第一章
All languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a systm of semantics. 语音系统，词汇语法系统和语义系统。
Language is a means of verbal communication.
Design Features of language: the features that define our human languages. 决定了语言性质特征叫定义特征
Design Features:
Arbitratiness(任意性)：the froms of liguistic signs bear no natural relationsip to their meaning.语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联
系。
1\ Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and
ists meaning语素音义关系的任意性
2\ Arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句法层面上的任意性。
Syntactic: the sentences are constructed according to the
grammar of arrangement. 句法学，是依据语法规定构建句子结
构的方法。
3\ Arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性
Duality（二层性）: is meant the propertry of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements
of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own
principles of organization. 二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特
性，上层结构的单位底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合
规则。
Sound-the only function is to combine with one another to form units that have meaning相互组合构成有意义的单位。
Creativity（创造性）：is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.
源于二层性和递归性
Displacement(移位性)：human languages enable their users to symbolize
objects, events and concepts which are not present at the
moment of communication.人类语言可以让使用者在交往
时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体时间或
观点。比如现在说孔子。
语言功能：
1. informative, also called ideational function. 信息功能也叫概念功能
2) Performative施为功能，is to change the social status of persons. 改变人
的社会地位，比如仪式。
3) Emotive Function感情功能
4) Phatic communion寒暄功能
5) Recreational Function娱乐功能
6) Metalingual Function元语言功能
语言学定义：the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. 研究语言的学科，或对语言的研究。
语言学主要分支：Phonetics语音学-including the production of speech,the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.包括言语产生，对语音、词语和连续言语等的描写和分类。注重无序语音
Phonology音系学-studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.研究支配语音分布和排列的规则以及音节的形式。
Morphology形态学-concerned with the internal organization of words关心内在构造，研究语素和构词过程（morphemes and word-formation process）
Syntax句法学-principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.眼睛产生和理解正确的句子所遵循的规则。
Semantics语义学-examines how meaning is encoded in a language考察意义如何在语言中被编码
Progmatics语用学-研究特定场合下的特定话语，尤其注意不同的语言运用的社会语境如何影响语义的诠释。
宏观语言学Macrolinguistics包括：Psycholinguistics心里语言学
Sociolinguistics社会语言学：包括语言社
会功能和语言使用者的社会特性
Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学
Computational Linguistics计算语言学
语言学的重要区别important distinctions in linguistics
1\ Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描写式和规定式
2\ Synchronic vs. Diachronic 公时和历时—在特定时间和历史演变中研究
3\ Langue & Parole 语言和言语—语言能力和语言上的实际表现或语料
4\ Competence and Performance 语言能力和语言运用
第二章语音speech sounds
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmmitted, and perceived. 语音学研究语音的发生、传递、和感知。
语音研究的三个领域：Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学
Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学，研究语音的物质特征
Perceptual or auditory phonetics 感知或听觉语音学
三大声腔vocal tract：pharynx，mouth, nose 咽、口、鼻
发音以气流（Aristream）作为能量来源
口腔和鼻腔：oral cavity and nasal cavity
