语言学练习题 Chapter 2 Linguistics

Chapter 2 Linguistics语言学2.1 The scope of linguistics:语言学的研究范畴Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.语言学是对语言的科学研究。

It may be a study of the structure of language，the history of language，the functions of language，etc.它可能研究语言的及结构,语言的历史、语言的功能等。

It is a scientific study beacause “it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure”（Dai Wei dong，1988:1）这是一个科学研究因为“这是基于语言数据的系统考察,和语言结构一般理论的研究之上的”2.1.1 Lyons’ distinctions 莱昂斯的区分1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics. 普通语言学与描写语言学：The former deals with language in general whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language.前者处理一般语言，而后者涉及一个特定的语言。

2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics. 共时语言学与历时语言学：Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.历时语言学追溯了语言的历时发展和记录了发生的连续时间点间的变化，共时语言学提供了一个账户的语言，因为它是某个特定的时间点。

语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech c ommunity, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing howthings are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.Thegrammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle thedisputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts ofThe nature of linguistics as ausage count more than the authority-made “standards”．science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actuallysynchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of thisknowledge in utterances in concrete situations.competence is stable while his performance is often influenced byA speaker’spsychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance.5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set ofconventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as aproperty of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system ofgenerative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studyingthe varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge ofgrammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea ofcompetence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles?1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language? What is linguistics?Language can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language? (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired? (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use? (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of language?The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”?1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪”　i n Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a language—laborious.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions, oneis they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [? ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [e] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [b?i t]bide [baid]tie [tai]rice [r?i s]rise [raiz]by [bai]type [t?i p]bribe [braib] sigh [sai]wife [w?i f]wives [wa ivz]die [dai]tyke [t?i k]time [taim]why [wai]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B?2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B?3) Are [?i] and [ai] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives?5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in the dialectsof English shown in the data?(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ?。

Chapter 2Revision exercises reference1.What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Refer to section 2.1The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Of the two, speech is considered primary for the following reasons: 1) from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always a later invention. 2) In everyday communication, speech conveys a greater amount of information than writing. 3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later as part of formal education.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Refer to section 2.2.2 (1)V oicing is a phonetic feature of some speech sounds. It is caused by the vibration of the speaker's vocal cords when he produces a certain sound. If a sound bears this feature, it is voiced. If such a feature is absent in the pronunciation of a sound, it is voiceless. All vowels in English are voiced; and some consonants in English are voiced such as [d] and [v] while others are voiceless such as [p] and [s].3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcriptiondiffer.Both broad and narrow transcriptions are ways to transcribe speech sounds, i.e.ways of using written symbols to represent speech sounds. In broad transcription, only the letter symbols are used, and the principle is to use one letter for onesound, such as [P] and [I]. In narrow transcription, a set of symbols calleddiacritics are added to the letter symbols to show the finer differences between similar sounds, such as[P h] and [ɫ].4.How are the English consonants classified?As in the pronunciation of consonants the air stream coming from the lungs is somehow obstructed, it is possible and also necessary to classify them in terms of manner of articulation and place of articulation. In terms of manner of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of obstruction, the consonants are classified into the following groups: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?To classify the English vowels, the following criteria can be applied: position of the tongue, openness of the mouth, length of the vowels, and the shape of the lips.According to the position of the tongue, the vowels are classified into front, central and back vowels; according to the openness of the mouth, the vowels are classified into close, semi-close, semi-open, and open vowels; and according to the length of the vowels, they are classified into long vowels and short vowels;and according to the shape of the lips, and the vowels are classified into rounded and unrounded vowels.6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)voiced palatal affricate--- [dʒ]2)voiceless labiodental fricative---[f]3)voiced alveolar stop---[d]4)front, close, short---[i]5)back ,semi-open, long ---[ɔ:]6)voiceless bilabial stop---[p]Given the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1)[d]---voiced alveolar stop2)[l]---voiced alveolar liquid3)[tʃ]---voiceless palatal/alveolar affricate4)[w]---voiced bilabial glide5)[u]---back,close,short(rounded)6)[æ]---front,short,open(unrounded)7.How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do youthink will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l]and[ɫ], [pʰ]and[P],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Refer to section 2.3.1Though both dealing with speech sounds, phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study in that the former focuses on the speech sounds themselves, their ways of pronunciation, their differences, their classifications, etc., while the latter focuses on the sound system of particular languages and the role sounds play in conveying meaning. Therefore, a phonetician will be more interested in the difference between two sounds.8.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophonesrelated to a phoneme?Refer to section 2.3.2A phone is simply a speech sound, every actual sound we use or hear inmeaningful linguistic communication. For example, in pronouncing the two words “feel” and “leaf”, we actually use or hear four phones:[f][i:][l]and[~l].A phone differs from a phoneme in that the former is an actual sound we hear andit is the unit of study in phonetics, and the latter is not an audible sound, but an abstract entity, a collection of phonetic features, used as a unit of study in phonology. Take the “feel” and “leaf” example again. While four phones are used or heard in the pronunciation of these two words, only three phonemes are involved, i.e. /f/ /i: / and /l/.A phoneme, though as an abstract entity, is realized as different phones indifferent phonetic contexts. All these different phones are called the allophones of the same one phoneme. For example, the aspirated [pʰ] and the unaspirated [p] are allophones of the same phoneme/p/.9.Explain with examples the sequential rules, the assimilation rule, and thedeletion rule.Sequential rules are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. For exam ple, why “klib” is a permissible combination of the four sounds in English and why “kbli” is not can only be accounted for by a sequential rule.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the actual pronunciation of the letter “n” in the word “ incorrect” is not the alveolar [n] but the velar nasal [ŋ] is a manifestation of the assimilation rule at work.The deletion tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letterg. But in their corresponding noun forms signature, designation and paradigmatic,the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced.10.What are Suprasegmental features? How do the major Suprasegmentalfeatures of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to those phonological features occurring above the sound segment level. The major Suprasegmental features in English are stress and intonation. The shift of word stress may change the part of speech of words of the same spelling, such as “'progress n.” and “pro'gress v.” , and different stress may cause difference in the meaning of some compound nouns and noun phrases with the same components, such as “'hotdog” and “hot 'dog”. Stressing words that are normally unstressed in a sentence may convey some extra meaning by the speaker.For exam ple, by stressing the pronoun “my” in the sentence “He is driving 'my car” the speaker is emphasizing the fact that the car he is driving is no one else`s but the speaker`s.The three often-used intonations in English are the falling tone, the rising tone, and the fall-rise tone. The basic role they each play is that the falling tone states a fact, the rising tone raises a question, and the fall-raise tone implies some meaning not literally expressed. For example, the same sentence “That`s not the book he w ants” said in the three different intonations convey three different meanings.Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguishmeaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.3.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.4.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.5.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amountof information conveyed.6.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds whicha speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.7.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat,the mouth and the chest.8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.9.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of thetongue that is raised the highest.10.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.11.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.12.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:13. A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.14.The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e., they are all b_______sounds.15.S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.16.The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s ____rules.17.P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language andhow sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.18.Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: wordstress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:19.Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords20.__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D. /b/21.Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they candistinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair22. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle23.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemicsegments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. Suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features24.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection ofdistinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme。

第一题名词解释1.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

2.Phonetics：The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics。

3.Phonology：The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology。

4.Morpheme：Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.Reference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non—linguistic world of experience.6.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.7.Pragmatics ：The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.8.Free morpheme：Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.ponential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning.It was proposed by structural semanticists.10.Cooperative principle：It is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe。

《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。

Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in usinglanguage, i.e. to tell people what they should day and what they should not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is saidto be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning.There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Dobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce andunderstand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and socialfactors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [❖]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English.Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by the boldtype:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents Surface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produceand receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has onlya linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence,seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents.But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences inparticular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context. Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context. Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g.[+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same,one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed.The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinatesense and reference.Illocutuonary act:the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle theCooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows: "make yourconversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable tothe listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why andhow he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CooperativePrinciple (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin” is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door” is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’will be cancelled.11。

Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Design feature: It refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.32. Displacement: It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. Competence: It is an essential part of performance. It is the speaker’s knowledge of his or her language; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. Competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. Moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious. A transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. Synchronic linguistics: It refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. The time studied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as Latin. Synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.41. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.42. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.43. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax44. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics .45. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.46. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.47. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics .48. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.49. Semantics: The study of meaning in lan-guage is called semantics.50. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics,.51. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.52. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds53. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users.54. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker55. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings..56. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication57. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,58. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowl-edge of the rules in linguistic communication.59. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently60. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.V. Answer the following questions.35. Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human language? Can you tell us what language will be if it has no such design feature?Duality makes our language productive. A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements –for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language. And out of the huge number of words, there can be astronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to form unlimited number of texts. Most animal communication systems do not have this design feature of human language.If language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system which will be highly limited. It cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words, which are distinct in meaning.36. Why is it difficult to define language?It is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. Thus, definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.First of all, language is a system, because elements of language are com-bined according to rules. Secondly, language is arbitrary because there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning, or between the sign and what it stands for. Different languages have different words for the same ob-ject in the world. This fact is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This also explains the symbolic nature of language: words are just symbols; they are associated with objects, actions, ideas, etc. by conven-tion . Thirdly, language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well - developed their writing systems are.The term "human" in the definition indicates that language is possessed by human beings only and is very different from the communication systems of other living creatures. The term "communication" means that language makes it possible for its users to talk to each other and fulfil their commu-nicative needs.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.1)ArbitrarinessAs mentioned earlier, the arbitrary property of language means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. For instance, there is no nec-essary relationship between the word elephant and the animal it symbolizes. In addition, different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages , and even within the same language, the same sound does not refer to the same thing. However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds by sounds, such as crash, bang in English. Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary. But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2)ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the con-struction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences that they have never said or heard before. They can send messages which no one else has ever sent before.Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive.3) DualityThe duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or dou-ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. Animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation.5) Cultural transmissionHuman beings were born with the ability to acquire language, but the details of any language are not genetically transmitted or passed down by instinct. They have to be taught and learned, but animal call systems are genetically trans-mitted .63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional gram-mar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written lan-guage . It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; It collects authentic, and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the de-scription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of languagedescribes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?First, the spoken form is prior to the writ-ten form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of lan-guage.Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposesFinally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?The distinction between langue, and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.67. How do you understand competence and performance ?American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950's proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker's knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.68. Saussure's distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Language is arbitrary in nature, it is not entirely arbitrary, because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent, for example, the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang, crash,etc.. Take compounds for another example. The two elements “photo” and “copy” in “photocopy” are non-motivated, but the compound is not arbitrary.VI. Analyse the following situation.37. How can a linguist make his analysis scientific?It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economyand objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against the observable facts – come to a conclusion.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone. 33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions.35. What is acoustic phonetics?Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced withgreater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.VI. Analyze the following situation.37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog.(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricativeChapter 3 Lexicon11.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Blending: It is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. Allomorph: It is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.33. Close-class word: It is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. Morphological rule: It is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to form a new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with oth-er morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the begin-ning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Answer the following questions.35. How many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they?36. What are the main features of the English compounds?43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calcu-lable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined w ith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, su ch as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivati onal affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.VI. Analyze the following situation.37. Match the terms under COLUMN I with the underlined forms from COLUMN III II(1) acronym a. foe(2) free morpheme b. subconscious(3) derivational morpheme c. UNESCO(4) inflectional morpheme d. overwhelmed(5) prefix e. CalculationChapter 4 SyntaxIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.31. Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences ina language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.34. Trace theory: After the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the original position. This is the notion trace in T-G grammar. It’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. E.g. The passive Dams are built by beavers. differs from the active Beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. If we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as Dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. Trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions.35. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or。

Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?2.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?3.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Chapter 2 Phonetics1. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?2. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;Chapter 3 Phonology1. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle2.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by thebold type:a) John wanted to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted todo this today.Chapter 4 Morphology1. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relat ionship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?2. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.Chapter 5 Syntax1. Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic and paradigmatic relations?2.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?3.What are the problems in IC analysis?4.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.Chapter 6 Semantics1. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, oneof them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?2. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runChapter 7 Pragmantics1. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?2. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.3. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?”he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.。

Linguistics supplementary exercisesChapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not inisolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics. 29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language froma ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics 42. Phonology 43. Syntax 44. Pragmatics 45.Psycholinguistics46. Language 47. Phonetics 48. Morphology 49. Semantics 50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality 56. Design Features 57. Competence 58. Performance 59. Langue 60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 PhonologyⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。

Quiz of LinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. ( T )2. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. ( T)3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. ( F )4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. ( F )5. Of all the speech organs, the lips are the most flexible. ( F)6. A phoneme can be represented by different phones in specific phonetic contexts.( T )7. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all bilabial. ( F )8. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. ( T )9. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of palatal. ( T)10. In such sound combinations as /bi:p/, /geip/ and /su:p/, the voiceless stop /p/, occurring in the final position, is unaspirated, i.e. pronounced with the strong puff of air withheld to some extent. ( F )II. Multiple Choice Items1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies___ABD__.A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechB. the perception of soundsC. the combination of soundsD. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in __B_____A. the place of articulationB. the obstruction of airstreamC. the position of the tongueD. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k, t? AA. voicelessB. spreadC. voicedD. nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguishes the /p/ in “please” and the /p/ in “speak”? BA. voicingB. aspirationC. roundnessD. nasality5. Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English? CA. voicingB. nasalC. approximationD. aspiration6. The phonological features of the consonant /k/ are ___B_.A. voiced stopB. voiceless stopC. voiced fricativeD. voiceless fricative7. /p/ is different from /k/ in ______B__.A. the manner of articulationB. the shape of the lipsC. the vibration of the vocal cordsD. the place of articulation8. Vibration of the vocal cords results in ___D__.A. aspirationB. nasalityC. ObstructionD. V oicing9. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is ___D__ phonetics.A. auditoryB. acousticC. articulatoryD. none of the above three10. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of ___A_.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dentalIII. Term Explanation1. phoneme A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2. allophone The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophone.3. phonology Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. phonetic Phonetic is a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.5. Supersegmental Features The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called super segmental features.IV. Short-answer Questionspare and contrast phonetics and phonology.Both are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sound. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetic is a generl nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.2.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones relatedto a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phone.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sounds, but rather it is presented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.。

《英语语言学概论》配套习题（三）（填空题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguisticsnguage, broadly speaking, is a means of _________ communicaiton.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ___________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. Thisfunction is _______.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of ______.5.Modern linguistcs is _________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discoverwhat language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.6.The description of a language as it changes through time is a _______ study.7.Saussure put forward two important concepts. _________ refrs to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.8.Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s _______. Chapter 2 Phonology1.__________ phonetics studies the movement of the vocal organs of producing thesounds of speech.2.Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound.These movemnts have an effect on the ______ coming from the lungs.3.Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth arebrought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing ______.4.The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the _____ and the lips.5.consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without _______.6.In phonological analysis the words fail-veil are distinguishable simply because ofthe two phonemes /f/-/v/. This is an example for illustrating ________.7.In English there are a number of ______, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.8.________ is the smallest linguistic unit.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ______ and ______ root.2.An _________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an ________ is pronounced asa word.3.Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with _______.4.All words may be said to contain a root ________.5.______ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.6.________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of itsinflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa. 7.words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the _______level.8. A word formed by derivation is called a _______, and a word formed bycompounding is called a ________.Chapter 4 Syntax1. A _________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number ofwords to form a complete statement, question or command.2.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called _____ rules, whoseoperation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.3. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time standsstrucutrally alone is known as a ______ clause.4.The level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place iscommonly termed ________ structure.5._______ construciton refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses havingquivalent syntactic status.6.IC analysis emphasizes the _____ structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting ofword groups first.7.XP may contain more than just X. e.g. the “NP”the girl who is watering theflowers” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the ____, N the head, and s the complement.8._____ relaitons refers to the strucutreal and logical funcitonal relations betweenevery noun phrase and sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics1._________ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.2.“Charge” and “accuse” are said to be _____ synonyms.3._______ opposites may be een in terms of degrees of quality involved.4.Predication analysis is to break down predicaitons into their constituents:_____and _____.5.______ sentences express judgment.6.we call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.7.We call the relation between “animal” and “cow” as ______.8.The hyponyms under the same superordinate are called _____.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.In making conversation, the genral principle that all participants are expected toobserve is called the ______ Principle proposed by J. Grice.2. A ____ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveyingliteral meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.3._______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.4.______ are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action.5. A _____ act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something.6.________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.7._________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and werenot verifiable.8.All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same______ point, but they differ in their strength or force.Chapter 8 Language and Society1. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or aparticular variety of language.2.3.The ______ language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.4. A _________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as anative language in some speech community.5. A linguistic ________ refer to a word or expression that is prohibited by the“polite” society from general use.6.Taboo and ______ are two faces of the same communication coin.7.Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _______.8.In terms of sociolinguistics, ________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of aperson’s language.9.In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak morethan one language. As a characteristic of societies, ________ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.In learning a second language, a learner will subconsciously use his L1 knowledge.This process is called lanugage _______.2.Such errors as “teached” and “womans” are caused by _____.3.The __ of the learner’s interlanguage is believed to be a major source of incorrectforms resistant to further instruction.4.In second language learning, instrucmental motivation occurs when the learner;sgoal is functional, and _____ motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.5.The description of a language development at some point in time is _____ study.6.______ holds that where two languages are similar, positive transfer would occur;where they are diffferent, negative transfer, or interference, would result.7._________ Denativization an d____ are both thought to be the causes for theinterlanguage variation.8.____ holds L1 can be viewed as a kind of “input from the inside”, thus transfer isnot “interference” but a cognitive preocess.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1.The localization of cognitive and perceptual function in a particular hemisphere ofthe brain is called ___________.2.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the______ cortex.3.Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nervecells called _________.4.Psychological research suggests that the two hemispheres difer in the manner inwhich they treat incoming stimuli, the right hemisphere processing stimuli ______ (as wholes) and the left _____ (by parts).5.The acts of comprehending and producing language are performed within theconstraints of our information processing system. This system consists of three structural components: sensory stores, _____ memory, and ______ memory, along with a set of contro processes that govern the flow of information within the system.6.Of particualr importance to speech and language funciton is the massivetransverse fiber tract called the _____, by means of which the two hemispheres are able to communicate with each other in the form of electrical impulses.7.When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we mayregard thought as “_________ speech,” and speech as “over thought.” In such a case speaking and thingking take place simultaneously.8.The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has two thrusts: linguistic ______ and linguistic____________.。

《英语语言学概论》配套练习题（二）（判断题）Chapter 1 An Introduction to Linguistics1. Duality is one of the charateristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.2. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language.3. Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.4. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us.5. By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language.6. Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.7. Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.8. Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Of the three phonetics branches, the longest established one, and until recently the most highly developed, is acoustic phonetics.2. Sound [p] in the word “spit” is an unaspirated stop.3. The airstream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modificaiton to acquire the quality of a speech sound.4. [p] is voiced bilabial stop.5. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.6. When pure or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.7. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.8. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people. Chapter 3 Morphology1. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.2. Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.3. Base refers to the part of word that remains when all infletional affixes are removed.4. In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.5.Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of conversion.6. The word, whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomapoeia.7. Backformation is a productive way of forming nouns in Modern English.8. All roots are free and all affixes are bound.Chapter 4 Syntax1. Application of the transformational rules yields deep strucutre.2. Move-a rule itself can rule out ungrammatical forms and result in grammatical strings.3. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronounn.4. A constituent which is not at the same time a construction is a morpheme, and a construction which is not at the same time a constituent is a sentence.5. IC analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures.6. A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of diacourse.7. Syntactic category refers to all phrasal syntactic categories such as NP, VP, and PP, and word-level syntactic categories that serve as heads of phrasal syntactic categories such as N and V.8. S-structure is a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.Chapter 5 Semantics1.Interrogative and imperative sentences do not have truth value.2.The raltionship between “human body” and “face/nose” is hyponymy.ponential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into menaing components, called semantic features.4.One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.5.Hyponymy is a matter of class membership, so it is the same as meronymy.6.“Either it is raining here or it isn’t raining here” is empirically true.7.Two sentences using the same words may mean quite differently.8.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.If the context of use is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.2. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.3.When performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true.4.The utterance meaning of the sentence variees with the context in which it is uttered.5.While conversation participants nearly always observe the CP, they do not always observe these maxims strictly.6.Inviting, suggesting, warnign, ordering are instances of commissives.7.Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and thehearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implications arise.8.Of three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker’s intention.Chapter 7 Language Change1.Pre-Indo-European languages are not attested whereas Proto-Indo-Europeanlanguages are attested.2.Some modern words come from the morphological change of the Old English. Forinstance, move comes form movement and teach comes from teachable.3.With the semantic broadening or narrowing, the meaning of a word is beingchanged constantly, although with one generation such difference is hardly obvious.4.The sentence I hate thee not was considered normal form of negation in OldEnglish.5.Both Chinese and Japanese have a logographic writing system; English and Greekhave an alphabetic writing system.6.In Old English, the affixation of the prefix Yan- to an adjective would change theword into a causative verb.7.In 1200, the official language in England was Old English.8.All case forms of Old English nouns have been lost in Modern English.9.In Old English, a verb precedes the subject instead of following it.Chapter 8 Language and Society10.In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situationsknown as domains.11.A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety ofthat language.12.A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.13.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he isconverting one mode of thinking into the other.14.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.15.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker’sperceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.16.The sentences “He crazy”and “He be sick all the time”are both acceptible inblack English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English.17.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regionaldialects.Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisitionnguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation.2.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.3.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA.4.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.5.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification.6.Children’s grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult’s grammar.7.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical.8.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.Chapter 12 Language and Brain1. The right ear advantage (REA) is true no matter whether people have the left hemispheric dominance for speech or the less common right hemispheric dominance.2. In general, the left hemisphere controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.3. The left hemisphere is superior to the right hemisphere.4. Although the age at which children will pass through a given stage can vary significantly from child to child, the particular sequence of stages seems to be the same for all children acquiring a given language.5. At the multiword stage, simple prepositions, especially those that indicate positions such as “in”, “on” and “up”, begin to turn up in children’s speech.6. Children acquiring their first language simply beyond the critical age are hardly successful, such as the case of “Genie.”7. In first language acquisition children’s grammar models exactly after the grammar of adult language.8. Modern linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.。

Chapter 1 Introductions to LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. B Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. A Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang3. C The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is__________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4. C In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. InterpersonalB. EmotiveC. PerformativeD. Recreational5.C Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6.B Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?— Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7. A __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole8. C When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates the design feature of __________.A. cultural transmissionB. productivityC. displacementD. duality9. A __________ answers such questions as how we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB.Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10. C __________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language.12. F Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.13. T Speaking is the quickest and most efficient way of the human communication systems.14. F Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.15. F We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.16. F Only human beings are able to communicate.17. F F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.18. F A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.19. F Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.20. F All the languages in the world today have both spoken and written forms.III. Fill in the blanks. (10%)21. verbal Language, broadly speaking, is a means of __________ communication.22. productivity In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed __________.23. metalingual function Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is __________.24. yo-he-ho Theory that primitive man made involuntary vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the __________ theory.25. scientific Linguistics is the __________ study of language.26. descriptive Modern linguistics is __________ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.27. speech One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __________ over writing.28. diachronic linguistic The description of a language as it changes through time is a __________ study.29. langue Saussure put forward two important concepts. __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.30. competence Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s __________.Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. A Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. C Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. D An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. A The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as__________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. A The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. D A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. B Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. A Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. B Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. B What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. T Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. T The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. T Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. F [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. F Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. T All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. T When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. T According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. F Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. F The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. voiced, voiceless, voiced Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. friction Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth arebrought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. tongue The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. height One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. obstruction Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. minimal pairs In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. diphthongs In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. Co-articulation __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. Phonemes __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. air stream Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.Chapter 3 LexiconI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. A Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. A Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. C There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. B In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems5. B The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation6. B __________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition7. C The word TB is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending8. A The words like comsat and sitcom are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy9. D The stem of disagreements is __________.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement10. B All of them are meaningful except for __________.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorphII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.12. T Fore as in foretell is both a prefix and a bound morpheme.13. F Base refers to the part of the word that remains when all inflectional affixes are removed.14. T In most cases, prefixes change the meaning of the base whereas suffixes change the word-class of the base.15. T Conversion from noun to verb is the most productive process of a word.16. F Reduplicative compound is formed by repeating the same morpheme of a word.17. T The words whimper, whisper and whistle are formed in the way of onomatopoeia.18. F In most cases, the number of syllables of a word corresponds to the number of morphemes.19. F Back-formation is a productive way of word-formations.20. F Inflection is a particular way of word-formations.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. initialism, acronym An __________ is pronounced letter by letter, while an __________ is pronounced as a word.22. vocabulary Lexicon, in most cases, is synonymous with __________.23. solid, hyphenated, open Orthographically, compounds are written in three ways: __________, __________ and __________.24. morpheme All words may be said to contain a root __________.25. close, open A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to __________ class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belongs to __________ class.26. back-formation __________ is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.27. conversion __________ is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.28. morpheme Words are divided into simple, compound and derived words on the __________ level.29. derivative, compound A word formed by derivation is called a __________, and a word formed by compounding is called a __________.30. affix, bound root Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __________ and __________.Chapter 4 SyntaxI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. D The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. only hierarchicalC. complexD. both linear and hierarchical2. C The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite3. D The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational4. D A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammati¬cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical5. D A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. prepositionD. subordinator6. A Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional7. D Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. all of the above.8. D The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is __________.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome9. B The phrase “on the shelf” belongs to __________ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. subordinateD. coordinate10. A The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves.” is a __________ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complexII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. T Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence.12. T The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.13. T In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.14. T Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.15. F Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.16. F In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.17. T In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.18. F What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.19. T A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.20. T It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. simple A __________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.22. sentence A __________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.23. subject A __________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.24. predicate The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called __________.25. complex A __________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.26. embedded In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an __________ clause.27. open Major lexical categories are __________ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.28. Adjacency __________ condition on case assignment states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.29. Parameters __________ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.30. CASE The theory of __________ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.Chapter 5 Meaning[Mainly taken from lxm1000w’s exercises. – icywarmtea]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. A The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. B “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. D Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. D “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. B ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. C “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. A _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. C ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. D Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. A The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.12. F Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.13. T Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.14. F In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.15. T Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.16. T Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.17. F The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.18. T Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.19. T “It is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.20. T In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Semantics __________ can be defined as the study of meaning.22. direct The conceptualist view holds that there is no __________ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.23. Reference __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.24. synonyms Words that are close in meaning are called __________.25. homophones When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called __________.26.Relational __________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.27. Componential __________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.28. selectional Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called __________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 29. argument A(n) __________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.30. naming According to the __________ theory of meaning, the words in a lan¬guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. D What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. B A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. C If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. B Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. A Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. C __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. B According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. C All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. A __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10.D When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. F Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. T It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. T What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. F The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. F The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. F The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. F Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. F Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. T Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. T Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. context The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. utterance If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. abstract The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. locutionary A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. illocutionary A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. commissive A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. expressive A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. quantity There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.11。

英语语言学第1-3章课后练习题答案《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版第1-3章练习题参考答案Chapter 1 IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words arecombined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional g rammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken languageas the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record spee ch when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” reco rd of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language 答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what thesymbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system（2．2语言的识别性特征）美国语言学家C. Hockett提出了人类语言的12种识别性特征，其中最重要的识别性特种有5种：即语言的任意性、创造性、二重性、移位性和文化传递性。

Chapter Two Linguistics1. Define the following terms.1)syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relation2)langue vs parole3)competence vs performance4)descriptive linguistics vs historical linguistics5)theoretical linguistics vs applied linguistics6)deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguistics7)synchronic vs diachronic linguistics8)macrolinguistics vs microlinguistics9)Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguistics2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)( ) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because it cantell us how to speak correct language.2)( ) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user‘s underlyingknowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concretesituations.3)( ) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky.4)( ) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia.5)( ) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language developmentthrough time.6)( ) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with how they canbe improved.7)( ) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions‖ what is a language‖ and ―How does alanguage work‖.8)( ) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows thearbitrary nature of languages.9)( ) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and a systemof meaning.10)( ) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must belearned a new by each speaker.11)( ) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas.12)( ) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending an infinite setof sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality.13)( ) Hall iday‘s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole and performance14)( ) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development of language.15)( ) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal andsituational constraints.16)( ) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students is basicallydescriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‗ communicative skills.17)( ) Saussure‘s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics18)( ) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to languageteaching and learning.19)( ) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)( ) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of a language over aperiod of time.21)( ) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance andlinguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the same sub-system of thelanguage.22)( ) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of a particularlanguage.23)( ) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)( ) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)( ) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for the rules oflanguage in general.26)( ) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27)( ) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)( ) All the English words are not symbolic.29)( ) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)( ) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)( ) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about how a sentence isformed.32)( ) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)( ) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a language at aparticular point of time.3. Multiple Choice1) ______ made the distinction between competence and performance.A. SaussureB. Chomsky C Bloomfiled D. Sapir2) Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of some practicalproblems, the study of such applications is knowns as ________.A. anthropological linguisticsB. computational linguisticsC. applied linguisticsD. mathematical linguistics3) _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of speechcommunity.A. ParoleB. langue C speech D. writing4) Which of the following is not the major brach of linguistics?A. phonologyB. pragmaticsC. syntax D speech5) ________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics6) Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. Comparative linguistics.7）________ has been widely accepted as the forefather of modern linguistics.A. ChomskyB. SaussureC. BloomfieldD. John Lyons8) The study of language as a whole is often called ---.A. general linguisticsB. sociolingyusticsC. psycholinguisticsD. applied linguistics9) The study of language meaning is called--.A. syntaxB. semantics C morphology D. pragmatics10) The description of a language at some point in time is a – study.A synchronic B. diachronic C descriptive D. prescriptive4. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:1) refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity.2) is the actual realization of one‘s linguistic knowledge in utterances.3) Modem linguistic is in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language israther than lay down some rules for people to observe.4) The description of a language as it changes through time is a study.5) Saussure put forward two important concepts, refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all members of a speech community.6) Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure‘ s langue and Chomsky‘ s .7) The four principles in the linguistic study are (1) (2) (3)(4)8) Morphology is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.9) The branch of general linguistics which is named studies the internal structureof sentences.10) In Saussure‘s view, the relationship between signifier (sound image) and signif ied(concept) is .11) is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society, including the social functions of language and the social characteristics ofits users.12) The distinction between langue and parole is made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure.The distinction between competence and performance is made by the Americanlinguist .13) The writing system.of English is. known as the sound writing system while that ofJapanese as ___writing system.14) According to John Lyons, ___ linguistics_ deals with language in general and _linguistics is concerned with one particular language.15) In de Saussure‘s term, _____ refers to the system of language and _____ refers to thespeaker‘s speech.16) _____ is the science that deals with the sound system.17) Syntax studies two kinds of rules: _____ rules and rules18) Langue or competence is ______ and not directly observed, while parole or performanceis _____ and directly observable.19) A ________ relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.20) ___ ___ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about the sounds and sound patternsof his language.21) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about how a word is formed.22) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about whether a sentence isgrammatical or not.23) ______ knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about the meaning of language,including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.24) ______ is the study of speech sounds of all human languages.25) ______ examines word formation and the internal structure of words.5. Answer the following questions.1) What is the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics?2) What is the difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics? Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely?3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptivegrammar.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language?5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.6) What are the main differences between ―competence‖ and ―performance‖?7) What is the major difference between Saussure‘s distinction of langue and parole andChomsky‘s distinction of competence and performance? what should be studies inlinguistics in your opinion and why?8) Expla in ―speech and writing‖, and cite two ormore examples.Key to Chapter Two1. Define the following terms.1）syntagmatic relation vs paradigmatic relationEssentially the relations between linguistic elements are of two dimensions, usually syntagmatic and paradigmatic. syntagmatic or sequential relations are those holding between elements forming serial structure, or ―strings‘ as they are sometimes called. In syntax, the horizontal relationship between elements shows how a form (X) combines with others (W + X + Y) in a serial combination. It refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence. Paradigmatic relations are those holding between comparable elements at particular places in structures. The vertical or substitutional relationship shows how other different forms (Xa, Xb, Xc) can function in the same place in structure in a paradigmatic relation.2) langue vs paroleSaussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers‖ parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole subject to personal and situational constraints. For Saussure, parole isa mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist oughtto do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole andmake them the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on laterlinguists.3) competence vs performance(1)According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the arctual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‘s performance does not always match or equal h is supposed competence.(2)Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‘s language parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.4) descriptive linguistics vs historical linguisticsLinguistic study can be divided into descriptive linguistics (synchronic linguistic study) and historical linguistics (diachronic linguistic study). The former refers to the description of a language at a particular point of time in history while the latter, a diachronic study of language, studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5) theoretical linguistics vs applied linguisticsA third dichotomy is that which holds between theoretical and applied linguistics. The former copes with language and languages with a view to establishing a theory of their structure and functions and without regard to any practical applications that the investigation of language and languages might have, whereas the latter is chiefly concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks, including language teaching.6) deccriptive linguistics vs prescriptive linguisticsA linguistic study is descriptive if it only describes and analyzes the facts of language, and it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic studies before 20th century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modem linguistics is mostly descriptive, however, which believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes inlvocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.7) synchronic vs diachronic linguisticsSynchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language throughthe Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.The description of a languageat some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchronic study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through timeis a diachronic study (diachrony). An essay entitled‖ On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.8) macrolinguistics vs microlinguisticsMacrolinguistics falls on the verge of linguistics. It includes the following disciplines: philosophical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, etc. Lyons has the same distinction.Microlinguistics concentrates on the study of all the interior aspects of a language system. Traditional linguistic study describes language system from two aspects — lexicon and grammar. Dictionaries and grammar books are products of such researches and studies.9）Comparative historical linguistics vs contrastive linguisticsComparative historical linguistics draws on the special historical comparison in linguistics to study the historical development of some related languages (languages originating from a uniform ancestry). It is in fact a special part of historical linguistics.Thanks to the development of historical comparative linguistics in 19th century, linguistics comes to be an independent discipline. Contrastive linguistics focuses on structural similarities and differences of two or more languages (relevant or unrelated) by means of comparison and contrastive study. This study belongs to descriptive linguistics. It can help people have a deep understanding of the properties and universal characteristics of different languages and thus exerts great influence on foreign language teaching.2. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1)(F) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics because itcan tell us how to speak correct language.2)(T) C ompetencce and performance refer respectively to a language user‘sunderlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language inconcrete situations.3)(F) The antithesis of langue and parole was created by Chomsky. (中国矿业大学，2004)4)(T) Cockoo in English is onomatopoeia. (中国矿业大学，2004)5)(F) Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the study of language developmentthrough time. (中国矿业大学，2004)6)(T) Prescriptive linguists are concerned with how languages work, not with howthey can be improved. (中国矿业大学，2004)7)(T) Linguistics tries to answer the basic questions‖ what is a language‖ and ―Howdoes a language work‖. （南京师范大学，2002）8)(F) Onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which showsthe arbitrary nature of languages. （中国矿业大学，2002）9)(T) Each language contains two systems rather than one, a system of sound and asystem of meaning. （中国矿业大学，2002）10)(T) Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic systemmust be learned a new by each speaker. （中国矿业大学，2002）11)(F) Phatic function refers to language used to exchange information and ideas. （中国矿业大学，2002）12)(F) Speakers of all languages are capable of producing and comprehending aninfinite set of sentences, which accounts for syntactic universality. （中国矿业大学，2002）13)(F) Halliday‘s linguistic potential is similar to the notions of parole andperformance14)(T) By diachronie study we mean to study the changes and development oflanguage.15)(T) Langue is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personaland situational constraints.16)(T) In language classrooms nowadavs the grammar taught to students is basicallydescriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners ‗ communicativeskills.17)(F) Saussure‘s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historicallinguistics.18)(T) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories tolanguage teaching and learning.19)(F) Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences.20)(T) A diachronic study is concerned with the historical development of alanguage over a period of time.21)(F) A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in anutterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the samesub-system of the language.22)(F) General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of aparticular language.23)( T) English linguistics is a kind of descriptive linguistics.24)(F) Competence is more concrete than performance.25)(F) Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a theory which accounts for therules of language in general.26)(T) Langue is more abstract than parole and therefore is not directly observable.27)(T) General linguistics deals with the whole human language.28)(T) All the English words are not symbolic.29)(F) All sounds produced by human speech organs are linguistic symbols.30)(T) Descriptive linguistics studies one specific language.31)(F) Morphological knowledge is a native speaker‘s intuition about ho w a sentenceis formed.32)(F) Phonetics is the science that deals with the sound system.33)(F) A diachronic study of a language is concerned with a state of a language at aparticular point of time.3. Multiple choice1) – 5): BCBDC 6) – 10): DBABA4. Word completion1) Langue 2) Performance3) descriptive 4) diachronic5) langue 6) competence7) (1) consistency (2) economy (3) objectivity (4) exhaustiveness8) Morphology 9) syntax10) arbitrary 11) socialinguistics12) Chomsky 13) syllabic14) general, descriptive 15) langue, parole16) Phonology 17) phrase structure, transformational18) abstract; concrete 19) syntagmatic20) Phonological 21) Morphological22) Syntactic 23) Semantic24) Phonetics 25) Morphology5. Answer the following questions.1) What is thedifference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics?The former deals with language in general, i.e. the whole human language whereas the latter is concerned with one particular language. The former aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general while the latter attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of one particular language, such as Chinese, English, French, etc. General Linguistics and descriptive linguistics are dependent on each other. In the first place, general linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which any particular language can be described, studied and analyzed. Very often, it may supply several different frameworks for descriptive linguists to choose from. Depending on their different views on language, they may follow one model exclusively or combine two or more models. In the second, the resulting descriptions of particular languages, in turn, supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the model(s) put forward by general linguistics. In other words, general linguistics and descriptive linguistics are complementary to each other despite their different objects of study and different goals.2) What is the difference between synchronic.and diachronic linguistics? Is it easy to drawa sharp line between them if we look at language closely?(1) Synchronic linguistics takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present)as its point of observation. In contrast, diachronie linguistics is the study of a language through the Course of itshistory; therefore, it is also called historical linguistics.(2) Synchronic/diachronic perspective toward language is one of Saussure‘s most centralideas expressed in the form of pairs of Concepts. The former sees languageas a living whole;existing as a ―‗state‖ at a particular moment in time; the latt er sees it as a continually changing medium. In this view, it is always necessary to carry out some degree of synchronic work before making a diachronic study: before we can say how a language has changed from state X to state Y, we need to know.something about X and Y. Correspondingly,a synchronic analysis can be made without referring to history. This can be illustrated asSanssure did using an analogy with a game of chess. A state of the set of chessmen is like a state of language. ―The respective valu e of the pieces depends on their position on the chessboard just as each linguistic term derives its value from its opposition to all the other terms.‖ On the other hand, the value of each piece also;depends on the convention--the setof rules that exists before the game begins. This is like the set of rules that exists in language.A state of the game of chess is momentary just like a state of language change. When one piece is moved, the game passes from one state of equilibrium to the next. This corresponds closely to the situation of language between states. To study this static state is called synchronic linguistics. The moving of one piece is like one type of change in language. The consequence of one move can be very big or small; the same is true with language changes. The player of a chess game is solely concerned with the momentary positions of the pieces; he does not need to remember the previous moves so as to decide the next move. A player who knows the history of the game does not necessarily have more to say about the next move than a man who has just come to the game, ignorant of what has happened before. Similarly, a speaker of a language can learn the languagewell without knowing its historical statesl We can describe a state of a game without bothering the techniques both players have used to bring about the state. Likewise, we can describe the state of a language without knowing its history,3) What distinguish prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Comment on the merits and weaknesses of descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar.(1) The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things actually are. The essence of prescriptivism is the notion that one variety of languages has an inherently higher value than others, and that this ought to be imposed on the whole of the speech community. Although prescriptivism is still with :us, descriptivism wins more and more understanding. It proposes that the task of the grammarian is to describe, not prescribe——to record the facts of. linguistic diversity, and not to attempt the impossible tasks of being language police and trying to. stop language from changing, or imposing on members of a language community the so-called norms of correctness.(2) Weakness of prescriptive grammar (Merits of descriptive grammar). ①The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two is simply that traditional grammar was very strongly normative in chara cter, e.g. ―you should never use a double-negative‖;―you should not split the infinitive‖ etc.People realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority, stipulated ―standards!‘. We can appeal neither to logic nor to Latin granunar when it comes to deciding whether something is or is not correct in English. ②Prescriptivism is an individual attitude. The related social attitude that goes to the extreme of prescriptivism is purism, which is something we should guard against. Pure prescriptive grammar will lead to artificial claims that are hard to maintain in light of the facts. While prescriptivists would prefer the use of the past subjunctive after if (If I were you, etc.), it is very difficult to claim that everyone who uses ―was‖ is wrong, especially as.they are the majority in spoken language. While ther e are still traditionalist grammarians claiming that they are right and half the population is wrong, most have modified their approach and talk of this form as preferable, or describe it as formal register. ③The prescriptive attitude seems to ignore the fact that English has evolved over the centuries into what it is today whereas the descriptive attitude seems to be more sensitive to anything that goes on to a certain extent. A language is a living creature. There is no fixed form for any language. No one speaks Shakespearean medieval English today. However, no one says the British today speaks the incorrect English. It will and should change over time.4) What are the four principles for the scientific analysis of language?The four principles to make a scientific study of language are exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity.(1) Exhaustiveness: the linguist should gather all the materials relevant to his investigation and give them an adequate explanation. Language is extremely complex; he cannot attempt to describe all aspects of language at once, but to examine one aspect at a time.(2) Consistency: there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.(3) Economy: other things being equal, a shorter statement or analysis is preferred to a longer or more involved one. The best statements are the shortest possible, which can account most fully for all facts.(4) Objectivity: a linguist should be as objective as possible in his description and analysis‘of data, allowing no prejudice to influence his generalizations. He should not omit any linguistic facts because he himself considers there to be ―inelegant‖ or ―substandard‖. Nor should he conceal facts that do not conform to his generalizations. His aim should be to present his analysis in such a way that every part of it can be tested and verified; not only by himself, but by anyone else who makes a description of different data based on the same set of principles. It is the insistence on these principles, particularly objectivity that gives linguistics the status of a science.5) Point out three ways in which linguistics differs from traditional grammar.(1) Most linguistic analysis today is focused on speech rather than writing. Everything considered, speech is believed to be more representative of human language than writing. In spite of the common features they share, they differ because they are transmitted in different channels. This is one major difference between linguists today and the grammarians of the 19th century;(2) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive while traditional grammar is hugely prescriptive. Many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary, religious) written language. Grammarians often use logical and aesthetic criteria to judge the correctness of sentences and lay down rules for ―correct‖ behavior. Linguists today, however, have made a special point of guarding against prescriptivism. They believe that whatever occurs in natural speech should be described ir/their analysis.(3) Another difference is the priority of synchronic descriptions over the traditional diachronic studies. Modem linguistics holds that unless the various states of a language am successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.6) What are the main differences between ―competence‖ and ―performance‖?(1) This fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.A language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(2) Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recoguizegrammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. For。

语言学教程（第四版）练习第2章Chapter Two Speech SoundsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.In a syllable, a vowel often serves as _______.A. Peak or NucleusB. OnsetC. CodaD. Rhyme2. Conventionally a ______ is put in slashes / /.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated [p h], an unaspirated [p o] and an unreleased [p﹁] are ____ of the /p/ phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ______.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movementA. wideB. closingC. narrowD.centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called _____.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop ?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]8. Which one is different from the others according to places fo articulation ?A.[n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels ?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating ?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are trueor “F” if they are false.(10%)1. [f] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence patterns of a language.3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically different but do not make a different word, are phones.4. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.5. The speech sounds which are in complementary distribution are not always allophones of the same phoneme.6. The last sound of cut can be articulated as an unreleased or released plosive. These different realizations of the same phoneme are NOT in complementary distribution.7. Phonology is language specific but phonetics is not.8. Distinctive features can show phonological contrasts or oppositions of language sounds.9. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.10. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to placea consonant. It is put into coda than the onset.11. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced.12.The sound segments are grouped into consonants and vowels.13. Uvular is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula.14. Phonetic similarity means that the allophones of a phoneme must bear some morphological resemblance.15. A syllable can be divided into two parts, the NUCLEUS and CODA.III. Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. V________ is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate. An example in English is [k] as in cat.2. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing f_______.3. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the t_________ and the lips.4. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the h_________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.5. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without o______.6. In phonological analysis the words fail/veil are distinguishbable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ —/v/. This is an example for illustrating m_______ pairs.7. In English there are a number of d_______, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening position.8. C__________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.9. P________ is the smallest linguistic unit.10. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the a_________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1. Assimilation2. Suprasegmental feature3. Complementary distribution4. Distinctive feature.V. Answer the following question.1. What is acoustic phonetics ?2. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?VI .Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.A B(1) Approximant a. tool and stool(2) Labiodental b. tool and pool(3) Aspirated and unaspirated c. produced by pushing air out(4) English syllable d. (C)V(C)(5) Chinese syllable e. [v](6) minimal pair f. Roman Jacobson(7) pulmonic g. (((C)C)C)V(((C)C)C)C)(8) non-pulmonic h. Otoo Jespersen(9) distinctive features I. [w](10) IPA j. produced by sucking air inVII. Essay question.1.Illustrate phonological processes and phonological rules.2.Illustrate the differences between phonetics and phonology.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Of the three branches of phonetics, the _________ phonetics studies sounds fro the speaker’s point of view; the _________ phonetics looks at sounds from the hearer’s point of view; and the __________ phonetics studies the way sounds travel by looking at sound waves.2. The ________, mouth, and ________ form the three cavities ofthe vocal tract.3. In terms of places of articulation, __________ is a retroflex.4. When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be _________.5. Consonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the ______, ________ at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.6. Affricates consist of a _________ followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation.7. [z, ?,?,h] are ______ in terms of manners of articulation.8. Name four oral stops besides [p] and [t]: ___, ____, ___, __, and nasals __, __, __.9 According to the places of articulation, [f] and [v] are ______.10. In terms of places of articulation, [ ?] and [?] can be classified into the category of _____.11. [j] is a __________ in terms of places of articulation.12. In English and Chinese, vowels with an audible change of quality are called ________.13. [P o, P h] are ________ of the same phoneme /p/.14. [?, e] belong to the category of ________ in accordance with their places of articulation.15. Besides [s], [z], other four sibilants are ____, ___,_____,____.16. A syllable that has no _____ is called an open syllable.17. An example of four consonants occurring after the peak is the word ____.18. The IPA provides its users with a set of symbols called ______, which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone possible.19. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: __________ and ___________.20. The three cavities in the articulatory apparatus are pharyngeal cavity, _____, ____ and ______.21. Name five of the English front vowels: _______, ______, _______, ______, _____.22. The [p] sound in peak is called an ______ [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an _______ [p].23. The main suprasegmental feature include _____, _____, and ______.24. The _____________ rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations.25. In English, all the front vowels and central vowels are ______ vowels.26. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its ________.27. ___________ refers to the degree of force used in producinga syllable.28. In terms of the height of tongue rising, vowels can be classified as _____, ______ and ______ vowels.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1. Phonetics is of a general nature, and it is interested in ______.A. all the speech sounds used in all human languagesB. has speech sounds are producedC. how speech sounds differ from each otherD. how speech sounds can be classified2. The study to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns should be included in ______.A. phoneticsB. phonologyC. articulatory phoneticsD. acoustic phonetics3. The sound [l] in _____ is a clear one.A. tellB. quiltC. leafD. peel4. The basic unit in phonology is called ___, and it is a unit that of distinctive value.A. phonemeB. phoneC. allophoneD. sound5. ______ does n’t form a minimal pair.A. Gap and capB. Pat and padC. Tip and dipD. Map and tam6. _____ is not in complementary distribution.A. Spot and potB. Stop and topC. School and coolD. Light and glad7. The following pairs form a minimal pair EXCRPT _____.A. look and bookB. pin and binC. kill and dillD. beat and pee8. ______ is not the term used ot classify the English consonants in terms of manners of articulation.A. ApproximantB. LateralC. PlosiveD. Bilabial9. In the following word ____, the articulation of bilabial is not manifested.A. petB. metC. howD. web10. The distinctive feature of the sound [s] is ______.A. voiceless alveolar fricativeB. voiced alveolar fricativeC. voiceless dental affricativeD. voiced dental fricative11. The sounds in _____ are alveolars.A. [f] and [v]B. [t] and [d]C. [?] and [?]D. [k] and [g]12. The sound with the features bilabial nasal is _____.A. [j]B. [t]C. [m]D. [?]13. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in following words EXCEPT _____.A. wayB. towerC. tideD. how14. Words in the pair ____ form a minimal pair.A. beat and seenB. pig and padC. choke and jokeD. but and heart15. In the word ____, [l] is palatalized.A. leadB.stealC. lilyD. lied16. In terms of narrow transcription, [l] is dark in the word ____.A. ledB. languageC. dealD. clear17. Each pair of words manifests complementary distribution EXCEPT _____.A. spot and payB. stop and topC. replay and payD. school and cool18. For the word direction, Americans usually pronounce it as [dair?k??n] whereas most British people say [dir?k??n]. This phenomenon can be interpreted in terms of ____.A. phonetic similarityB. free variationC. complementary distributionD. allophones19. In all the following words we can find examples of regressive assimilation EXCEPT ______.A. sinkB. ninthC. capD. help20. ______ gives the correct description of the sound [u:].A. Velar nasalB. High back tense rounded vowelC. Low back lax rounded vowelD. High front lax unrounded vowel21. If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the first phoneme must be ______.A. [p]B. [t]C. [l]D. [s]22. The vowel in _____ should be nasalized according to the assimilation rules.A. teaB. peepC. fleeD. bean23. The sound assimilation is not manifested in the spelling of the word _____.A. implausibleB. illegalC. irregularD. input24. When we produce the back vowels, we hold the ____ partof the tongue higher than the rest of it.A. centralB. frontC. backD. the tip25. _____ is not the term used to classify the English consonants in terms of manner of articulation.A. StopsB. LiquidsC. GlidesD. Dental26. The one that does not belong to the alveolar is ______.A. [t]B. [m]C. [n]D.[r]27. Sounds like [?], [?], and [j] are realized by the obstruction between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. They belong to the type of _______.A. palatalB. glottalC. bilabialD. velar28. The distinctive features of the sound [] are ______.A. voiced, nasalB. velarlabial, nasal, voicedC. voiced, alveolar, nasalD. voiced, labial, palatal29. The labiodentals sounds in English are _____.A.[p] and [b]B. [f] and [v]C. [?] and [e]D. [k] and [g]30. According to the rule of _____, the article an, instead of a, is used before the word apple.A. nasalizationB. dentalizationC. epenthesisD. velarization31. The sound _____ does not belong the group of fricative.A. [f]B. [v]C. [k]D. [h]32. If we follow the English vowel system of Radford, we can describe the vowel [i:] in the way of _____.A. high front tense rounded vowelB. high back lax unroundedC. high front tense unrounded vowelD. low back lax rounded vowel33. _____ does not contain a bilabial sound.A. MyB. YouC. BuyD. Pie34. _____ ends with an affricateA. RackB. SuchC. BoozeD. Tip35. The word ____ begins with the sound of a palato-alveolar consonant.A. shipB. lipC. zipD. sip36. The articulation of ______ is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.A. uvularB. glottalC. velarD. palatal37. Triphthongal glides in English can be heard in ______.A. tideB. toyC. howD. wire38. The word _____ contains a high vowel.A. lotB. matC. mudD. boot39. All the following words contain front vowels EXCEPT _______.A. bookB. sleepC. slipD. shed40. The sound ______ is usually formed in English by curling the tip of the tongue back behind the alveolar ridge.B. [j]C. [h]D. [w]41. In the word ____, there is no syllabic consonant.A. cottonB. bottomC. tableD. national42. Pitch variation is known as _____ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice43. [p] in the word peak can be described as ____.A. voiced bilabial stopB. voiceless bilabial stopC. voiced bilabial plosiveD. voiceless labiodentals stop44. The description voiceless alveolar fricative describes the following consonant ____.A. [p]B. [b]C. [s]D. [z]45. The vowel ____ can be described with features of mid, central, lax, unrounded.A. [?]B. [i:]D. [?]46. The idea of ____ is introduced to indicate the difference between [i] and [l], [?] and [?].A. tensenessB. lip-roundingC. height of tongue risingD. voicing47. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds ?A. Acoustic PhoneticsB. Articulatory PhoneticsC. Auditory PhoneticsD. None of the above.48. In narrow transcription the word help should be presented as _____.A. [h??p]B. [h?lp]C. [help]D. [h??p]49. The word below ____ refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast.A. morphemeB. phonemeC. phoneticsD. phonology50. Among the following words, _____ does no form a minimal pair with the sound of the word highA. buyB. foeD. shy.IV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible, giving examples if necessary.1.In English, the description of vowels needs to fulfill four basic requirements.What are they? Explain them and offer at least one example.2.Explain the assimilation rule in phonology with examples.3.What do you know about RP? Does it change with time ?。

英语语言学练习题1英语语言学练习题Chapter 1 IntroductionⅠ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14. Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.Ⅱ. Fill in each of the following blanks wit h one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky（乔姆斯基）defines “competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.22. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.24. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages iscalled s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g_______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P _______ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.29. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s _______ study of language.Ⅲ. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be _______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _______.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because _______.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyedC. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a _______ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36. Saussure took a(n) _______ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociologica l…psychologicalB. psychological…sociologicalC. applied…pragmaticD.semantic…linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, _______ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the mem- bers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _______ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called _______,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through _______, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and BⅣ. Define the following terms:41. Linguistics42. Phonology43. Syntax44. Pragmatics 45. Psycholinguistics46. Language47. Phonetics48. Morphology49. Semantics50. Sociolinguistics51. Applied Linguistics52. Arbitrariness53. Productivity54. Displacement55. Duality56. Design Features 57. Competence58. Performance59. Langue60. ParoleⅤ. Answer the following questions as comprehensively aspossible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human commu- nication. Explain it in detail.62. What are the design features of human language? Illustrate them with examples.63. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?64. How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?65. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written?66. What are the major distinctions between langue and parole?67. How do you understand competence and performance?68. Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanc e. What do you think are their major differences?69. Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary? Why?Chapter 2 Phonology语音体系Ⅰ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. V oicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2. 语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人济功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Emotive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能metalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学Morphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussure b. halliday c. Chomsky d. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. halliday d anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。