中的汉语方言部分。
原始方言 proto dialect 又称“祖方言”。
一般指利用历史比较语言学的方法和原则,根据共时方言进行构拟重建的早期方言形式。
例如根据当前的闽方言和闽语相关历史文献,用历史比较法等方法,构拟出的原始闽语就可以称为闽语的原始方言。
方言特征 dialectal characteristics 能够用来区分不同方言区的语言特征。
往往具有对外排他性、对内一致性的主要特点。
根据语言内部的结构,可以分为方言语音特征、词汇特征和语法特征等。
母方言 mother tongue 一个人在语言习得的过程中首先学习、掌握并熟练使用的方言。
一般是一个人出生地点或幼年时学话期间的方言。
基础方言 basic dialect 民族共同语或标准语赖以形成和发展的基础地域的方言。
What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and d efinite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the wor d “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example:John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which isincorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sentences are also hierarchically structured. They are organized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP).How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms oftruth values?Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to Europe.In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X.The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows:Suppose there are two sentences X and YX: John' s bike needs repairing.Y: John has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike.If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence differ from an utterance?A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance de pends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utt er it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic changes.Major types of semantic changes are semantic broadening, semantic narrowing and semantic shift.Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. Take the word "holiday" for example, The older meaning was a " holy day." Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not.Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, " wife," used to mean "any woman," but now it means “married females” only.Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.For example, the word silly meant “happy” in Old English, and naive in Middle English, but "foolish" in Modern English.What are the causes of language change? Discuss them in detail.Language changes are due to the following causes:1) Sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology, the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence. For example, the Old English word "Engla-land" ("the land of the Angles") came to be pronounced “England” through the assimilation of "la-la sounds.2) Rule simplification and regularization:Some changes are the result of simplification and regularization. The plural forms of borrowed words are usually irregular, thus complex. For example, the plural forms of "agendum", "datum", "curriculum" and "memorandum" are "agenda" , "data" , "curricula" and "mem-oranda" . The irregular plurals of these nouns have been replaced by regular plurals of "agendas", "curriculums", and "memorandums" among many speakers, thus making them simplified and regularized.3) Internal borrowing: In order to reduce the number of exceptional or irregular morphemes, speakers of a particular language may borrow a rule from one part of the grammar and apply it generally. For example, by analogy to the plural formation of "foe-s" and "dog-s", speakers started saying "cows" as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural kine.4) Elaboration: Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. If a particular grammatical feature is lost as a result of a change in the phonological system, some other feature may be added in another component of the grammar.5) Social triggers: Socio-political changes such as wars, invasions, occupation, colonization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to language changes. For example, in the history of English, the Norman Conquest marked the beginning of the Middle English period. And British colonial settlement, and the country' s political, cultural and economic advances in distant lands such as North America, Oceania, South Africa, and India lead to the change of English into British, American, Australian, South African and Indian varieties.6) Cultural transmission:Although a new generation has to find a way of using the language of the previous generation, it has to find expressions that can best communicate the views and concepts of the time and the changed and ever-changing social life, and re-create the language of the community. For example, while old people tend to call a refrigerator "icebox," the younger generation is more often heard speaking of a "fridge." This tenuous transmission process adds up to the inevitable and ongoing language change and variation.7) Children's approximation toward the adult grammar:The way children acquire the language is another basic cause for language change. Children usually construct their personal grammars by themselves and generalize rules from the linguistic information they hear. Children' s grammar never models exactly after that of the adult speech community, because children are exposed to diverse linguistic information.All the above factors contribute to language changes.What are the biological foundations of language?Of all organisms, human beings are the only spontaneous creators and users of highly sophisticated languages that permit the communication of a wide range of knowledge and ideas. Evidently, our linguistic ability does not depend primarily on the structure of our vocal cords, for other mammals also have vocal cords. Human linguistic ability largely depends, instead, on the structure and dynamics of the human brain. As far as is currently known, human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. This has led to the belief that human language is biologically, or more exactly, neurologically, based.How are language and thought related to each other?Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as "subvocal speech”, and speech as "overt thought. In such a case, speaking and thinking take place simultaneously.What's the difference between acquisition and learning, according toKrashen?According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usu-ally obtained in school settings. A second language, Krashen argues, is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input received by the L2 learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (i.e., acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later. For example, an English language learner may have learned a rule like the third person singular "-s", but is unable to articulate the correct form in casual and spontaneous conversation because the rule has not yet been acquired. This shows that conscious knowledge of rules does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance.How do the learner factors potentially influence the way in which a secondlanguage is acquired?1) The optimum age for second language acquisition: First language acquisition is most successful when it occurs during the early years of one' s life before puberty, but the optimum age for SLA does not always accord with the maxim of "the younger the better". The optimum age for SLA is early teenage. This claim is justifiable because this is the age when the learner' s flexibility of the language acquisitionfaculty has not been completely lost while one's cognitive skills have developed considerably.2) Motivation: Motivation in language learning can be defined in terms of the learner’s overall goal or orientation. Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner's goal is functional, and integrative motivation occurs when the learner's goal is social. If the target language functions as a foreign language (used in a limited environment such as in school), the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation; but if the target language functions as a second language (used as a primary means of communication in the community of the learner), an instrumental motivation is more effective.3) Acculturation: The acculturation hypothesis focuses on the social and psychological conditions under which L2 processing is most likely to take place successfully. It states simply that the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he or she will progress along the developmental continuum.4) Personality: Intuitively, an outgoing personality may contribute to language acquisition. Research results, however, only partially support this hypothesis. No significant relationship has been found between talkativeness on the one hand and overall proficiency in a second language on the other. But it is recognized that as a result of being frequently exposed to and interacting with the target language, learners with an extroverted personality are likely to achieve better oral fluency than otherwise.In sum, A good second language learner is, among other things, an adolescent who has a strong and well-defined motivation to learn. He is able to respond and adaptable to different learning situations. He seeks out all opportunities and makes maximum use of them to interact with the input. He employs appropriate learning strategies. And he is willing to identify himself or herself with the culture of the target language community.What is the role of input for SLA?It is evident that SLA takes place only when the learner has access to L2 input and the opportunity to interact with the input. It appears that what learners need is not mere exposure to L2 data, but the kind of input data that are specially suited to their current stage of development. There is, however, no agreement as to precisely what constitutes optimum input. Some scholars advise that access to comprehensible input is a necessary condition for acquisition to take place. It is suggested that input can be made comprehensible by the use of learned structures and vocabulary, the linguistic and extralinguistic contexts of the input data, and the learner's general knowledge to interpret new language items. It is also suggested that interaction (i.e. , taking part in communicative activities) and intake (i.e. , the input that is assimilated and fed into the interlanguage system) are more important for SLA than input.Discuss the contrastive analysis in detail.Contrastive Analysis was developed in order to identify and predict the areasof learning difficulty. Given this approach, it was hypothesized that L2 errors were predominantly the result of negative transfer, or mother tongue interference and second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between LI and L2 systems.According to this view, the major task of second language teaching should predominantly be: first, contrast the native and the target language systems and make predictions about the language items that would cause difficulty and the errors that learners were likely to make; then use these predictions in deciding on the type of language items that needed special treatment in teaching and in material development and the type of intensive techniques that would be employed to overcome learning difficulties created by the interference.In practice, the Contrastive Analysis is not effective because a large proportion of grammatical errors could not be explained by mother tongue interference. Errors predicted by contrastive analysis have often not occurred, whereas many actual errors, such as "goed" and "foots", come from overgeneralization instead of negative transfer.Errors, according to the contrastive analysis approach, are negative and had to be overcome or given up. In fact, errors produced in a learner's second language utterance may very well be developmental errors and therefore, should not be looked upon simply as a failure to learn the correct form, but as an indication of the actual acquisition process in action. Developmental errors often result from the effort on the part of the learner to construct and test general rules of communication in the target language.Why do we say language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of thegrammatical system of language?In principle, no human brain can store all the words and expressions of a language. What happens is that when processing the language they hear, children construct the grammar and make sense of the expressions according to the grammar. When producing utterances, they follow the internalized grammatical rules. Without the knowledge of the productive rules, it would be impossible for language users to produce and understand an unlimited number of sentences which they have never heard before.Discuss the biological basis of language acquisition.Language acquisition is a genetically determined capacity that all humans possess. Although the development of a communicative system is not unique to human beings, the natural acquisition of language as a system of highly abstract rules and regulations for creative communication distinguishes humans from all other animal species. In this sense, humans can be said to be predisposed, that is, biologically programmed, to acquire at least one language. Language development can thus be regarded as analogous to other biological developments in human growth and maturation, such as the growth and maturation of one’s limbs and organs. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use, just as birds are biologically “prewired” to learn the songs of their species.What is the role of imitation in first language acquisition?At one time, it was widely believed that children learned language by simply imitating the speech of those around them. We now know that this cannot be true, since many utterance types produced by children do not closely resemble structures found in adult speech. . If children learn their native tongue by imitating their parents, how can we account for the utterances that are typical of children' s language, such as the plural form "my foots," the past tense forms of " I eated," and the negative construction of “No the sun shining”? It is impossible that children imitate these structures from adults because they are never heard in adult conversations. In addition, Children with speech impairment for neurological or physiological reasons learn the language spoken to them and understand what is said.A more reasonable explanation is that children are attempting to construct and generalize their own grammatical rules.Some young language learners do seem to make selective use of imitation, but they do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. The point is that imitation plays at best a very minor role in the child' s mastery of language.What is the role of correction in first language acquisition?。
现代汉语一、课程简介《现代汉语》是高等学校汉语言文学专业、新闻专业基础课程之一,系统地讲授现代汉语的基础理论和基本知识,同时加强基本技能的训练,提高学生对现代汉语的理论水平和实际运用能力,为他们学习其他课程以及将来从事语言文字工作、语文教学工作和现代汉语的研究工作打好基础。
二、课时安排三、教材:黄伯荣、廖序东主编《现代汉语》四、分章大纲第一章绪论了解现代汉语的基本情况与基本特点,现代汉语共同语的标准与形成,现代汉语方言概况,现阶段语言文字工作的方针和任务,明确语言规范化的意义;提高进行语言规范的理论水平和行动的自觉性。
各节讲授重点第一节现代汉语概述第二节新时期语言文字工作的方针和任务第三节现代汉语的性质、内容和任务第二章语音明确语音的基本性质与基本概念,掌握普通话语音的发音原理,掌握普通话语音系统和音位系统,以及语流音变;提高学生的普通话发音水平和理论水平;具有初步的审音、记音能力;提高语音规范化的意识。
各节讲授重点第一节语音概说第二节声母第三节韵母第四节声调第五节音节第六节音变第七节音位第八节朗读和语调第九节语音规范化第三章文字掌握现代汉语书面符号系统――汉字的基础理论和系统知识,提高学生正确理解、分析及运用汉语汉字的能力,提高学生对汉字规范化的意识。
各节讲授重点第一节汉字概说第二节汉字的形体第三节汉字的构造第四节汉字的整理和标准化第五节正确使用汉字第四章词汇通过对词、词汇、词义等内容的讲授,使学生掌握词汇学的基本知识和基本理论,并能运用所学分析具体的词汇现象,提高析词、辨词、赏词、用词等词汇环节的语言素养和语言能力。
各节讲授重点第一节词汇和词汇单位第二节词义的性质和构成第三节词义的分解第四节词义的聚合――语义场第五节语境和词义第六节现代汉语词汇的组成(上)――词的总汇第七节现代汉语词汇的组成(下)――熟语的总汇第八节词汇的发展变化和词汇的规范化第五章语法掌握汉语语法的基本概念、基本单位、基本关系和分析的基本方法,提高对汉语语法特点的认识,提高对汉语语法规律的理性认识,增强语法意识;能够正确运用汉语语法规律,并能够对不合乎语法规范的现象作出理性的分析,提高语言运用能力。
王蔷《英语教学法教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解-第1~3章【圣才出品】第1章语⾔和语⾔学习1.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. The way we learn languages我们习得语⾔的⽅式2. Views on language语⾔观点3. The structural view of language结构主义语⾔理论4. The functional view of language功能主义语⾔理论5. The interactional view of language交互语⾔理论6. Common views on language learning关于语⾔学习的普遍观点7. Process-oriented theories and condition-oriented theories 强调过程的语⾔学习理论和强调条件的语⾔学习理论8. The behaviorist theory⾏为主义学习理论9. Cognitive theory认知学习理论10. Constructivist theory建构主义学习理论11. Socio-constructivist theory社会建构主义理论12. Qualities of a good language teacher⼀个好的语⾔⽼师必备的素养13. Teacher’s professional development教师专业技能发展本章考点:我们如何习得语⾔;结构主义语⾔理论;功能主义语⾔理论;交互语⾔理论;关于语⾔学习的普遍观点;强调过程的语⾔学习理论和强调条件的语⾔学习理论;⾏为主义学习理论;认知学习理论;建构主义学习理论;社会建构主义理论;成为⼀个好的语⾔⽼师所要具备的基本素质;教师专业技能发展图。
本章内容索引:Ⅰ. The way we learn languagesⅡ. Views on language1. The structural view of language2. The functional view of language3. The interactional view of languageⅢ. Views on language learning and learning in general1. Research on language learning2. Common views on language learning and learning in general(1)Behaviorist theory(2)Cognitive theory(3)Constructivist theory(4)Socio-constructivist theoryⅣ. Qualities of a good language teacherⅤ. Development of a good language teacherⅥ. An overview of the bookThis chapter serves as an introduction for setting the scene for this methodology course. It discusses issues concerning views on language and language learning or learning in general with the belief that such views will affect teachers’ ways of teaching and thus learners’ ways of learning. The qualities of a good language teacher are also discussed in order to raise the participants’ awareness of what is required for a good English teacher.这⼀章主要是介绍教学法的⽅法论,其中讨论的问题涉及语⾔和语⾔学习的观点,或者⼀般学习及这些观点对教师教学⽅式和学习者学习⽅式的影响,本章也讨论了⼀个好的英语教师应具备的素质,以提⾼语⾔教学参与者对优秀英语教师相关要求的意识。
英语学习英语作文英文回答:Intro。
Learning English is a journey that requires dedication, perseverance, and a willingness to immerse oneself in the language. This arduous path involves mastering a complex web of vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and culture. While the rewards of fluency are undeniable, the challenges along the way can be formidable. This essay will delve into the multifaceted intricacies of learning English, exploring both the obstacles and opportunities that shape this linguistic adventure.Challenges of English Learning。
The journey to English proficiency is fraught with challenges that test the limits of perseverance. One major hurdle is the sheer volume of vocabulary. With an estimated250,000 words in the English lexicon, learners must grapple with the daunting task of acquiring a vast and nuanced vocabulary. This linguistic tapestry is further complicated by the existence of homonyms, synonyms, and antonyms, which can lead to confusion and errors in usage.Grammar poses another significant obstacle. The intricate rules governing sentence structure, verb tenses, and modal verbs can be a labyrinthine maze for learners. The subtle nuances of English grammar often defy direct translation from other languages, which can lead to frustrating misunderstandings. Moreover, the fluid nature of the English language, with its constantly evolving idioms and colloquialisms, presents a perpetual challenge for learners.Pronunciation can also be a major stumbling block. The English language boasts a notoriously complex phonological system, with an array of vowel sounds, diphthongs, and consonant clusters that can be difficult to master. The challenge is compounded by the fact that spelling and pronunciation in English often have an unpredictablerelationship, making it difficult to rely solely on written text to learn correct pronunciation.Opportunities in English Learning。
高等教育自学考试文学类模拟题2020年(72)(总分100, 做题时间150分钟)一、单项选择题1.________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in theworld’s languages. ( )SSS_SINGLE_SELAPhonologyBPhoneticsCMorphologyDPhonemics分值: 2.4答案:B本题主要考查语音学的主要研究对象。
语音学的主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音。
2.________ transcription is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. ( )SSS_SINGLE_SELABroadBDetailedCWideDNarrow分值: 2.4答案:D本题主要考查严式标音法。
严式标音法才真正是语言学家们在对语音的研究中所需要和使用的标音方法。
** theory of grammar must provide a complete characterization of linguistic ________ that speakers implicitly consider well-formed,or grammatical sequences. ( )SSS_SINGLE_SELAspeechesButterancesCeventsDsentences分值: 2.4答案:B本题主要考查语法理论所引起的作用。
语法理论必须要给说话人认为明显属于合格句或者说是合乎语法的句子提供话语特征描述。
** can be defined as the study of ________. ( )SSS_SINGLE_SELAnamingBmeaningCcommunicationDcontext分值: 2.4答案:B本题主要考查语义学的定义。
phonology的名词解释Phonology: Exploring the Sound Patterns of LanguageIntroductionLanguage is a sophisticated system that enables humans to communicate effectively. While grammar and vocabulary are important components of a language, another crucial aspect is its sound structure. Phonology, a branch of linguistics, is devoted to studying the sound patterns in languages. In this article, we will delve into the intricacies of phonology, examining its definition, key concepts, and significance in understanding how languages work.Defining PhonologyPhonology is the study of the organization and systematic patterns of sounds in language. It focuses on the relationships between the sounds and the underlying rules that govern their usage. By investigating phonology, linguists aim to understand how sounds are organized and contrasted in different languages, as well as how these sounds function within the larger system of the language.Phonemes and AllophonesAt the core of phonology lies the notion of phonemes, which are the smallest discrete units of sound that can change the meaning of a word. For example, in English, the difference between the words "pat" and "bat" lies in the phoneme /p/ and /b/. Changing one phoneme to another can alter the meaning of a word entirely.While phonemes represent abstract units, languages also have different ways of realizing these sounds in speech. These variants of phonemes are called allophones. Allophones are the different manifestations of a phoneme, which may vary depending on the context or environment in which they occur. For instance, the /k/ sound in English can be pronounced as a hard /k/ sound as in "cat," or as a softer /k/ sound as in "school."Phonological Rules and ProcessesTo comprehend the sound patterns in a language, phonologists identify and describe various phonological rules and processes. These rules govern how sounds change or interact with each other in speech. For example, assimilation is a process where a sound becomes similar to a neighboring sound. In English, the word "prefix" is often pronounced as "pree-fix" due to assimilation, where the /r/ sound is assimilated to the following /f/ sound.Another significant phonological process is vowel harmony, which occurs in languages such as Turkish and Hungarian. In these languages, certain vowels within a word must agree with each other in terms of specific phonetic properties, such as tongue position or lip rounding.Syllable Structure and PhonotacticsPhonology also investigates the structure of syllables and the constraints on sound combinations within and across syllables, known as phonotactics. Syllables serve as building blocks of words and have a predictable structure in most languages. For instance, English syllables usually consist of an optional initial consonant, a vowel, and an optional final consonant.Phonotactics, on the other hand, examine the permissible and forbidden sound sequences in a language. These constraints can vary across languages, reflecting the specific sound patterns speakers are accustomed to. For example, the syllable "tl" in English is rare and often borrowed from other languages, while it is a common consonant cluster in Nahuatl, an indigenous language of Mexico.The Significance of PhonologyUnderstanding phonology is crucial for multiple reasons. Firstly, it helps in deciphering the sound system of a particular language, allowing linguists to analyze the linguistic patterns and variations that exist. Additionally, phonological knowledge aids in identifying dialectal differences and accents within a language.Moreover, phonology plays a vital role in language acquisition. Children rely on phonological cues to recognize and differentiate sounds, which in turn helps them acquireand produce the sounds of their native language. By understanding phonological rules, educators can design effective teaching strategies to support language development in early childhood.ConclusionPhonology, as a fundamental component of linguistics, aims to unravel the intricacies of sound patterns in languages. By studying phonemes, allophones, rules, and processes within a language, phonologists gain insights into how sounds interact and contribute to the overall linguistic system. The significance of phonology extends beyond theoretical linguistics, playing a crucial role in language acquisition and cross-cultural communication. In essence, phonology provides a fascinating perspective on how humans harness sounds to convey meaning and connect with one another through the medium of language.。
英汉语言对比-3-Synthetic-vs-Analytic1. inflectional vs. non-inflectionalInflection: a change in the form of a word to indicate a change in its grammatical function.(只改变语法形态,不改变词义的变化)1)构词形态,即起构词作用的词缀变化(affixation),包括大量的前缀(prefix)和后缀(suffix)。
E.g. read; serious; consider;The publishing house has to take into serious consideration whether the readers will like to read / reading the books or not.The publishing house has to take into serious consideration whether the books will be readable or not.The publishing house has to take the readability of the books into serious consideration.The publishing house has to consider seriously whether the readers will like to read / reading the books or not.The publishing house has to consider seriously whether the books will be readable or not.The publishing house has to consider seriously the readability of the books.2)构形形态,即表达语法意义的词形变化。
Phonetics (sound)语音学;phonology(sounds) 音系学;morphology(word) 形态学;syntax(words, sentence)句法学;semantics(meaning)语义学;pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical developmentngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic unitsbine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking;Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee;Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is aunit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “dis-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaningpounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loan words (外来词); Clipping(缩略词)labtory lab; Blending(混成法)motel; Acronym(词首字母)APEC;Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense,Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites (关系对立词)丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT -MALE]girl [+HUMAN -ADULT -MALE] child [+HUMAN -ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语): I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classification of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__, __adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
1. 语言的普遍特征:任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能:传达信息功能informative人济功能:interpersonal行事功能:Performative表情功能:Emotive寒暄功能:Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics:包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人:Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一:语言与言语language and parole ,语言之语言系统的整体,言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人:Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussurec. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant:there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置,舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?b.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别:语音学着重于语音的自然属性,主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音;音位学则强调语音的社会功能,其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
1.The ultimate goal of ELT: the ultimate of foreign language teaching is to enable students to usethe foreign language in work or life when necessary. Thus we should teach that part of the language that will be used (rather than all part of the language).Definition of task: a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention in principally focused on meaning rather than form. (Nunan 1989:8)A lesson plan is a framework of a lesson in which teachers make advance decision about what they hope to achieve and how they would like to achieve it. In other words, teachers need to think about the aims to be achieved, materials to be covered, activities to be organized, and techniques and resources to be used in order to achieve the aims of the lesson.Classroom management is the way teachers organize what goes on in the classroom. It contributes directly to the efficiency of teaching and learning as the most effective activities can be made almost useless if the teacher does not organize them efficiently. As the goal of classroom management is to create an atmosphere conductive to interacting in English in meaningful ways.Deductive method: The Deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. First, the T writes an example on board or draws attention to an example in the textbook. Second, the T explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. The explanations ar e often done in the S’s native language and use grammatical terms. Sometimes, comparisons are made between the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. Finally, the Ss practice applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.Inductive method: the T provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules without any forms of explicit explanation.1. Language:” Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” It can be understood in the following six aspects:Language as system;Language as symbolic;Language as arbitrary;Language as vocal;Language as human;Language as communicationBottom-up modelSome teachers teach reading by introducing new vocabulary and new structures first and then going over the text sentence by sentence. This way of teaching reading reflects the belief thatreading comprehension is based on the understanding and mastery熟练of all the new words, new phrases, and new structures as well as a lot of reading aloud practice. Also, this reading follows a linear process from the recognition of letters, to words, to phrases, to sentences, to paragraphs, and then to the meaning of the whole text. This way of teaching reading is said to follow a bottom-up model.2). Top-down modelIt is believed that in teaching reading, the teacher should teach the background knowledge first so that students equipped with such knowledge will be able to guess meaning from the printed page. This process of reading is said to follow the top-down model of teaching reading just as Goodman(1970) once said that reading was “a psycholinguistic guessing game”2. Structural view:The structural view sees language as a linguistic system made up of various subsystems: from phonological, morphological, lexical, etc. to sentences.3. The functional view:The functional view sees language as a linguistic system but also as a means for doing things.Most of our day-to-day language use involves functional activities: greetings; offering,suggesting, advising, apologizing, etc.The communicative view of languageThe communicative, or functional view of language is the view that language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the grammatical characteristics, although these are also included.4. The interactional view:The interactional view considers language as a communicative tool, whose main use is to build up and maintain social relations between people.1) The behaviorist theory( Skinne r)-- a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe key point of the theory of conditioning is that "you can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus,response, and reinforcement"2) Cognitive theory( Noam Chomsky):The term cognitive is to describe loosely methods in which students are asked to think rather than simply repeat.The goal of CLTThe goal of CLT is to develop students' communicative competenceLesson planning means making decisions in advance about what techniques, activities and materials will be used in the class.Teaching stages and procedures:Teaching stages are the major steps that language teachers go through in the classroom.Procedures are the detailed steps in each teaching stage.31. Three P's model: presentation, practice and production.SkimmingSkimming means reading quickly to get the gist,i.e. the main idea of the text.ScanningScanning means to read to locate/get specific information.1). DiscussionA discussion is often used for a) exchange of personal opinions. This sort of discussion canstart with a question like "What do you think of?"b) stating of personal opinions ongeneral issues. c) problem-solving.d) the ranking(分类;顺序)of alternatives e) deciding upon priorities(先;前)etc.2). Role-playRole-play is a very common language learning activity where students play differentroles and interact from the point of view of the roles they play.What’s called A process approach to writing1). DefinitionWhat really matters or makes a difference is the help that the teacher provides toguide the students through the process that they undergo when they are writing. What’s the assessmentAssessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of the learning process.a. Grammar Translation:The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)b. Direct Method:The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Viëtor in the early 1800's.Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized--grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.c. The Silent Way:The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most of the talkingand interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as a normal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and student initiative.d. Community Language Learning:Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and accepting students' fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of language learning--ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at language learning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus is learner-generated.e. Natural Approach:Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrase and the use of manipulatives. Terrell (1977) focused on the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is applied in the Naturale. Reading Method:The reading method was prominent in the U.S. following the Committee of Twelve in 1900 and following the Modern Foreign Language Study in 1928. The earlier method was similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized the transference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading method focuses more on silent reading for comprehension purposes.f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method:This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrases in the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously.ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach to language instruction used in during the 1940's. In the postwar years, the civilian version of ASTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues, pattern drills, and emphasis on pronunciation.g. Cognitive Methods:Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition of grammar structures followed by meaningful practice.h. Communicative Methods:The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials(authentic realia) in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.i. Total Physical Response Method:This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listening comprehension should be fully developed before any active oralparticipation from students is expected (just as it is with children when theyare learning their native language) .What is the Grammar-Translation Method?The Grammar-Translation Method is designed around grammatical structures.The Functional-Notional ApproachUnlike the Grammar-Translation Method, which is based on the grammar structures, it thinks thata general learner should take part in the language activities, the functions of language involved inthe real and normal life are most important. For example, the learners have to learn how to give directions, buy goods, ask a price, claim ownership of something and so on. It tells that is not just important to know the forms of the language, it is also important to know the functions and situations, so that the learner could practice real-life communication.Communicative CompetenceBoth knowledge about the language and the knowledge about how to use the language in communicative situation appropriately.Critical Period Hypothesis关键期假说This hypothesis states that if humans do not learn a foreign language before a certain age ,then due to changes such as maturation of the brain ,it becomes impossible to learn the foreign language like a native speaker.1.Process-oriented theories:强调过程are concerned with how the mind organizes newinformation such as habit formation, induction, making inference, hypothesis testing and generalization.2.Condition-oriented theories: 强调条件emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place, such as the number of students, the kind of input learners receives, and the atmosphere.3.Behavioristtheory,(Skinner and waston raynor)A the key point of the theory of conditioning is that” you can train an animal to do anything if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, s timulus, response, and reinforcementB the idea of this method is that language is learned by constant repletion and the reinforcement of the teacher. Mistakes were immediately corrected, and correct utterances were immediately praised.4.Cognitive theory:Chomsky)thinks that language is not a form of behavior,it is an intricate rule-based system a nd a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system.There are a fin ite number of grammatical rules in the system and with knowledge of these an infinite number of s entences can be produced.5.Constructivist theory:(John Dewey)the constructivist theory believes that learning is aproces i n which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/her already knows6.Socio-constructivist theory: (Vygotsky) he emphasizes interaction and engagement with the tar get language in a social context based on the concept of “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) and scaffolding.。
逐个主题比较法英语作文Comparative Essay on French and English LanguagesEnglish:Language is a fundamental aspect of human communication and culture, and the comparison between the French and English languages is a topic of great interest. Both languages have their unique histories, structures, and cultural influences, which contribute to their distinct characteristics.One of the primary differences between French andEnglish lies in their origins. French is a Romance language, derived from the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Roman Empire, while English is a Germanic language, with roots in the Anglo-Saxon dialects brought to Britain by Germanic tribes. This linguistic heritage has shaped the grammar, vocabulary, and phonology of each language.In terms of grammar, French is known for its more complex and structured system, with distinct noun and verb conjugations, gender-based nouns, and a strict word order. English, on the other hand, is considered a more analyticallanguage, with a relatively simple grammar structure and a more flexible word order.Regarding vocabulary, French has a significant influence from Latin, which is reflected in its large number of loanwords and cognates with other Romance languages. English, however, has a more diverse vocabulary, incorporating words from various sources, including French, Latin, and Germanic languages. This diversity hascontributed to the richness and expressive power of the English language.Phonologically, French is characterized by its melodic and rhythmic quality, with a focus on vowel sounds and the use of nasal consonants. English, in contrast, is known for its more varied and complex phonological system, with a greater emphasis on consonant sounds and a more diverse range of vowel sounds.In terms of cultural influences, the French language is closely tied to the rich cultural heritage of France, with its literature, art, and intellectual traditions. Similarly, the English language has been shaped by the cultural and historical developments of the English-speaking world,including the United Kingdom, the United States, and other Commonwealth countries.Despite these differences, both French and English have played significant roles in shaping the global landscape, serving as important languages of diplomacy, international trade, and academic discourse. The ability to navigate and understand these two languages can be a valuable asset in a wide range of professional and personal contexts.中文:语言是人类交流和文化的基础,比较法语和英语是一个非常有趣的话题。
[摘要]对完全不同两种语言的单语讲话者如汉语和英语,他们的MEG 和fMRI data 核磁共振数据都显示出由于测试者语言语音表征机制的不同,所以会激活各自不同的大脑区域:如激活不同神经基质(substrate),神经机制(在脑半球侧化方面),激活区域和激活密度方面。
这部分是由于中国汉字普通话独特的词汇音调和语标表征基质所影响的。
然而,熟练双语者在进行二语加工时可能不会产生新激活的语言加工区域,但长期进行二语加工会导致大脑结构(如灰质和白质密度增加)改变,此项脑神经网络成像事实最能证明“裕足假设”的合理性。
[关键词]裕足假设;语言系统信息加工;惰连;专连;脑神经网络机制[中图分类号]H0-0[文献标志码]A[文章编号]2096-0603(2019)01-0114-02试述双语者与单语者表征机制的差异对“裕足假设”的论证赵芝兰(云南民族大学,云南昆明650000)是否学习不同种类的语言会涉及激活大脑中不同的神经网络电路/回路(circuits ),从而产生大脑语言系统的根本性差异呢?现存的实验研究成果还不能提供出一个清楚明白的答案。
很显然,一些语言在音位形式(phonological forms )和句法结构(syntactical structures )方面具有相似性,如英语和法语之间。
而有些语言又大不相同,如英语和汉语之间。
现如今,关于大脑神经网络的双语表征机制存在两个著名的观点:一个坚持认为双语机制和单语机制是被共同的机制表征出来的(即存在于同一个脑区/脑结构cortical structure 中,这就意味着双语者试图激活相同的语言系统去加工语言信息当他们讲母语和第二语言时)。
许多研究报道称加工双语时会有相互重叠的脑区被激活(Klein et al.,1995;Chee et al.,2000);而另一类语言学家则认为不同的脑网络机制会支持不同的语言加工(Kim et al.,1997;Perani et al.,1998)。
胡壮麟《语言学教程〉名词解释课后答案Define the following terms:1. design feature:are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think , functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative funct ion,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and etic mans making far to o many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resour ce to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal t o the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of grammars are of this kind.:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.: the study of a language is carried through the course of its histo ry.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are pres cribed how ought to be, down rules for language use.: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their me aning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement : one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and conce pts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communic ation.communion: one function of human language,which refers to the socia l interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.: he interacting study between language and language-related discipl ines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artific ial intelligence of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,socioli nguistics,anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the syste m of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20.Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be furthe r divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticula tion.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced conson ant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set o f symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;whi le,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is ref erred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or complete ly shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as bei ng distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th> is an allophone of /t/in /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirate d<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,m anner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the art iculators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain part s of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,pl ace of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approxi mation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology, property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow spee ch sounds that never occur in the same of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete l etters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects o f speech that involve more than single sound principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34. Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than s ingle sound principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone, and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relati onship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided int o further small units without destroying or drastically altering the me aning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of fr ee morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,fin iteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be anal yzed without total lass of identity.41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a example,in En glish the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in differ ent environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in s/,/z/,and /i z/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which a n inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structural ly dependent on the world it is added to,. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form ofa word.”dog in the manger”)46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned t o various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,su ch conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adject ives,and verbs.49. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infin ite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in whi ch two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts o f the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are b orrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme i n the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation wherea shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long for m already in the language.57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the in fluence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contac t”or”contiguous”assimilation.58. dissimilation: the influence one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or differ ent.59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resu lting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classif ication of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of term s of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a seq uence,or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between element s replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or b etween one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),whic h are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribu tion is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of it s constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the an endocentr ic construction is also known as a headed construction.66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distributio n is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntac tic properties of a construction, underlying level of structural relati ons between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic deri vation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural or ganization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called cons tituent command,c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also fo r getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74. textual function: the use of language the provide for mak ing links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which co ntains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that rel ates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,me aning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,ind ependent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relatio n.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that me members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85. relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal soci al roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial are always two entitie s presupposes the other. The shorter,better; are instances of relation al opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meani ng of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, class superor dinate usually has several animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs, etc,88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,<+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in w hich the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constitue nt words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun p hrases that a particular lexical item can take, requires a human subjec t.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propos itions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection bet ween them.92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words p roposed in the saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all element s matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever i t fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so includes things tha t,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense, a spe cific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship t o previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psych olinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sen se that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people, convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sen se that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence peopl e,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to le xical meanings: of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an ov erall macrostructure of the story.106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech w ith their appropriate accidents,traditionally pupils learning lat in g rammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a is a property of propositions that they have truth valu es.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investiga ting the psychological reality of linguistic can be divided into cogni tive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inference s about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(be ing concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, a purp orted account of structures represented in the mind of a opposed,in di scussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicit y,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in languag e processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the t otal set of rules,conventions, the skilled use of language in a by in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricte d sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-W horf hypothesis, determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Who rf hypotheis, no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place i n society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in s ociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in soc iolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of soci ety by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonolo gic al variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does somet hing does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a stateme nt which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and .,the utte rance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting fr om saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought abou t by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contai ned in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates int entionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which ne cessarily follows from the other:.”Mary is running”entails,among othe r things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostens ive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relev ance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a propositio n that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, your contribution necessary ,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you mus t(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelat ively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler, less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative w ould not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is th e most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a characte r in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person n arrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which th e character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist k ind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded th an indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of cate gories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characte rs are exactly as that used to present speech example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characte rs are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories use d by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as t hose used to represent a speech, was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represen t the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used t o represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyb oard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient know ledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dea ling with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers t o the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or fore ign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cab les in a classroom,lab,or offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amoun t of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usuall y computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particu lar word,sequence of perhaps even a part of speech in a computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,whi ch is a further aid to the can also calculate the number of occurrence s of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be g athered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appe ars in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora h as been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it app ears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this information retrieval system does not infor the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his merely informs on the existence(or non-existenc e)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concer ned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the effi ciency and effectiveness of retrieval covers specifically a logical or ganization of information,such as document representatives,for the purp ose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which a re relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to stud y of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowle dge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, language system between the target language and the learne r’s native language169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive trans fer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it i s meant to are four kinds of validity, validity,construct validity,emp irical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as are two kinds of reliabi lity, reliability,and equiralence reliability.。
2. Literature Review2.1 Phonological systemAs early as 100 years ago, a topic of language research was to treat language as a system and separate it from speech or understanding speech behavior. Saussure (1959) is a well-known linguist who focuses on the system of sound-meaning links in user community-based speech examples. Chomsky (1984) devoted himself to studying the native speaker’s understanding of language grammar and performance, or the distinction he considered to be random deviations from abstract and ideal grammar.Furthermore, since Baudouin de Courtenay (1871/1972), phonologists have been seeking to establish an independent speech system from complex changes in speech. Discussions and debates on phonetics have been weakened in recent years, but more practical developments are still being made. For example, the structuralists in the Middle Ages always emphasized the speaker’s distinction between “phonemes”, such as the constant switching of /ɔ/ and /ɑ/ in American English; however, today’s phonetics are more based on people’s speaking habits to take cognition and research, finding that voice mutation is widespread. Nevertheless, today's linguistics also recognizes the importance of phonetic systems and structures, which enable the speaker to master the skills to deal with changing communication contexts (Pierrehumbert, 2016).According to previous views, Chomsky (1964) opposed the relevance of observation-based development data to language theory, because the Nazist view was: language are a human genetic inheritance, known to the infant in advance of experience. Therefore, they deny any efforts in language development mechanisms. But in recent years, people have gradually recognized that long-term interests promote and dominate people's usage (phonetics) of constrained language system(phonology). There are two paradoxes in people's early phonological and lexical development. Ferguson and Farwell (1975) studied the early learning process of three babies in English and found that the first word learned by the children is relatively accurate in form; however, slowly In fact, the accuracy of their English pronunciation showed a decline (backwards); a few months later, the phonological patterns of the three children returned and their accuracy improved. This shows that infant speech perception is related to the process of language production and vocabulary systematization. In the past few years, the research on children's voice system has received increasing attention. The key discussion question is: how can children build a system without a system? This section sorts out the origin and understanding of linguistic system, as well as many background issues.1.2 Origins of phonological “templates” and ch ild phonologySince Chomsky and Halle (1968) published "Sound Pattern of English", scholars began to turn their attention from rule-based and segmental phonology to output forms and prosodic structure. Among them, the research of Kisseberth (1970) put forward some rules with the function of assuring favoured output forms, called "rule conspiracies". Templates refers to a way of describing output patterns. In modern phonetics theory, the concept of templates was proposed by McCarthy (1979). Based on the traditional template concept in Semitic studies, he proposed emerging formal phonological opinions on planar segregation and autosegmental representation (Goldsmith, 1990); his prosodic analysis also inspired the application of "templates" in children's phonetics (Menn, 1983). However, the main contribution in the field of speech development is Amahl (1973), who conducted a rule-and-segment-oriented study on diary.In the 1990s, a series of changes have taken place in the research fields of children phonology and adult phonology. First, Optimality Theory is widely used as the preferred framework for phonology research (Scheer, 2012). In addition, the conceptof exemplars in psychology began to gain attention in the study of speech development (Jusczyk et al., 1992). At the time, notable research developments also included a large number of studies proving the role of statistical or distributional learning (Saffran, Aslin & Newport, 1996; Saffran et al., 1997). These studies have increased people's understanding of the structure of infant language learning. For example, Macken's (1995) view of "Phonological acquisition" had a huge impact on later people, and it can even be regarded as a watershed in this field. Macken (1995) proposed that there is unfortunate polarization in phonological acquisition: one is empiricists (people who tend to be connectionists or phoneticians); the other is rationalists (people who tend to be phonologists). This polarization still exists today. Today, there are still differences in this area. Macken (1995) believes that speech learning under the condition of 'incomplete and contradictory input" is the central problem of phonological acquisition, and it is also a difficult problem. These studies show that babies can extract common patterns from continuous verbal communication. But Chomsky's (1968) claim also works: the infant's prior structure determines the speed of acquisition and factors such as intellectual limitations, but empirical evidence also affects the individual and cross-language differences in infant language acquisition.1.3 Dynamic systems and the non-linearity of developmentDynamic Systems Theoty (DST) is derived from chaos theory, and mainly focuses on the explanation of the development process by the general theory of change of complex system changes (Gottlieb, Wahlsten & Lickliter, 2006). DST is a theory that rejects pre-set end states, but supports systems that change over time (Thelen & Smith, 1994). DST was originally to study the theory of infant motor development, but it also provides a useful template for studying infant perception and processing speech. Thelen and Smith (1994) emphasize the embodiment of knowledge, which is produced by the constant interaction between the basic action system and perception, memory and attention; they believe that "knowledge and meaning" are distributed in each unitin an active manner. Thelen and Smith (1994) also highlighted several key ideas for phonological development, such as the non-linearity of children's phonological development, and the importance and variability of past experience to system development. The core view of DST is to define the basis of cognitive development as the interaction of perception and action. Thelen and Smith (1994) found that the baby's phonological development is developed through the construction of knowledge. It can be clearly seen from this that Thelen and Smith's detailed study of a small number of babies provides an understanding and insight into the nature of development.1.4 Holistic approaches to phonologyGenerative phonology has always emphasized the abstract nature of language structure (Chomsky & Halle, 1968). Its supporters believe that phonetics knowledge must be derived from inherently provided general principles or general grammar. Since the 1980s, cognitive linguistics has provided a language analysis method that emerges from specific use situations and relies on structure, schema or units (Croft, 2001; Benczes, 2019). In fact, in the past 30 years, many theories other than dominant generative paradigm have been incorporated into the study of psychology, such as exemplar theory, which rejects the standardization of auditory forms in the process of speech perception (Johnson, 1997) and distributional learning, which is considered It is a basic mechanism for acquiring structural knowledge (McClelland, McNaughton & O'Reilly, 1995). In the field of phonology, phonetics and morphology, people's analysis of stripped-down, atomic units has been transformed into a more comprehensive study of words, schemes and patterns (Pierrehumbert, 2016).Among them, Redford (2015) proposed from the perspective of speech generation that the basis of development is "schemas": to activate learning through links and related meaning communication. Hall et al. (2018) proposed a new model that emphasizes the meaning of word predictability in constructing phonology, and regards meaning-bearing units as something more basic than sublexical units. WhileBlevins (2006, 2016) proposed the widely supported word-based morphology; at the same time, Ackerman and Malouf (2017) explained how the extensive experience of morphological changes makes the language gradually filled, which is called " Paradigm Cell Filling Problem". This section then connects exemplar models with voice development, especially the core of production, to discuss how phonology's holistic approaches constitute the relationship between prosodic structure and template analysis.1.4.1 Exemplar models in phonological developmentJusczyk (1992) used long-term exemplar representations to clearly illustrate the difference between prototypes and exemplar, and incorporated them into the WRAPSA model. He believes that the description of the sound structure of the vocabulary items in memory is a general description, not a specific description. Most cognitive models make the assumption that abstract, unitary representations of category is stored in memory and match the input signal during the recognition process. But an alternative concept is that people’s memory only stores traces of a single plot, and is used to represent the entire category in retrieval (Hintzman, 1986). That is, a word can be extracted by referring to previous events.In support of Jusczyk's (1992) "multiple-trace models" viewpoint, Logan's (1988) viewpoint is representative: instance-based model could provide automaticity in skill learning. Smooth speech recognition meets Logan's definition of automaticity, which is "fast, easy, autonomous and unconscious". This means that people who are often exposed to a specific vocal mode, especially the vocal mode produced by themselves, can obtain automatic availability of a routine; people can activate the routine by hearing roughly similar phonological sequences in the input speech. However, according to Jusczyk (1992), not all speeches heard by a baby will be recorded as episodic traces, and the storage of sound patterns requires certain speech processing. Experience cannot modify the previously stored trace, but add a new trace to thememory. Each trace is activated based on its similarity to the input. However, Jusczyk's research has limitations. For example, it does not pay attention to children's long-term memory of high-frequency word forms in daily life; it does not explore the interaction of children with word consonants or different positions of vowels.1.4.2 Prosodic structures and phonological templates"Prosodic structure" is the basic CV skeleton used to identify early word forms obtained by children, and refers to the word production mode commonly used by children according to the overall word shape. Template is mainly regarded as prosodic structure in this thesis, referring to children’s "adaptation" of the adult form. In phonetics literature, the usage of the word "prosodic structure" is easily misunderstood, so this section aims to clarify the usage selected for this thesis. "Prosodic structure" can be used in many different ways: the accent pattern of words, the overall rhythm pattern of the language, the unit of prosodic level proposed by Selkirk (1996); it can also refer to the unit below the moras or rimes level (Kehoe, 2013). Gleitman and Wanner (1982) believe that the prosodic structure of the voice that babies hear may help them to learn the grammatical structure: babies are sensitive to language rhythm. According to Selkirk (1996), the original origin of children's prosodic structure is the sensory motor or cognitive source, including the perceptual experience in input speech emphasized by Jusczyk, the neurophysiological response of sound and the related memory process. Children’s personal multimodal experience can affect their cognition and production in the form of speech.1.5 Infant speech perception, distributional learning and productionStarting from Eimas et al. (1971), studies on infant speech perception have proved that four-month-old babies can already perform phonetic comparisons, but they can only detect this change when the phonetic changes cross the VOT category boundary. This shows that babies have the extraordinary ability to learn the language system,and the speed is surprising. Later, studies on other animals showed that the sensitivity of infants to short lag and long lag VOT boundaries is not unique to humans, but an evolved mammalian hearing mechanism (Hauser, 1996). This is not to deny that people pay attention to babies’ speech, but to pay attention, because it is essential to their emotional and physical health. Later, Peter Jusczyk's research helped people understand how babies "discover language" and laid the blueprint (Jusczyk & Nelson, 1996). Jusczyk conducted a series of experimental studies, showing that babies can successfully become familiar with phrases and words of their mother tongue, coarticulatory or allophonic regularities, etc. within one year (Jusczyk, Hohne & Bauman, 1999). His experiments also found that the words exposed in the experiment would be recognized by infants who had undergone short-term "training" (Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995). However, there are unexplainable differences between the experimental results in North America and Europe. Although Werker and Curtin (2005) proposed PRIMIR (Model for Infant Speech Perception and Word Learning) to integrate these findings, an in-depth understanding of how to combine early differentiation of contrast and sound category learning with word learning has yet to be realized.Since then, many theoretical and experimental studies have indeed solved the problem of how infants’ own voice production affects the way they listen or process speech. In particular, DePaolis, Keren-Portnoy, and Vihman (2016) proved that babies who have acquired long-term memory are more able to maintain the production of this word form in a more advanced way than babies who have not yet acquired this control. In short, the research on infant voice perception mechanism and process from the 1970s has produced a lot of discoveries and brought a diverse and dynamic research environment. It provides a new insight for this thesis, that is, production plays an increasingly important role in infant speech processing, because their own production capabilities mature and change with language experience.1.6 Phonological production and “selectivity”This section explores literature on how usage helps explain the starting point of lexical development. Stoel-Gammon (2011) found that lexicon and phonology are beneficial to each other; vocalization exercises and phonetic skills are the basis of word learning. Studies have shown that the accuracy and simplicity of the first word a child tries proves the "phonological selectivity" in early childhood word use (Ferguson & Farwell, 1975). This selectivity and the words given to the children in the early stage create a certain vocal form for them. In other words, the children first try to produce vocal forms that they have mastered a certain rule. This has been accepted by the mainstream today. This is not to say that children's first words are only for phonological considerations: given that a large number of words are often used repeatedly in the daily life of babies, many possible words will be suggested for expression. The construction of these words to the child's intrinsic interest and the considerable familiarity due to frequency (Vihman, 2018). These high-frequency words include various greetings, animals, and daily diet. The frequency of words and their rhythm helped them recall these words in the future. However, any unconscious choice made by a child also depends on his or her articulatory ability and the ability to retain word forms. In addition, memory also determines whether children can successfully produce words similar to their goals, that is, accuracy. If the child’s pronunciation ability has been able to recognize certain word forms, his first words will be recognized by his parents (Messum & Howard, 2015). Most first words are usually "context-limited" or only generated in contexts closely related to the use of the word (McCune & Vihman, 2001).In addition to the above-mentioned research on the correlation between babbling practice and word production, Jakobson (1949) also proposed "general laws of irreversible solidarity that govern the languages of the world synchronically". According to him, children's acquisition of "phonemes" follows a strict order of emergent oppositions. Therefore, Jakobson (1949) favored "simple, clear, stablephonic oppositions, suitable to be engraved in memory and realized at will". Unlike babbling, he believes that due to the lack of communication goals, the differences in voice are more extensive and unrestricted. But critics believe that Jakobson's experimental sample size is very small, it is impossible to establish a "phoneme", and his interpretation of the development of consonants also ignores the position of the word.1.6.1 Babbling and its relation to word productionBabies can clearly recognize the first use of supraglottal consonant between 6 and 8 months of age, which appears in "canonical babbling" (Oller, 1980). Oller (1980) reviewed the research on infants with various disorders and found that babbling requires neurophysiological control and a certain vocal tract shape to produce. Canonical babbling is seen as a milestone in the first year of vocal production, because the first time a child utters adult syllables means that they have created their own internal voice database. Davis and MacNeilage (1990) believe that mandibular oscillation and cyclic jaw movement are the key movements for children to produce adult speech; and during this period, the syllables show a strong trend of C-V correlation. In other words, Davis and MacNeilage (1990) found that children can control the forward movement of the tongue, which produces the auditory effect of coronary consonants. Therefore, it can be judged that recognizable consonants gradually appear during the transition from children's babbling to words (Stoel-Gammon, 1992). Based on this evidence, babbling is closely related to word forms produced in parallel. This is contrary to Jakobson's view that "babbling is an "unconscious" or "accidental" vocabulary production practice. "babbling" cannot be used as a vocabulary production practice because children do not have the concept of communication. Babies are not spontaneously goal-oriented activities, but like beating and kicking, babbling is part of the infant's spontaneous exploration skills, which is obviously goalless behavior (Thelen & Smith, 1994).Babbling is an important raw material for children's language learning, and in many cultures it arouses the sympathy of caregivers, and the answers of caregivers can provide useful models in time to promote infants' word learning. Just as Goldstein, King, and West (2003) found in the study of birds, only after young birds or babies realize the value of sound as a tool, early sound becomes a channel of communication: the similarities between bird and human vocal development It lies in passing some kind of primitive social information to get care. In addition, there are two kinds of evidence that further support the value of babbling. Some premature babies are prevented from vocalizing by cannula, but no matter when they end cannula, they will always babbling within one to several weeks before their first words (Bohm et al., 2010). The second evidence is that those children who do not have physical or cognitive impairments who speak later than usual children are almost all low vocalizers, so they cannot gain the ability from babbling practice.1.6.2 “Articulatory filter” and the origins of the first wordsThe above literatures prove that the acceptance of babbling is a key factor in the production of early words. Now suppose that the child "chooses" their first word to some extent. How is this done? "Articulatory filter" can prove the accuracy of the first word and babbling-like characteristics (Vihman, 1996). "Articulatory filter" is the process by which children experience adult speech, which selectively enhances motoric recall of phonetically accessible words (Vihman, 1996). This means that the unforgettable word forms that children encounter in the input are close enough to their own experience to provide a two-way match. Theoretically, the similarity between the form of the word heard and the existing child’s speech pattern will give the child "echo" or resonance, thereby making the input signal more prominent. This is also known as the "cocktail effect". This means that the individual's production experience helps to deal with the relevant patterns heard, thereby strengthening the network of connections between them (Edelman, 1989; Thelen & Smith, 1994).1.6.3 Experimental evidence for articulatory filterSome studies have experimentally demonstrated the impact of production on the way babies process speech (Majorano et al., 2014). Generally, people who consistently use high-frequency consonants are considered "skilled" because the production of consonants has been fully practiced, can be well represented, and firmly established in the child's database. These experiments usually refer to these well-practised consonants as "vocal motor schemes" (McCune, 2013).In these experiments, in order to evaluate the baby's response to the VMS in the speech signal, nonwords tests were performed on the children in the laboratory. Nonwords refers to the absence or excluding of VMS that has been recognized as consonants. The infant’s response to the stimulus unexpectedly showed a novelty effect. In each study, babies were divided into two groups, namely babies who can only recognize one VMS and babies who can recognize more than one VMS; it was found that babies with only one VMS had longer expectations of "own". Although this is not the initial expected result, it is consistent with the pronunciation hypothesis, because a single VMS can be mastered to highlight the sound and attract the baby's attention. Continuous sound experience makes the baby become interested in the sound he has not produced yet (DePaolis et al., 2013). This will have obvious advantages for the development of vocabulary. These experiments provide strong support for the articulatory filter proposal. Research results show that mastering one or more consonants provides a starting point for a rapidly changing speech stream for babies. However, it is worth noting that although it is found in these studies that infants with multiple VMS have a novelty effect, children still show a preference for familiar things rather than unknown things when choosing early words.1.7 Lexical system-building1.7.1 Lexical configuration and lexical engagement Gaskell has been studying the nature of memory merging in word learning. They taught participants similar but different words from existing vocabulary items, and then tested with the emergence of novel forms and found that inhibitory effects were established. Based on this research, Leach and Samuel (2007) conducted a series of experiments to explore the difference between what they called "lexical configuration" or "factual knowledge" and "lexical engagement", or between new words and known words Link. Leach and Samuel (2007) believe that lexical configuration is a set of factual knowledge related to words. In addition, the difference between lexical configuration and lexical engagement is also important. Studies have shown that vocabulary learning among older children and adults involves not only creating new configurations, but also engaging with existing vocabulary networks.1.7.2 Implications of the engagement/configuration distinctionAccording to the analysis of 1.7.1, the difference between lexical configuration and lexical engagement is important. This discovery has important implications for understanding the changes in infants’ vocabulary learning process. As mentioned earlier, children with higher vocal skills will provide evidence of word recognition at 10 months (DePaolis et al., 2016). This can be understood as word form recognition reflects lexical configuration. Within a few weeks, most children begin to produce highly familiar word forms in situations. There is evidence that sound production supports access to these familiar forms of memory, and context initiates meaning association. This is also consistent with the structure of lexical configuration, but not yet consistent with lexical engagement. With the growth of infants’ vocabulary experience, the use of referential words marked the beginning of lexical engagement. This reveals the first step for children to establish a word system.Reference:Ackerman, F., Malouf, R., & Moore, J. (2017). Symmetrical objects in Moro: Challenges and solutions 1. Journal of Linguistics, 53(1), 3-50.Baudouin de Courtenay, J. (1871/1972). 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