英语写作手册37p

Part Eight•The Research Paper•I Purpose•II Process•The process of writing a research paper is generally divided into five steps or stages（P 220，keep in mind the sub-topics）•1. Choosing a topic•The a topics for Graduation Thesis for every student is prepared by to-be tutor r when it is time for the teachers to assign a variety of graduation thesis, which are usually put into the college education system for the students to choose.•1）Selecting a general topic P 221•2）Reading and thinking•2 Collecting Information•1）Using the library or Internet•2）Reading and thinking•3）Taking notes•4）Quotation of sources P 230•3 Analyzing the information，organizing ideas, and working out an outline P 233•Layers of the paper. Not the same as P 234!•4 Writing the first draft （Keep in mind 1-6）•The first draft of a research paper should be prepared by the following way——•1）Using your own words （P 237）•2）Using proper tenses （P 238）•3）Using facts and views （P 240）•4）Paying attention to logic and organization（P 240）•5）Making your tone objective rather than personal （P 241）•6）Choosing the right style （P 241）•5 Rewriting the draft and finalizing the paper •（P 241）•III Format•1. The Structure of a research paper•Generally speaking, a research paper consist of five parts（P 242, keepin mind 1-5）:•1）Thesis statement and outline•2）Introduction•3）Body•4）Conclusion•5）In-text notes and works cited•Review 1: Basic Theoretical Skills•（From Contents to Text）•1. Level of words（P 7）•The words from a stylistic point of view may be divided into three types:formal, common and informal.•2. Types of sentences （P 37）•1）According to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory；•2）According to their structures, sentences are simple, compound, complex and compound-complex.•2）According to their rhetorical styles, sentences are loose, periodic and balanced.•3. Effective sentences （P 37）•Effective sentences should include the following five qualities （elements）（P IV）•1. Unity•2. Coherence•3. Emphasis•4. Variety•4. Criteria of an Effective Paragraph（P IV）•1. Unity•2. Coherence•3. Transition•5. Ways of Developing Paragraphs （P IV）•Developing by•1. Time; 2. Process; 3. Space; 4. Example or generalization; 5. Comparison and Contrast;•6. Cause and effect; 7. Classification; 8. Definition; 9. A combination of methods.•6. The Whole Composition•A well-developed composition are made up of three parts:（P IV）•1）A Beginning•2）A Middle•3）An End•7. The Types of Writing （P IV）•1）Description•2）Narration•3）Exposition•4）Argumentation•8. Description （P 116）•Description is painting a picture in words of a person, a place, an object or a scene.•A description is usually developed through sensory details, or the impressions of one’s senses——sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.•Writing a description, the writer should choose those details that can help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the readers’ attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.•9. Narration （P 127）•When writing a narrative composition, one has usually to pay attention to the following five aspects（points）:•1）Purpose•2）Selection of details•3）Context•4）Organization•5）Point of view•10. Exposition (P 133)•Exposition means expounding or explaining.•We are writing a description when describe the appearance of an object; but we are writing an exposition when we explain how it is made, how it is used, and how it may change.•When we narrate a historical event, we tell what happened, when and where it happened, and we took part in it. In a exposition paper, we discuss its cause and effect, its nature, and its significant in history.•11. Requirements for a Good Argumentation （P 180-182）•1）A debatable point•2）Sufficient evidence•3）Sound logic•4）Good organization•5）Good use of the other three types of writing——description,narration and exposition, and especially the various methods of exposition.•6）An honest and friendly attitude•12. A Summary for Differences of The Four Writing Types （P 133, 180）•Description mainly deals with appearance and feelings, and narrationwith events and experience. Unlike the two, exposition deals with processand relationships.•The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpose of argumentationis to convince.•Argumentation is actually exposition with additional purpose ofconvincing or persuading.•Review 2: Practical Skills•1. Paragraph （Unity, Coherence, Transition）•When writing, we have to make all the paragraphs coherent andtransitional.•Paragraph Rearrangement Exercise.•Carpool lane.doc•Paragraph Rearrange Exercise .doc•Study carefully the texts on P 137, 159, 165, 179, and 188, and then understand how the paragraphs got coherent and transitional.。

第一篇：If I could choose again,I would major in tourism management. Tourism Studies, a modern tourist hotel management, Hotel English, Front Office operation and management, catering management, recreational services and management, hotel operation and management of the Department, Western General, tourism social etiquette.I like traveling with foreigners,so I think If I have a another choice to choose my major,I will choose tourism management as my major,and Put all my efforts into study.第二篇：How to prepare a New year’s Eve party.First,New Year’s Eve is very important in china.Everyone also pays more attention on this festival.People should prepare this festival within 2 weeks.They will buy some important andd necessary things.People also should prepare some performances before Eve.They will get some presents and other souvenirs.They also can get some pocket money or red pocket in Eve.They all will be very happy on New Year’s Eve.第三篇：My home villageMy name is Bruce.I am from Xuzhou.Our village is very beautiful.My hometown has a long history.Except it,our hometown also has may famous people.Around our home town,they are many trees and mountains.I think it is very beautiful and nice.It will give us some fresh air and also can creat a great atmosphere for us .we can breathe some fresh air.So I like my hometown and I am proud of our hometown.。

词语应用WORD POWER DEVELPOMENT1. discount n.Will you please also indicate delivery times, your terms of payment, and details of discount for regular purchases and large orders?能否能交换时间，你的付款方式，以及对于经常订购和大批量订货所给的折扣的详细情况也告诉我们？However, we would be willing to allow\grant\offer you a special 2.5% discount if you could see your way to increasing your order to $50,000.尽管如此，如果能将订购增加到5万美元的话，我们将愿意给您一个2.5%的特殊折扣。

We stress, however, that this offer, because of the special discount and limited stocks remaining, is open for only 14 days from the date of this letter.然而，我们想强调一下，由于这是个特殊折扣、并且库存有限，因此本报盘的有效期仅为写信之日起14天。

The prices quoted are subjected to the usual trade discount.所报价格均享有通常的同业折扣。

The following items are offered at a discount of 10%.下列产品以九折报盘。

V.That original price was discounted by 10%.那个原价被打了10%的折扣。

They discount 10% from the original price.他们将原价打了10%的折扣。

Part OneYou should do eveiything ------ writing the tile, leaving margins^ indenting，capitalizing, and diving words-■一according to generally accepted rules.I・Arrangement1.Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words (including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions, prepositions, and the to in infinitives2.No period is used at the end of a tile. [I p2ersgra:f]3.Indent [indent] the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters, comma 逗号period 句号semicolon 分号colon 冒号question mark 问号exclamation mark 感叹号bracket 括号parentheses 小括号quotation mark 引号hyphen 破折号Do not begin a line with a comma, a period, a semicolon [.semi^oulon], a colon, a question mark or an exclamation mark. Do not end a line with the first half of pair of brackets, parentheses, or quotation marks. The hyphen that indicated a divided word is put at the end, not at the beginning, of a line.II・ Cap it aliza tion [.keepitslai'zeifri] (大写)Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first words if sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.III.Word Division (移行)The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables and never put the hyphen at the beginning of a line.详见书P3IV.Punetuat ion [.pA^ktiu ei/n](标点)Use a period (full stop) at the end of a complete sentence, however short it is.Do not use a comma to join two coordinate clauses; use a comma and a conjunction, or a semicolon. Make your commas different form your periods・ A comma has a little tail (J; a period is a dot(.), not a tiny circle (。

Part OneManuscript FormYou should do everything - writing the title , leaving margins , indenting, capitalizing.Ⅰ. Arrangement 排版Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words (including words following hyphens incompound words) except articles , coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, nor, for) , prepositions , and the to in infinitives.Indent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters.Ⅱ. Word Division移行The general principle is to divide a word according toits syllables. Pay attention to the following:One-syllable words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided.Do not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a. lone,trick. y.Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a line,like hat. ed, cab. in.Avoid separating proper names of people or places, like Chi.na, Aus. ten.Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed.Do not divide words in a way that may mislead the reader: pea. cock, re.ally.Do not divide the last word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the next page.Divide words with prefixes or suffixes between the prefix or suffixand the base part of the word: re. state. ment, un. relent. ing.Divide two-syllable words with double consonants between thetwo consonants: strug. gle, shat. ter.Dividing words is not always easy. Whenin doubt, consult a dictionaryⅢ. Capitalization大写Capitals are used mainly at three places:the first words of sentences,key words in titles,and proper names.Ⅳ. Punctuation 标点V. Handwriting书法Write carefully so that your handwriting can be read easily.Part TwoDiction 措词Ⅰ. Levels of Words 词的类型The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point ofview, into three types: formal, common, and informal .Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, most of them are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special purposes.those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing., they are called common words.There are words which are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary works their mainuse is to record people's thoughts and dialogues. They are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin Wemay call them informal wordsSlang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker soundoffensive or funnyⅡ. The Mea ning of Words 词义The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative . A word's denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.Ⅲ. General and Specific Words 泛指词和特指词Specific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking , for they are more informative and expressive than general words.Ⅳ. Idioms 习语An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it.Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to makeone's language sound natural and idiomatic .Ⅴ. Figures of Speech 修辞Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader's or listener's mind are used figuratively.1. Simile 明喻 It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like.2. Metaphor 暗喻 It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality.3. Personification 拟人 It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it werehuman or had human qualities. In poetry personification is very common:In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.4.Metonymy 转喻 It is substituting the name of one thing for that ofanother with which it is closely associated.5. Synecdoche 提喻 Whena part is substituted for the whole or the wholeis substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied6. Euphemism委婉语 It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one.7.Irony 反语 It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what ismeant, in order to achieve a special effect.8. Overstatement and understatement 夸大和缩小 In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in understatement the words playdown the magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole.Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description impressive or interesting.9. Transferred Epithet 移位修饰 An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something. A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to aword associated with that noun.10. Oxymoron 矛盾修辞法 In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.11. Alliteration 押头韵 It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words.Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same effect - to join two or more related words.Part ThreeThe SentenceⅠ. Complete Sentences and Sentence FragmentsA grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite)verb ; if the verb is transitive, there mustbe an object ; if the verb is a link-verb , there must be a predicative or complement:A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. Ⅱ. Types of Sentences1. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory SentencesAccording to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory . A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement. An interrogative sentence asks a question . An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request . An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex SentencesAccording to their structure sentences are simple, compound, complex,or compound-complex.A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more subjects or predicate-verbsA compoundsentence consists of two or more independent clauses (or simplesentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance,or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate) clauses , with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the mainclause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinateclauses.A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause - a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.Short simple sentences are often used to make emphatic or important statements, such as the first sentence of the first passage and the last two sentences of the second passage.Long complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately.3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced SentencesFrom a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose, periodic , or balanced . A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it ismainly about until he finishes reading it.Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct ; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.Whena sentence contains two or more parts of the sameform and grammatical function, it is one with parallel constructions.Such parallel sentences are emphatic and forceful. When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasingto hear because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in formal writing , like expository and argumentative prose, and speeches.4. Short and Long SentencesShort sentences are usually emphatic , whereas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.Various sentence structures have been discussed. The basic principle isthat the structure should fit the idea being expressed . In other words, the idea determines the choice of the structure, not the other way round.Ⅲ. Effective Sentences1. UnityUnity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentenceexpresses a single complete thought.2. CoherenceCoherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts.3. ConcisenessA sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fullyexpressed, the fewer words are used, the better.Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition , either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided.Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure.4.Emphasis(1)Emphatic SentencesSentences may be emphasized in the following ways:Short sentences.Sentence fragments. They are also called one-member sentences.Inverted sentences. They are emphatic because their unusual word orderdraws the reader's attention.Parallel constructions and balanced sentences.Periodic sentences. Their climactic word order makes them emphatic. Imperative and exclamatory sentences. They are naturally emphatic: Rhetorical questions. They are questions in form but emphatic statements in meaning.Negative-positive statements. They first point out what is not the truth, and then what is. The contrast makes them emphaticSentences with repeated words or phrases. The repetition gives emphasisto such sentences.(2) Emphasis within the SentenceVarious ways can be used to achieve emphasis within the sentence.Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end , of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader's attention.Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. in a proper context repeatinga word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.The verb and the active voice. When describing actions, one had betteruse verbs instead of nouns denoting actions, for verbs are generally more vivid and emphatic than nouns.Subordination. This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position.Emphatic words and phrases. There are words and phrases that may be used to emphasize other words.Alliteration.It means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words, like "busy as a bee".5. VarietyBut variety is not to be sought for its of sentences are primarily determined by the Part FourThe Paragraph own sake. The structure and lengthideas to be expressed .A paragraph is a unit of thought . A long paragraph expresses a complex idea,and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or asummary.Ⅰ. Effective ParagraphsA paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well development.1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content . If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence . It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may alsobe found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied.2. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should be smooth and natural .3. TransitionThe following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:A. Using parallel structures;B. Repeating words or word groups;C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns,and the tense of verbs.Ⅱ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea , and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an outline to arrange them in logical order , and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event , the easiest and clearest wayis to describe things in order of time : earlier things are mentioned beforelater things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This methodis also called chronological sequencing .3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description .4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details . For this we should findout the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.5. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand.There are two pattern of arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph: the general-to-specific or the specific-to-the generalDetails or examples are usually arranged in climactic order : the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastStrictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two things of the same thing, while a contrast, the differences between them. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison andcontrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should beidentical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect.Block comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points ofsimilarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison isoften used when the points of similarity discussed are not manybut complex, and require much explanation.There is a special form of comparison - analogy. Analogy is tracinga striking likeness between unlike things.Analogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas , for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making theideas easy to understand.7. Development by Cause and EffectSound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of anycausal analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics . Essential to a good classification is parallelism .9. Development by DefinitionThere are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write aparagraph or even an essay . When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.First, we should avoid circular definitions.Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be definedis an abstract one.Third, we should avoid loaded definitions . Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval.10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in orderto present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Part FiveThe Whole CompositionLike a paragraph, a composition must have unity . All the facts and allthe ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation of its thesis or central thought . Proportion is as important to an essay. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part aboutseven-or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right. The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.A good composition should have something interesting and/or important , and if possible ,something new to say, and that this “something ” is expressed clearly, accurately and appropriately.Ⅰ. Steps in Writing a Compo sition1. Planning a CompositionWhen a topic is assigned, first try to think of as many relevant facts .write them down on a piece of paper. At the same time, try to find a proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main pointor its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from thefacts to be presented in the composition. After that, look at the listof facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.2. Types of OutlinesThere are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives aninstant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the otherhand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare thefollowing two outlines for a paper on foreign trade. Rules for writingoutlines:(1)Avoid single subdivisions.(2)Avoid mixing types.(3) Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank . Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal importance and are related to theheading and arranged in logical order.(4) Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative ; do not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.3.Writing the First Draft4.Revising the First DraftⅠ. Content: Look at the essay / composition as a whole.Ⅱ. Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.Ⅲ. Sentences:Ⅳ. Diction:Mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics, because students are generally mindful of such mistakes.5. Making the Final CopyⅡ. OrganizationMost, if not all, essays are madeup of a beginning , a middle , and an end. 1. The BeginningThe beginning (the introduction) rouses the reader's interest in andsecures his attention to the subject matter of the essay or providesnecessary background information.(1)A quotation(2)Figures or statistics(3)A question or several questions(4)The time and place of the event to be described(5)Relevant background material(6)An analogy(7)A definition2.The middleThe middle (the body) gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideas the writer intends to put forth.3. The EndThe end (the conclusion) winds up the essay often with an emphatic andforceful statement to influence the reader's final impression of theessay and shows the implication or consequences of the argument.Concluding paragraphs should be short,forceful,substantial,andthought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of thepoints that have been discussed.Ⅲ. Types of Writing1. DescriptionDescription is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object,or scene.A description essay is generally developed through sensory details , or the impressions of one's senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help tobring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave out those irrelevant ones, which,if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the mainimpression the writer wishes to give.(1) Description of a personthe writer should not merely give details of his appearance . try to reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings, And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all otherpeople. Those features that he shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of a person, if any, should be included in the description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and givelife to the person described.(2) Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, but also for the purpose ofrevealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describing a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.(3) Description of an objectTo describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we needto mention its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell. It is also necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it playsin a person's life if it is in some way related to him. But emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.(4) Description of a sceneA scene is sometimes the main part of an essay, and sometimes only anepisode in a long narrative. It usually consists of three basic factors: the setting , the people , and the actions. Again, the writer should tryto create a dominant impression when describing a scene.2. NarrationTo narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. Inits broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, news items, and narrative poems.Narration often goes hand in hand with description. Whenone tells a story, one describes its setting and characters. On the other hand, accounts ofactions may be necessary to the description of a person or a scene. Whenplanning a narrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.(1) ContextWhen, where, and to whomthe action in a narrative happened is often made clear at the beginning of the narrative. This will provide the reader witha context, or circumstances, to help him understand the whole narrative.(2) Selection of detailsA narrative is made up of details. Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative, are usefuland effective. Whenselecting details, therefore, the writer should bear in mind his purpose in writing the narrative.(3) OrganizationEvents in a narrative are usually related in chronological order. But it is also possible, and sometimes preferable, to start from the middle oreven the end of the story with the event that is most important or mostlikely to arouse the reader's interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks . A narrative generally has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The setting may be given in the beginning. The middle (the body)tells the story itself. Whenthe story is clearly told, the narrative comes to a natural end. But sometimes it add one or two paragraphs about the significance of the story or about things that happen afterwards.(4) Point of viewA first-person narrative may be more graphic and lifelike , because it gives the reader the impression that it is what the writer himself hasseen or experienced. But the scope of the narrative may be limited , for it is difficult to recount events that happen in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from this limitation, and it may seem more objective, but it is not easy to put in good order thingsthat happen to different people in different places.(5) PurposeThere must be a purpose in telling a story. The writer may want to provea theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemna vice, etc, he has to choose details and design the plot of his story carefully. 3. Expositionmost frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means expounding or explaining .Wehave seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings , and narration with events and experiences . While exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships .Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification anddivision, comparison and contrast, causes and effects , or definition . That is to say, methods which are good for paragraph development are also good for expository essays. The difference lies in scope and proportion .The most important quality of exposition is clarity . To achieve this the writer should:1) Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible toexplain many things clearly in a short essay2) Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation3) Present his facts and views in proper order , in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4) Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;5)Make exposition interesting or moving(1)IllustrationIllustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. It is the most common,and often the most efficient pattern of exposition. Goodexamples help to clarify a writer's thought by making the general specific, andthe abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade orconvince the reader.A successful illustration paper depends on1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant2) An expert arrangement of these examples - similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.(2) Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out . Division is used to deal with one thing . Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts . Classification, is used to organize things which share certain qualities . Its purpose is to group these things systematically . Division stresses the distinction between things, whereas classification emphasizes the similarities . Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts. The whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the parts are closely related.Guidelines of using division or classification:1) Choose an appropriate principle of division / classification suitedto your purpose.Things are divided or classified according to the writer's purpose or interests .Be sure that your principle of division / classification is interesting and significant . A division of people according to their weight may beabsurd unless you intend to discuss how different categories respond tocertain medicine the dosage of which depends on a person's weight.2) Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping.Your categories should be divided according to one principle throughout. Remember one item can belong to only one category.(3) Comparison and Contrast。

Part OneManuscript FormYou should do everything - writing the title, leaving margins, indenting, capitalizing.Ⅰ. Arrangement排版Write the title in the middle of the first line. Capitalize the first and last words of the title and all other words(including words following hyphens in compound words) except articles, coordinating conjunctions(and, or, but, nor, for), prepositions, and the to in infinitives.Indent the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five letters.Ⅱ. Word Division移行The general principle is to divide a word according to its syllables. Pay attention to the following:One-syllable words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided. Do not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a. lone, trick. y.Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a line, like hat. ed, cab. in. Avoid separating proper names of people or places, like Chi. na, Aus. ten.Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed. Do not divide words in a way that may mislead the reader: pea. cock, re. ally.Do not divide the last word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the next page.Divide words with prefixes or suffixes between the prefix or suffix and the base part of the word: re. state. ment, un. relent. ing.Divide two-syllable words with double consonants between the two consonants: strug. gle, shat. ter.Dividing words is not always easy. When in doubt, consult a dictionaryⅢ. Capitalization大写Capitals are used mainly at three places: the first words of sentences, key words in titles, and proper names.Ⅳ. Punctuation标点V. Handwriting书法Write carefully so that your handwriting can be read easily.Part TwoDiction措词Ⅰ. Levels of Words词的类型The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three types: formal, common, and informal.Formal words may also be called learned words, or literary words, or "big" words. They mainly appear in formal writing, most of them are seldom used in daily conversation, except for special purposes.those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing., they are called common words.There are words which are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation. They seldom appear in formal writing, and in literary works their main use is to record people's thoughts and dialogues. They are usually short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin We may call them informal wordsSlang words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may, when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funnyⅡ. The Meaning of Words词义The meaning of a word has two aspects: denotative and connotative. A word's denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is the feeling or idea suggested by it.Ⅲ. General and Specific Words泛指词和特指词Specific words help to make writing clear, exact, vivid, and striking, for they are more informative and expressive than general words.Ⅳ. Idioms习语An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the meanings of the words that form it.Idioms are frequently used in speech and writing. They help to make one's language sound natural and idiomatic.Ⅴ. Figures of Speech修辞Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader's or listener's mind are used figuratively.1. Simile明喻It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the comparison is indicated by the word as or like.2. Metaphor暗喻It is the use of a word which originally denotes one thing to refer to another with a similar quality.3. Personification拟人It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had human qualities. In poetry personification is very common:In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.4. Metonymy转喻It is substituting the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely associated.5. Synecdoche提喻When a part is substituted for the whole or the whole is substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied6. Euphemism委婉语It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a harsh or unpleasant one.7. Irony反语It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant, in order to achieve a special effect.8. Overstatement and understatement夸大和缩小In overstatement the diction exaggerates the subject, and in understatement the words play down the magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole.Both aim at the same effect: to make the statement or description impressive or interesting.9. Transferred Epithet移位修饰An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase that serves to characterize somebody or something.A transferred epithet is one that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.10. Oxymoron矛盾修辞法In oxymoron apparently contradictory terms are combined to produce a special effect.11. Alliteration押头韵It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant sound in two or more words.Alliteration is sometimes used in prose for the same effect - to join two or more related words.Part ThreeThe SentenceⅠ. Complete Sentences and Sentence FragmentsA grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least a subject and a predicate (or finite) verb; if the verb is transitive, there must be an object; if the verb is a link-verb, there must be a predicative or complement:A complete sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a period.Ⅱ. Types of Sentences1. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory SentencesAccording to their use, sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. A declarative sentence makes an assertion or a statement.An interrogative sentence asks a question. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request. An exclamatory sentence expresses a strong feeling or emotion2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex SentencesAccording to their structure sentences are simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex.A simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate-verb, but it may contain more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more subjects or predicate-verbsA compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses(or simple sentences) related to each other in meaning, and linked by a coordinatingconjunction (and, but, or, etc.) or by a semicolon without a conjunction. Coordinated ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one in orderly sequence.A complex sentence contains one main (or principal) clause and one or more dependent (or subordinate)clauses, with a connective word denoting the relation between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a subject, an object, a predicative, an attribute, or an adverbial in the main clause. As a rule, the major idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the subordinate clauses.A compound-complex sentence contains at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause - a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.Short simple sentences are often used to make emphatic or important statements, such as the first sentence of the first passage and the last two sentences of the second passage.Long complex sentences express complex ideas clearly and accurately.3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced SentencesFrom a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose, periodic, or balanced. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.Loose sentences are easier, simpler, more natural and direct; periodic sentences are more complex, emphatic, formal, or literary.When a sentence contains two or more parts of the same form and grammatical function, it is one with parallel constructions.Such parallel sentences are emphatic and forceful. When a sentence contains two parallel clauses similar in structure but contrasted in meaning, it is a balanced sentence.Balanced sentences are impressive because of the contrast, and pleasing to hear because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in formal writing, like expository and argumentative prose, and speeches.4. Short and Long SentencesShort sentences are usually emphatic, whereas long sentences are capable of expressing complex ideas with precision, because it may contain many modifiers. Short sentences are suitable for the presentation of important facts and ideas, and long sentences for the explanation of views and theories, or the description of things with many details.Various sentence structures have been discussed. The basic principle is that the structure should fit the idea being expressed. In other words, the idea determines the choice of the structure, not the other way round.Ⅲ. Effective Sentences1. UnityUnity is the first quality of an effective sentence. A unified sentence expresses a single complete thought.2. CoherenceCoherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts.3. ConcisenessA sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the fewer words are used, the better.Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but unnecessary repetition, either of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided. Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by changing the sentence structure.4. Emphasis(1) Emphatic SentencesSentences may be emphasized in the following ways:Short sentences.Sentence fragments. They are also called one-member sentences.Inverted sentences. They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the reader's attention.Parallel constructions and balanced sentences.Periodic sentences. Their climactic word order makes them emphatic.Imperative and exclamatory sentences. They are naturally emphatic:Rhetorical questions.They are questions in form but emphatic statements in meaning.Negative-positive statements.They first point out what is not the truth, and then what is. The contrast makes them emphaticSentences with repeated words or phrases. The repetition gives emphasis to such sentences.(2) Emphasis within the SentenceVarious ways can be used to achieve emphasis within the sentence.Placing. The beginning and the end, especially the end, of a sentence are the two places that attract the reader's attention.Repetition. Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence; therefore it should be avoided. in a proper context repeating a word or an idea in different words may be a means of emphasis.The verb and the active voice.When describing actions, one had better use verbs instead of nouns denoting actions, for verbs are generally more vivid and emphatic than nouns.Subordination.This means putting a minor idea in a dependent element of the sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position.Emphatic words and phrases.There are words and phrases that may be used to emphasize other words.Alliteration. It means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning of two or more words, like "busy as a bee".5. VarietyBut variety is not to be sought for its own sake. The structure and length of sentences are primarily determined by the ideas to be expressed.Part FourThe ParagraphA paragraph is a unit of thought. A long paragraph expresses a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.Ⅰ. Effective ParagraphsA paragraph is like a mini-essay; it should be unified, coherent and well development.1. UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. Sometimes, the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied.2. CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form,or its organization.The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order,and the transitions should be smooth and natural.3. TransitionThe following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:A. Using parallel structures;B. Repeating words or word groups;C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs.Ⅱ. Ways of Developing Paragraphs1. Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an outline to arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.2. Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This method is also called chronological sequencing.3. Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description.4. Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly.5. Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand.There are two pattern of arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph: the general-to-specific or the specific-to-the generalDetails or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.6. Development by Comparison and ContrastStrictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two things of the same thing, while a contrast, the differences between them. There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison or alternating contrast.Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect.Block comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison is often used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but complex, and require much explanation.There is a special form of comparison -analogy.Analogy is tracing a striking likeness between unlike things.Analogies are especially helpful in explaining abstract ideas, for they relate ideas that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste, to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.7. Development by Cause and EffectSound reasoning or logic is naturally the most important quality of any causal analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and effect. The first method is to state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes. The second method is to state a cause and then mention or predict the effects.8. Development by ClassificationTo classify is to sort things into categories according to their characteristics. Essential to a good classification is parallelism.9. Development by DefinitionThere are three basic ways to define a word or term: to give a synonym, to use a sentence (often with an attributive clause), and to write a paragraph or even an essay.When we give a definition, we should observe certain principles.First, we should avoid circular definitions.Second, we should avoid long lists of synonyms if the term to be defined is an abstract one.Third, we should avoid loaded definitions. Loaded definitions do not explain terms but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval.10. Development by a Combination of MethodsWriters may find it necessary to use a combination of methods in order to present their ideas in an impressive and convincing manner.Part FiveThe Whole CompositionLike a paragraph, a composition must have unity. All the facts and all the ideas in an essay should contribute to the presentation of its thesis or central thought. Proportion is as important to an essay. The essential part of an essay is the body or the middle part. To give this part about seven-or eight-tenths of the total space will be just right. The beginning and the end, though important, have to be short.A good composition should have something interesting and/or important, and if possible ,something new to say, and that this “something” is expressed clearly, accurately and appropriately.Ⅰ. Steps in Writing a Composition1. Planning a CompositionWhen a topic is assigned, first try to think of as many relevant facts .write them down on a piece of paper. At the same time, try to find a proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main point or its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from the facts to be presented in the composition. After that, look at the list of facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.2. Types of OutlinesThere are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline.A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare the following two outlines for a paper on foreign trade.Rules for writing outlines:(1)Avoid single subdivisions.(2) Avoid mixing types.(3) Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank. Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal importance and are related to the heading and arranged in logical order.(4) Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative; do not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.3. Writing the First Draft4. Revising the First DraftⅠ. Content: Look at the essay / composition as a whole.Ⅱ. Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.Ⅲ. Sentences:Ⅳ. Diction:Mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics, because students are generally mindful of such mistakes.5. Making the Final CopyⅡ. OrganizationMost, if not all, essays are made up of a beginning, a middle, and an end.1.The BeginningThe beginning (the introduction) rouses the reader's interest in and secures his attention to the subject matter of the essay or provides necessary background information.(1) A quotation(2) Figures or statistics(3) A question or several questions(4) The time and place of the event to be described(5) Relevant background material(6) An analogy(7) A definition2. The middleThe middle (the body) gives a clear and logical presentation of the facts and ideas the writer intends to put forth.3. The EndThe end (the conclusion) winds up the essay often with an emphatic and forceful statement to influence the reader's final impression of the essay and shows the implication or consequences of the argument.Concluding paragraphs should be short, forceful, substantial,and thought-provoking, made up mainly of restatements or summaries of the points that have been discussed.Ⅲ. Types of Writing1. DescriptionDescription is painting a picture in words of a person, place, object, or scene.A description essay is generally developed through sensory details, or the impressions of one's senses - sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. Not all details are useful. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing described, and leave outthose irrelevant ones, which, if included, would only distract the reader's attention from the main impression the writer wishes to give.(1) Description of a personthe writer should not merely give details of his appearance. try to reveal the person's character, thoughts, and feelings, And it is important to grasp the characteristic features that distinguish him from all other people. Those features that he shares with others can be omitted. Peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of a person, if any, should be included in the description, for they usually impress the reader deeply and give life to the person described.(2) Description of a placePlaces may be described for their own sake, but also for the purpose of revealing the personality and character of a person, or creating a feeling or mood. As in describing a person, in describing a place one should mainly write about the things that make it different from other places.(3) Description of an objectTo describe an object we have to depend on our senses, because we need to mention its size, shape, color, texture, taste, and smell. It is also necessary to tell how it is used if it is useful, and what part it plays in a person's life if it is in some way related to him. But emphasis should be placed on only one aspect of the object, probably its most important characteristic.(4) Description of a sceneA scene is sometimes the main part of an essay, and sometimes only an episode in a long narrative. It usually consists of three basic factors: the setting, the people, and the actions.Again, the writer should try to create a dominant impression when describing a scene.2. NarrationTo narrate is to give an account of an event or a series of events. In its broadest sense, narrative writing includes stories, real or imaginary, biographies, histories, news items, and narrative poems.Narration often goes hand in hand with description. When one tells a story, one describes its setting and characters. On the other hand, accounts of actions may be necessary to the description of a person or a scene.When planning a narrative, the writer should consider these five aspects: context, selection of details, organization, point of view, and purpose.(1) ContextWhen, where, and to whom the action in a narrative happened is often made clear at the beginning of the narrative. This will provide the reader with a context, or circumstances, to help him understand the whole narrative.(2) Selection of detailsA narrative is made up of details. Only relevant details, or things that contribute to bringing out the main ideas of the narrative, are useful and effective. When selecting details, therefore, the writer should bear in mind his purpose in writing the narrative. (3) OrganizationEvents in a narrative are usually related in chronological order. But it is also possible, and sometimes preferable, to start from the middle or even the end of the story with the event that is most important or most likely to arouse the reader's interest, and then go back to the beginning by using flashbacks. A narrative generally has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The setting may be given in the beginning. The middle (the body) tells the story itself.When the story is clearly told, the narrative comes to a natural end. But sometimes it add one or two paragraphs about the significance of the story or about things that happen afterwards.(4) Point of viewA first-person narrative may be more graphic and lifelike, because it gives the reader the impression that it is what the writer himself has seen or experienced. But the scope of the narrative may be limited, for it is difficult to recount events that happen in different places at the same time. A third-person narrative is free from this limitation, and it may seem more objective,but it is not easy to put in good order things that happen to different people in different places.(5) PurposeThere must be a purpose in telling a story. The writer may want to prove a theory, to illustrate a concept, to praise a virtue, to condemn a vice, etc, he has to choose details and design the plot of his story carefully.3. Expositionmost frequently used by a student, a scientist, or a professional. Exposition means expounding or explaining.We have seen that description mainly deals with appearances and feelings, and narration with events and experiences. While exposition mainly deals with processes and relationships.Things can be explained by illustration, process, classification and division, comparison and contrast,causes and effects, or definition. That is to say, methods which are good for paragraph development are also good for expository essays. The difference lies in scope and proportion.The most important quality of exposition is clarity. To achieve this the writer should: 1) Limit his subject or the scope of discussion, for it is impossible to explain many things clearly in a short essay2) Prepare enough material (details or examples) to help his explanation3) Present his facts and views in proper order, in the order of time or of logical sequence depending on the nature of the subject;4) Pay attention to the accuracy and clarity of words and sentences; avoid ornamental as well as ambiguous expressions;5) Make exposition interesting or moving(1) IllustrationIllustration is the use of example to illustrate a point. It is the most common, and often the most efficient pattern of exposition. Good examples help to clarify a writer's thought by making the general specific, and the abstract concrete. They also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.A successful illustration paper depends on1) A wise selection of sufficient examples which are specific and typical, interesting and relevant2) An expert arrangement of these examples - similar or related examples should be grouped together and arranged climactically.(2) Division and ClassificationDivision and classification are two different ways of sorting things out. Division is used to deal with one thing. Its purpose is to separate that thing into parts. Classification, is used to organize things which share certain qualities. Its purpose is to group these things systematically.Division stresses the distinction between things, whereas classification emphasizes the similarities. Division deals with the whole and classification, the parts.The whole is composed of parts, and parts make up the whole; the whole and the parts are closely related.Guidelines of using division or classification:1) Choose an appropriate principle of division / classification suited to your purpose. Things are divided or classified according to the writer's purpose or interests.Be sure that your principle of division / classification is interesting and significant. A division of people according to their weight may be absurd unless you intend to discuss how different categories respond to certain medicine the dosage of which depends on a person's weight.2) Apply your principle consistently and thoroughly, and avoid overlapping. Your categories should be divided according to one principle throughout. Remember one item can belong to only one category.(3) Comparison and ContrastA comparison explains how things are similar(similarities/comparisons), and a contrast, how they are different(differences/ contrasts).When you write a comparison / contrast paper, you explain or clarify for one of the three following purposes:1) To present information about something unfamiliar by comparing it with something familiar;2) To show the superiority of one thing by comparing it with another; and3) To show the reader of the similarities and differences of two things to help the reader understand or evaluate them.When you write a comparison / contrast paper, keep in mind the following principles of selection and development:1) Only items (usually two) of the same general class can be compared / contrasted.2) A comparison / contrast essay usually follows one of these two patterns: the subject-by-subject pattern or the point-by-point pattern.In the subject-by-subject pattern, the writer discusses the various aspects of one item before going on to the other.In the point-by-point pattern, the writer discusses both items under each of the various aspects compared / contrasted.。

A Handbook of English WritingThe ParagraphA paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay.A paragraph is like a mini essay; it should be unified, coherent and well developed. A paragraph is unified when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic; when the writer wishes it introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph. A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally and smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another. There are many ways to develop a paragraph, for example, by process, by cause and effect, by comparison and contrast, etc.Paragraphs vary in length. In a short expository essay of about 600 words, the average paragraph may be about 100 words, or between four and eight sentences. Ultimately, the length of the paragraph depends on its topic, its position in the essay and its role in the development of the thesis statement. Paragraphs in books are usually longer than those in newspapers. A long paragraph exposes a complex idea, and a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary. An experienced writer varies the length of his paragraphs to avoid monotony.I.Effective Paragraphs1.UnityUnity of a paragraph is concerned with its content. If all the sentences in the paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is unified. The central theme is usually summarized in what is called the topic sentence. It often appears at the beginning of the paragraph; however, it may also be found in the middle or at the end of a paragraph.One of the central preoccupations of the arts and humanities is the observation of human beings. Painters and sculptors create the images of the human form; writers tell stories or compose poems about human experience; musical artists give melodic contours to the human spirits; historians and philosophers ponder the essential qualities of human civilization and nature. And in our own lives, in our own ways, we spend a great deal of our energy and attention to our fellow creatures, being in families and other kinds of relationship, observing people with curiosity and interest in the course of the day, thinking about and forming our own character---deciding what kind of person we wish to be---as we grow.---Don KneelWe now have, as a result of modern means of communication, hundreds of thousands of words flung at us daily. Teachers, preachers, salesmen, public officials and motion-picture sound tracks are constantly talking us at. The cries of advertisers pursue us into our very homes, thanks to the radio---and in some houses the radio is neverturned off from morning to night. Daily the newsboy brings us, in large cities, from thirty to fifty enormous pages of print and almost three times that amount on Sunday. We go out and get more words at bookstores and libraries. Words fill our lives.In the first paragraph the first sentence is the topic sentence, whereas in the second paragraph, it is the last sentence. Sometimes the topic sentence is not stated explicitly but is implied. In the following paragraph, all the details contribute to one theme---what the room looks like. Though without a topic sentence, the paragraph is unified.The room is located on the fifth floor of the high building. One third of its total floor space is taken up by a double bed. Facing it, in the corner behind the door, stands a cupboard loaded with pots, bowls, dishes, bottles, and bags of rice and flour. A desk completely fills the gap between the bed and the wall with the window. Behind the desk is a hair, the only one in the room; and it almost touches the boxes and trunks piles against the wall on the opposite side.---Student2.CoherenceCoherence of a paragraph is concerned with its form, or its organization. The sentence is a paragraph should be arranged in a clear, logical order, and the transitions should smooth and natural. As a result, the reader finds it easy to follow the writer’s train of thought and understand what he is talking about.There is some feeling nowadays that reading is not as necessary as it once was. Radio and especially television have taken over many of the functions once served by painting and other graphic arts. Admittedly, television serves some of these functions extremely well; the visual communication of news event, for example, has enormous impact. The ability of radio to give us information while we are engaged in doing other things---for instance, driving a car---is remarkable, and a great saving of time. But it may be seriously questioned whether the advent of modern communication media has much enhanced out understanding of the world in which we live.---Mortimer J. AdlerThis paragraph is coherent. The writer begins with a statement, and then he goes to explain what have made some people feel that “reading is not as necessary as it once was”---radio and television have almost replaced the functions of the printed matter. What follows further explains how watching television and listening to radio serve some of the functions of reading. But the writer doubts whether the appearance of modern communication media has really promoted our understanding of the world, which he expresses in the last sentence, the topic sentence of the paragraph.3.TransitionCoherence may not be perfect even if the writer arranges his sentences in a clear, logicalorder. He has to use good transitions so that one sentence runs smoothly after another.The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:ing parallel structure;B.Repeating words or words group;ing pronouns and refer to nouns in preceding sentences;D.Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense ofverbs.In the following paragraph, note how the writer makes use of all these ways to achieve coherence.Americans are queer people: they can’t play. Americans rush to work as soon as they grow up. They want their work as soon as they wake. It is stimulant---the only one they are not afraid of. They used to open their offices at ten o’clock; then at nine; then at eight;then at seven. Now they never shut them. Every business in America is turning into an open-all-day-and-all-night business. They eat all night, dance all night, and make a noise all night. They can’t play. They try to, but can’t/ they turn football into a fight, baseball into a lawsu it, and yachting into machinery. They can’t play. The little children can’t play;they use mechanical toys instead---toy cranes, hoisting toy loads, toy machinery spreading a toy industry depression of infantile dullness. The grownup people can’t play, the y use a mechanical gymnasium and a clockwork horse. They can’t laugh; they hire a comedian and watch him laugh.---Stephen Peacocking transitional expressions1)Connectives and transitional phrases for special development:Above before me here on the leftAcross from below in the distance on the rightAdjacent to beyond nearby opposite toAlso further next to on top ofUp down close to beneathUnder around near to over2)Connectives and transitional phrases for chronological development:First, second, etc. Soon eventuallyIn the meantime then thereuponAt the same time next thereafterAfter an interval now afterPresently later afterwardSomewhat later finally at last3)Connectives and transitional phrases for analytical development:First, second, etc. Now for this purposeBut as a result furthermoreFinally at last moreoverAlso consequently likewiseAnother for example nextYet for instance on the contraryOnce in addition in summarySuch in this case on the other handThen otherwise in conclusionThus in closing therefore4)Connectives and transitional phrases for comparisons:Another furthermore moreoverEqually important too, also at the same timeBesides then accordinglyIn fact in addition to like, likewiseSimilarly just as…so in the same way5)Connectives and transitional phrases for contrasts:On the contrary different from/in contrastOn the other hand toDespite in spite ofYet, but whereasNot only…but also here…thereYears ago…today this…thatThe former…the latter then…nowThe former…whereas the second some…othersOn the one hand…on the other once…nowII.Ways of Developing Paragraphs1.Planning a ParagraphParagraphs need to be planned. First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence (topic sentence). Then think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Arrange them in logical order, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.An outline may be helpful to beginners. Suppose you are to write an article about philately, and your topic sentence is “Philately is an interesting hobby”, you may have the following points:(1)There are beautiful pictures on postage stamps;(2)There are portraits of historical figures on them;(3)It is always a delight to get a stamp I have never seen before;(4)I can learn something by looking at the stamps I have collected.On reading the four points again you may find that the last point had better be made the first. Now you can beg to write. Here is a paragraph developed from the above outline:Philately is an interesting hobby. Every time I open my albums and looked at the stamps I’ve collected over the years, I learned something new. On many of them are printed drawings or picture of rare birds, animals, trees or flowers. Under a magnifying glass they look very beautiful, and they help to increase my knowledge of nature. Onother stamps there are portraits of historical figures, such as Quip Yuan and Dr. Sun Yates, George Washington and Chester W. Limits. Whenever I see an unfamiliar name, I will try to find some information about the person by consulting an encyclopedia. In this way, I have come know something about quite a few people who are famous for one reason or another. Some of my friends and relatives who know I am interested in stamps often show me used envelopes. If I see a stamp I have never seen before I will ask them to give it to me, and it seems they are always kind enough to oblige me. It is always a delight to add a new stamp to my collection, and the more stamps I have, the more interested I am in philately.---StudentIn this paragraph a statement is given first and it is followed by some explanations. The statement expresses the effect and the rest of the paragraph explains the causes. This is one of the many possible methods for developing a paragraph.2.Development by TimeIn telling a story or recounting an event, the easiest and clearest way is to describe things in order of time: early things are mentioned before later things, the first thing first and the last thing last. This methodic also called chronological sequencing.James Murray was born in Scotland in 1837, the son of a village tailor. He went toa parish school, but he left at 14 and he educated himself with pertinacity. He lovedknowledge and he loved to impart it. He became a schoolmaster; he learned language after language and was alive to geology, archeology and phonetics, as well as to the local politics. He had to leave Scotland because of the illness of his first wife, and he became a bank clerk in London. By sheer energy of scholarship, and without benefit of any university education, he made himself indispensable to the other remarkable philologists of his day. He returned to school teaching and lived a 72-hour day for the rest of his life. For the invitation to edit what became the O.E.D. was one that he could not refuse. At first he combined it with his school work; later he moved to Oxford and dedicated himself to building the best sort of monument---best in that it was not a monument to himself, and best in that it was not a monument to something dead but rather to something living: the English language.---Christopher RacksMy heart gave a leap when I heard the announcement that our train would soon arrive at its destination---Beijing. Like other passengers, I began to collect my things and put my mug, towel, atlas, apples, and other things into my bag. To the tune of a beautiful song the train pulled into the station and gently stopped by a platform. I walked out of the train and was carried forward by the stream of people into an underground passage and then into a big hall. As I stepped out of the station, I was dazzled by the bright autumn skies of Beijing. Though I had been on the train for more than thirty hours and spent a sleepless night, I didn’t feel tired at all, and believed my days in Beijing would be as sunny as the skies.---StudentThese two paragraph s, one telling the story of a person’s life, the other describing an event that took place in a few minutes, followed a chronological arrangement, and it is easy for the reader to understand what is told in them.3.Development by ProcessWhen you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological sequence and give a step-by-step description. As the steps mulct occurs one after another, the exact order in which they are carried out is most important. In giving instructions, imperative sentences and sentences with the indefinite pronoun you as the subject is often used. The present tense should be used if the instructions are still applicable.Once you encounter a person who has stopped berthing, you should begin immediately to do mouth-to-mouth berthing. First, place the victim on his back and remove any foreign matter from his mouth with your fingers. Then tilt his head backward, so that his chin is pointing up. Next, pull his mouth open and his jaw forward, pinch his nostrils shut to prevent the air, which you blow into his mouth from escaping through his nose. Then place your mouth tightly over the victim’s. Blow into his mouth until you see his chest rise. Then turn your head to the side and listen for the out rush of air, which indi cates an air exchange. Repeat the process…---A handbookIt is necessary for a person to know how to post a parcel, since almost everyone has relatives and friends living far away and he may like to send them something. Different objects are packed in different ways. Things like bottles of medicine and watches should be put into wooden boxes to avoid breakage. After you have packed the objects, put down your address and that of the addressee on the wrapping. Give the parcel to the postal clerk for him to check. He will then give you a form to fill in. Having filled in the form, you give it together with the parcel to the clerk. He will weigh the parcel and tell you how much you should pay. You pay the money and get a receipt. Be sure to keep your receipt until you are sure that the addressee has received the parcel. If anything wrong should happen to your parcel, you can show the receipt to the clerk and ask to be reimbursed.---A student4.Development by SpaceBefore we begin to describe a place, whether it is a large country or a small room, we have to decide on the order in which to name the different parts or details. For this we should find out the space relationships between them and arrange our description accordingly. It would only confuse the reader to mention them in a haphazard way.In the middle of the rectangular-shaped courtyard stood three magnolia trees, all in full bloom. A little girl was hopping among them, now gazing at a bud, now collecting fallen petals. Less than one of the trees stood her parents, who, while keeping an eye onher, were examining the milk-while blossoms with great interest and admiration. In front of another tree a young couple, fresh and bright as the flowers, were posing for a picture.At one end of the courtyard a group of youngsters had gathered behind an artist paintinga flourishing limb, which looked so charming and real that one boy stooped to sniff at ahalf-open flower. At the opposite end a few elderly men and women stood admiring the leafless flowering trees and the people looking at them.---A studentHere the writer starts forms the trees in the middle of the courtyard, or the center of the scene. Then he describes the people under and around the trees (girls, her parents and the young couple), and after that the people farther from the trees at both ends of the courtyard (the artist and youngsters behind him, and the elderly women and men). In short, he moves his camera from the center to the surrounding areas.Mr. Cook, a renowned American historian, arranges the books on his bookshelves in a unique way. In the upper right hand corner, there are books about the development of the early colonies in New England and the War of Independence. Right under them can be found books on the slave trade, the plantation system and the growth of the southern states. The left side of the shelf contains hundreds of books concerning subjects of the Westward Movement, Indian culture, the cowbo ys’ contributions to American society and the Gold Rush in California. From the description above, one can see that Mr. Cook regards his bookshelves as a map of the U.S. and arranges his history books accordingly.It is odd, but it is convenient.---A StudentThis paragraph, which describes the arrangement of books, is simple and clear. The positions of the books are described in order that is easy to follow: first from the upper right to the lower right, and then to the left.5.Development by Example or GeneralizationSupporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement specific and easy to understand. An illustration is a case, a specimen, and an instance. Vivid illustration light up abstract ideas and make them clear, interesting, memorable, or convincing.Illustrations may be a single example or a series of examples:This term several useful and interesting courses have been offered. An Introduction to European Culture, for instance, gives us a lot of background knowledge of the history of the European philosophy, literature, and arts. From time to time we see slide shows of famous paintings and hear tapes of famous pieces of music, and they make the lectures all the more interesting. American Society and Culture is another course that attracts a large audience. The teacher, who visited the United States not long ago, discusses new trends and changes in American life as well as American history and traditions. We like these and other courses very much, because they help us not only to improve our English but also to broaden our vision.---A StudentIn this paragraph there are two examples that explain why certain courses are “useful and inter esting” as is said in the first sentence.The following paragraph develops its controlling sentence with a series of facts involving well-known people. These enable the writer to make the abstract idea, “persistent investigation,” concrete. They also add dramatic qualities that make the information interesting. You may notice that is not always necessary to say “for example” or “for instance” when an example is given.Knowledge often results only after persistent investigation. Albert Einstein, after a lengthy examination of the characteristics of matter and energy, formulated his famous Theory of Relativity, which now acts as a basis for further research in nuclear physics.Using plaster casts of footprints, fingerprints, and stray strands of hair, a detective pertinacious pursues the criminals. After years of work Annie Jump Cannon perfected the classification of the spectra of some 350,000 stars. Investigations into the causes of polio have provided us with the means for prevention and cure of this dreaded disease only after many years of research. As students, we too are determined in our investigation to find, retain, and contribute to the store of human knowledge.---Earl RudolphThe following paragraph, which is mainly descriptive, contains many details. It starts with a topic sentence. Then details are given to back up the opening statement. This is the general-to-specific pattern.My little niece, a ten-month-old baby, is the loveliest child I have ever seen. Her face is like a red apple and her eyes are like bright stars. When you carry her in your arms, she likes to put her arms around your neck. All the grownups in the family love her very much and often try to make her smile. But quite often it is she who makes us laugh. OnceI winked at her and she smiled. When I did it again, she watched me attentively. Then shetried to imitate. While we closed one eye to wink, she had to close both eyes at the same time, and then quickly opened them again. And that was her way to wink. We all burst into laughter. When we looked at her again, she was staring at us, puzzled, as if she was asking, “What are you laughing at?”---A studentAnother possible arrangement of details (or examples) in a paragraph is from the specific to the general. The details are mentioned first, and the general statement, which may be the topic sentence, comes at the end of the paragraph, summarizing the main idea of the paragraph.Whether you do or do not open a gift in the presence of the giver; whether you should or should not turn the plate over to look at the maker’s symbol on the back; whether you put your coat on before or after you leave the host’s home; whether you eat as quickly or noisily as possible; whether you carry on a conversation during a mean; whether you walked in front of or behind a seated person; whether it is a friendly of an offensive gesture to put your hand on the arm of the person with whom you are talking---these anda thousand questions are matters of cultural definition. None of them is inherently rightor wrong, and none is good or bad manners except as a society defines it so.---Ina Corinne Brown Details or examples are usually arranged in climactic order: the least important comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.It was a typical Russian winter. The first snowstorm had turned everything white. The wind was howling, swirling and tumbling over a vast land of ice and snow, freezing and destroying whatever stood in its way. A ragged, misshapen army was staggering and struggling desperately for survival, cold, hungry and decreasing in size every day. The year was 1812. The army of the remnants of Napoleon’s expeditionary force which was withdrawing from Russia after receiving its worst defeat. The war with Russia turned out to be a fiasco for Napoleon and had a devastating effect on his career.---A NovelSuch a climactic sequence is followed in paragraphs developed not only by details or examples but also by comparison and contrast, by cause and effect, etc.6.Development by Comparison and ContrastThe method of comparison and contrast is often used. We compare the present and the past of China, the culture of the East and the West, Chinese and English. By comparing and contrasting we may get a clearer picture of things.Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the similarities between two or more persons and things of the same class, while a contrast, the difference between them. In practice, however, comparison and contrast often appear together, because people generally compare two things that are similar in certain ways and different in others.There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison and contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and then in the same order. This method is called block comparison or block contrast.The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point-by-point. This method is called alternative comparison or alternative contrast.The following paragraph is a good example of alternative comparison:The same qualities that make people good houseguests make them good hospital patients. Good houseguests can expect a reasonable amount of service and effort on their behalf, and hospital patients can also. Guests have to adjust to what is for them a change, and certainly hospital patients must do the same. No one appreciates complaining, unpleasant, unappreciative houseguests, and the hospital staff is no exception.Houseguests who expect vast changes to be made for their benefit are not popular for long. Certainly nurses and other personnel with their routines feel the same way about patients in their care. Just as houseguests must make adjustments to enjoy their visits, so patients must make adjustments to make their stays reasonably pleasant and satisfyingunder the circumstances.---Robert FriedmanAlternative contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a special feature of one item and then state how the other item differs from it in that aspect. The following paragraph is an example of this method.The television western of several years ago differs greatly from the western of today.Ten years ago, for example, thaw swindler or bank robber in a western could be identified not by the crimes he committed so much as by the color of the clothing he wore---which was black. Today the television western reveals the villain by mannerisms and personali ty. At one time, every western has a superhuman or invincible “good guy”with whom the viewers could identify because he too lives out on the farm. Currently, the central figures of the west are average people who may live on a middle-class street in any part of the country. They are characters like the bus drivers, mail clerks and accountants who live next door to you in suburbia. At night they come in off the horses to ride the television range. They become persons who respect others, drink and smoke only just a bit, and are able not only to outshoot the “bad guy”, but also to outsmart him with good common sense.---Ron SenegalBlock comparison is suitable when the writer wants to treat points of similarity in depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made clear. This type of comparison is often used when the points of similarity discussed are not many but complex, and require much explanation.Here is a paragraph, which points out all of the characteristics that the writer wants to name about Ulysses S. Grant, and then mentions all the parallel items in the life of Robert E. Lee.Although Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee were fierce adversaries during the Civil War, their lives, both military and nonmilitary, had a great deal in common. Great descended from a family whose members participated in the American Revolution? He received his commission of second lieutenant from West Point and served in the Spanish-American War. He was later summoned by President Lincoln to assume command of the Union Forces during the Civil War. After the Civil War, Grant suffered financial problems and was forced to declare bankruptcy. Lee also descended from a family, which engaged in the American Revolution. He, too, received his commission fro West Point and later fought in Mexico during the Spanish-American War. His fame as a military strategist during the civil War, when he was the commander of the Confederate armies, is well known. Although historians do not always point it, he, like Grant, had financial difficulties after the Civil War and was compelled to declare bankruptcy. By securing a post as president of Washington College, he was able to avoid additional poverty.---Gordon Saris。

英语写作手册考试题目一、填空。

1. The words that are often used may be divided, from a stylistic point of view, into three2.3. A grammatically complete sentence is one that contains at least and a4. According to their use, sentences are5. A loose sentence puts the main idea before all supplementary information; in other words, it puts first things first, and lets the readers know what it is mainly about when they have read the first few words. The reverse arrangement makes a periodic sentence: the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it, and it is not grammatically complete until the end is reached. (松散句，圆周句P39)6. 7. Inductive reasoning: when you use induction, you start with facts and proceed fromfacts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement.Deductive reasoning: The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning—it moves from a general statement to s specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogism—a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.8. The process of writing a research paper is generally divided into five steps or stages:? Choosing a topic;? Collecting information;? Analyzing the information, organizing ideas, and working out and outline;? Writing the first draft;? Revising the draft and finalizing the paper.二．修辞辨别。