Literary Stylistics Chapter 2 Three Major Views of Style

Literary Stylistic Analysis of Arms and the Boy1. Phonetic featuresThough sounds in themselves have no meaning, they may acquire it through arbitrary and conventional associations in a language. Certain sounds may be appropriate to suggest certain meanings. Owen is very good at this. His poems often employ onomatopoeia to achieve particular meanings or effects. Owen uses lots of blunt stops, such as/b/, /k/, /d/ and /t/, to highlight the tense and horrible battle. In the first two lines of the open verse, /b/ appearing four times (boy, bayonet-blade and blood) just likes the chill-shining bayonets is in front of soldiers whose bodies are horribly mangled. Another example is the first line of second verse, the poet also chooses the “blind, blunt, bullet” containing /b/, / d/, /t/ stops. It seems the berserk bullets shooting soldiers from everywhere, guns bombs exploding, and gunfire forming a net surround soldiers. This prominence of a few lines of the sounds combines the sensory experience and scenarios together, thus, presenting a vivid mental picture of cold and cruel war to readers. In addition, the prominence lies on the / f /, / ∫ /, / θ /, / z / consonants. For example, the fourth line in the first verse, three words “famishing for flesh” all begin with fricative /f/, make us image that the vicious bayonets slash wildly at soldiers, like hungry tigers violentlyattack their victims.?Again, in the fourth line of the second verse contains “sharp, sharpness and death” three words, in the effect of that it likes the sound of sharp metal teeth harshly chewing soldiers’ bodies. In addition, the pronunciation of /∫/, /θ/ and /z/ is tense and harsh to indicate the unnatural auditor experience, and make readers understand the author’s averseness toward cruel war, his disillusionment, his suffering, and the horrors that he witnessed.2. Rhetoric featuresFrom the title of the poem, we can see the poet put “arms” and “the boy” abreast intentionally. Arms are cold weapons, which are made to destroy people. Owen personalizes arms. He describes the bayonets “Blue with all malice, like a madman’s flash”, the bullets “blind”, “Which long to nuzzle in the hearts of lads”, and “fine zinc teeth”, etc. Arms like evil demons try to destroy and kill people. The poem''s personifications of weapons of war simultaneously emphasize human and mechanical traits, pointing out that they are both unnatural and frighteningly human in their origin. The "cold steel" of a bayonet is emphasized alongside an image of the blade "keen with hunger of blood." Similarly, "blind, blunt bullet-heads" are "cartridges of fine zinc teeth." The frightening "famishing for flesh" felt by inanimate weapons reveals the hideousbrutality of war and violence, which is so often concealed by euphemism and propaganda, like that expressed at the opening of each of the poem''s first two stanzas. Juxtaposed imagery of the mechanical and animate is combined with distinctly human emotion: the blade is "blue with all malice, like a madman''s flash;" imbued with insane feeling that cannot but be human. War is insane, war is hateful. Bullets are "sharp with the sharpness of grief and death"-tools that serve only to cause pain that radiates out, not just into the wounded body, but that diffuses into the lives of every person in the world. The poem''s negative imagery is all human: weapons, insane and "longing" hunger, and painful emotion.3. ConclusionFrom the above analysis we can see that Owen describes the cruel modern war in a vivid and pictorial detail by taking full advantage of the foregrounding of poetic language, from phonetic and rhetorical aspects, which reveals the insignificance and helpless of people in the modern war. Basically speaking, all the phonetic and rhetorical aspects service for the theme “misery and cruelty of war”. Owen describes the characteristics of modern war not only to express his disillusionment, his suffering, and the horrors that he witnessed, but also to let people reflect the war. In another way, his words also indicated that after the initial subsiding ofpatriotism many citizens began to wonder why the war was fought at all.References：[1]Leech G N. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001:237, 24.希望以上资料对你有所帮助，附励志名言3条：1、生命对某些人来说是美丽的，这些人的一生都为某个目标而奋斗。

《语言学概论》课程介绍一、课程性质《英语语言学概论》是英语语言学专业、英语文学专业的一门重要专业课程，在英语专业的教学计划中被设置为专业课。

《英语语言学概论》是一门理论课，是对语言现象进行理性的思考，传授有关语言的本质和共性的知识，是语言文学类专业学生的专业必修课。

随着二语习得研究的深入，人们发现语言理论的学习虽然不能直接提高学生的语言技能和交际能力，但是普通语言学所描述的语言的规律、心理语言学所描述的学习语言的规律以及社会语言学所描述的语言使用的规律都对学生自觉提高自己的语言水平有指导意义。

通过修习“英语语言学概论”课程，学生可以了解关于一般语言系统，尤其是所学英语的结构、功能和使用，对其在中学和大学基础阶段学习和使用英语过程中积累的大量关于词汇、语法、篇章、语用的规则进行补充，使之系统化、全面化，从而对学什么、怎么学有更加明确、完整和深刻的认识，有利于今后在学习和工作中不断独立、有效地提高自身水平，为今后的英语语言学研究奠定最基本的理论基础。

二、指定教材本课程所用教材为《英语语言学概论》，由王永祥和支永碧主编，南京师范大学出版社，2012年第5次印刷版。

三、目标要求掌握语言学基本概念和理论，了解当代语言学各个领域所取得的重要成果及发展趋势；了解语言的本质、结构、功能及其变化规律，加深对人类语言的理性认识；掌握语言研究的方法和艺术，培养语言研究能力；运用现代语言学理论指导语言学习实践，提高总体语言水平和语言学习能力和语言研究能力。

四、课程体系《英语语言学概论》全书共分13章，内容涉及四个部分：语言和语言学、语言学的主要分支——语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。

全书的第三部分跨学科领域和语言学的应用——话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学以及语言学理论与外语教学。

第四部分介绍了现代语言学流派。

前两部分出题题型集中于选择题、判断题、填空题、名词翻译和解释题；后两部分题型集中于问答题或综述题。

Stylistics summarystylisticsThe scope of chapter 1What is stylistics? Stylistics is a subject that teaches us how touse language and how to apply different styles of language.Stylistics specifically refers to the stylistic feature, refer to apply to the concept of modern linguistics and its skills, learning a language style used in a discipline, including general stylistics and literary stylistics.What is language, different people's definition of language, the development of time, the definition of language is constantly changing and improving. Language is essentially a social activity.Philosophic view holds that language system is the function and activity of language in society.Words are compared to languages. The word code usually refers to a series of symbols, symbolizing the transmission of information. Thesmall amount of information is the process of translating a series of words into a voice and allowing the receiver to receive the information.The use of speech in speech. Language is constantly used in human social activities, and in the speech is determined by three bad circumstances: the normative, the size and the type of the activity.Language variations and functions: the use of language is influenced by the use of the occasion, and different languages must be used indifferent contexts. Different scenes, different people, different times, different places, different media, different social situations use different languages.Language in this ancient, script and spoken English, have a conceptof function and functional points (a service for expression of speaker, a service) for writing the real world.Style is the key to distinguishing between different language habits. Each person has their own language style. For example, "the salsa style." A style is a person's language habit and a group language.The study of style: the study of stylistics is called style, and the study of stylistics is very early in the west. And stylistics as an independent language specification we need to have a full understanding to him, stylistic study of learning style tend to be more standardized, theoretical, make a linguistic description of the more strict specification.The learning of stylistics is the essence of modern science. It hasto do with literature; She is the continuation and development of rhetoric; He approaches critical literature with a new image andprovides a point of support for it.The second chapter is necessary to study the stylisticsThe study of stylistics helps us to develop a correct sense oflanguage.Language is not a unifying phenomenon. He is a broad collection.Only in different situations can people communicate properly withdifferent correct languages. Therefore, it is necessary to cultivate a good sense of language that makes it easier for us to communicate.The study of stylistics makes it easier to understand and appreciate the work of literature.In critical literature, there are three stages: the descriptive stage, the interpretation stage and the evaluation stage. In literary creation, the author will continue to make the choice and judgment of language, including the choice of words and sentence structure. When we interrupt the regular use of a new language structure, we call it "variation." This is called "repetition" when we overuse a structure. This departure from the reader's mind is a psychological one.In addition to the prospect,Some authors also for some special effect, a large number of imitation, some of great lethality is because they are significant difference between the novel and drama opened the way you talk, use a lot of dialect makes the language more vivid, close to life.Study of stylistics helps us gains in terms of translation, the role of language in different function in a different language series, each kind of display is the same rule of language features, the translation is not enough to simply express the original meaning of a sentence. The translation must conformto the meaning of the language, which should be combined with the structure of the sentence and the analysis of the style, which makes the translation of the language more perfect. In translation, it isnecessary to put our energy in the same height, the same level, as the sentence.Chapter 3: variations of languageIncludes the dialect variant and the language domain variantDifferent characteristics of speech in different bad circumstances make the language different. The learning of language features has evolved, and modern linguistics has been divided into a series of divisions.Dialect variants are divided according to the user's differences; The language domain variant is determined by the use of bad situations.Dialects can be divided into individual dialects, time dialects, regional dialects, social dialects, and standard dialects. Social dialects can be subdivided into socioeconomic status variations, ethnic variations, gender variations, age variations.The language domain includes: the range of discourse, the way of discourse, the concept of the tone of the discourse.Most of our work has to do with our work, which is to use different languages for our different jobs. Discourse means the tools that language users use when communicating. The tone ofthe speech is about the relationship between the individual and the speaker/writer, listener/reader. A series of actions spoken by language speakers for speech purposes are called functional language.The presence of a variation in the language domain helps us get alot of information about a person, such as who we can judge from aperson's accent.The language domain and the dialect are interdependent. Language variants are of great social significanceThe purpose of language description in literature. In this relationship, it is to prove the theoretical analysis. At the level, language can be divided into: vocabulary, grammar, phonetics/handwriting.The grammar level can be divided into grammar and syntax; Grammar is the key of linguistics. In the study of lexical learning, the choice of special terms, the analysis of linguistic level.Stylistic feature mainly appear in semantics, grammar and vocabulary phonetics graphology, in the first level in stylistic feature, semantic features are: the segmental features (onomatopoeia, phonetic symbols, sound assimilation, alliteration/half harmonics), super sound characteristics (melody). A feature (rereading, rhythm, intonation,pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/pitch/sound).The second level of stylistic features: grammatical featuresshould be considered in terms of words. The types of sentences are: statements, questions, imperative sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences,sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences, sentences Clause/sentence types are: independent, non-independent, non-finite, and sentence elements.Phrases (nouns, pronouns, numerals, non-qualifier and noun structure (noun pre/post phrases); Verb phrase (verb, prepositional verb), passive and abbreviative.The word types have (roots, prefixes, suffixes) the high frequency compound words, composite words, mixtures, temporary words, conversions and pun.The general tendency is to notice six "no matter" and connotation, denotation, jargon, new words, and slang. Notice the combination of words.Stylistics third level: the semantic unit, linguistic connection [word cohesion should pay attention to the turning point ofwords/phrases, grammar structure of ellipsis, substitution, refers to each other on the (refers to, refer to below), vocabulary reuse three aspects], segmentation, discourse/textual patterns, rhetoric (metaphor meaning [metaphor, metonymy], ridiculous words and deeds cheat)/rhetoric/escape situation, semantic role.Note the four steps, the actual description and the analysis of the linguistic description.Chapter v the comparison of formal language of formal languageThe interpersonal function of language, the function that surrounds language, the interpersonal function that speaks language. Further theformal degree of language, functional language and formal degree. There are five levels of classification: informal, formal, z...The formal and phonetic characteristics of the language: the formal and informal language of the language depends on our words, the relationship to phonology, syntax rules, semantics.To establish a similar characteristic, the formal and informal language of the language depends on the vocabulary, phonology morphology, syntactic semantics. The article finally explains the difference between the content of the intervention and the informal language.Chapter 6 comparisons of spoken and written languagesProminent differences: different listening/readers, different linguistic, and different preparation statesThe difference of stylistics: speaking and writing are different in grammar, and different in terms of vocabulary, but also inphonetics/handwriting. After telling the difference between the two, there are plenty of examples to compare thetwo.The more subtle difference between the way of discourse: the difference in lifestyle, the way in which it is written,It includes: style, tone, rangeChapter 7 English conversationThe text tells the necessity of learning how to speak, the necessity of learning the conversation.Learning content of the session: economy, politics, theinternational situation, culture, education, science, sports, entertainment, news, family, children, the friendship, the weather, andso on.Adapt to the way the session is copied. The text lists many examplesof informal conversationsGeneral characteristics of English conversation:In terms of language levels of stylistic feature: grammatical features, preference for short and loose sentence, often adapt toelliptical sentence and incomplete sentences, often adapt to questions, using a simple noun and verb phrase structure; Vocabularycharacteristics, like to use short words and inaccurate expression, high frequency of acronyms, idioms, and a lot of phrasal verbs, use exaggerated words and slang. In phonetic features, the frequent use of some basic metrical features, the rhythmic variation in the tones, andtheemergence of the sublinguistic effects of freedom; A series of viewson semantic characteristics,Rough synonyms, even using illogical languages.Summary: the conversation sometimes relies heavily on the bad background knowledge of the time.Other session types include: discussion, telephone conversation, etc.。

English StylisticsFrom the contents of our book on English stylistics，we can easily find that it is divided into four parts: The Potential Stylistic Features, Practical Style, Literary Style and The Theory of Stylistics. Each part consists of several chapters. After ten weeks of learning this course, we get to know stylistics gradually. In chapter one, we know style is important both in writing and speech and find it interesting to sense the differences between utterances of different style. Different styles result in saying different contexts, what the speakers’backgrounds are and different functions of different texts. To achieve particular styles, a lot of linguistic devices, including sound features, spelling, words, grammar, meaning are used. In chapter two,the book focus on lexicology. Two ways to achieve stylistic effects are morphemic devices and lexical devices. About the former one, it tells us the types of morphemes first, which include root, prefix and suffix. Stylistic effects are achieved by qualitatives deviation and quantitative deviation .In terms of morphology, stylistic effects can be obtained by adding morphemes to roots to make new words,or by creating new morphemes to make up meaningless words, or by making a certain morpheme occur in unexpected high frequency. The lexical devices include selection of words, classification of words and rhetorical series, word implications as well as rhetorical devices. Among them, the last one consist of meaning transference ,meaning extension and contraction, contradiction in logic, meaning conversion and play on homonymy.In the next chapter, it comes to grammar, as the core of grammar, syntax is used to achieve a particular style by syntactic deflection and syntactic incongruity. In chapter four, the author talks about phonology andgraphology.we have learned the first part, which includes syntactic deflection(the unexpected high frequency of occurrence, long sentences and short sentence),the overregular use of certain patterns or models. Some figures of speech are parallelism, antithesis and repetitions of various kinds and syntactics incongruity. And syntactic incongruity includes using sentences of unusual structure and breaking the rule of grammar.。

Chapter 6Cognition（概念，选择题）I n psychology, it is used to refer to the mental processes and can be understand as information processing.Another definition of”Cognition”is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning and judgment.There are three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach, the psychological approach, and the conceptual approach.Psycholinguistics（概念，选择题）Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspect of language; it is usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.An important focus of psycholinguistics is the largely unconscious use of grammatical rules that enable people to produce and comprehend intelligible sentences.Psycholinguistics is also concerned with how languages are learned, and the rules they play in our thinking.It is customary to distinguish six subjects of research within Psycholinguistics: Acquisition, Comprehension, Production, Disorder, Language and Thought, Neurocognition.Cognitive Linguistics （名词解释）Cognitive Linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It’s an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.Construal and Construal Operations （名词解释，三种分类）Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation.Construal Operations are conceptualizing processes applied in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.1)Attention/ SalienceThe operations grouped under salience have to do with our direction of attention towards something that salience to us.We activate the most relevant concepts more than concepts that are irrelevant to what we are thinking about.2)Judgment/ComparisonThe Construal Operations of Judgment/Comparison have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. This is quit a fundamental cognitive capacity and the cognitive operations of judgment are also very fundamental to the human experience.3)Perspective/SituatednessWe view a scene in terms of our situatedness. Perspective generally depends on two things. Firstly, it depends on where we are situated in relation to the scene we are viewing. Secondly, itdepends on how the scene is arranged in relation to our situatedness.Categorization （名词解释、三种分类）Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. It is a major ingredient in the creation of human knowledge, and it allows us to relate present experiences to past one.1)Basic levelThe categories at the Basic Level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the most.2)Superordinate levelSuperordinate categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level.3)Subordinate levelThey have clearly identification gestalts and lots of individual specific features. At this level, we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.Image Schemas （名词解释、各个分类的特点-选择题）Mark Johnson defines an image schema as a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience.1) A center-periphery schema2) A containment schema3) A cycle schema4) A force schema5) A link schema6) A part-whole schema7) A path schema8) A scale schema9) A verticality schemaMetaphor （名词解释）Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.1）ontological metaphorsHuman experiences with physical objects provide the basic for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, ect, as entities and substances.2）structural metaphorsIt allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.3）orientional metaphorsIt gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in our experience.Metonymy （名词解释）Metonymy, in the cognitive literature, is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain.Chapter 7Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （重点-大题）Our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different language may probably express speaker’s unique wayside of understanding the world.Linguistic Determinism, language may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic Relativity, language is relative in similarity. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Firth-theory of context of situation（重点-大题）1)The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.The verbal action of the participants.The non-verbal action of the participants.2)The relevant objects.3)The effects of the verbal action.That is, who speaks what to whomever and when for what.Culture in language teaching classroom（重点-大题）To get the students familiar with culture differences;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture though various classroom practices.Chapter 8Pragmatic （名词解释）Pragmatic is the study of language in use, focusing on the study of meaning in speaker’s meaning.Speech act theory （名词解释）It was proposed by John Austin in his book How to Do Things with Words. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question” What do we do when using language?”1.Performatives and Constatives （大题举例子）Performatives are statements which are used to do something, which do not state or describe a fact and not verifiable.Performative verbs: mane, bet, ect.Constatives are statements that state or describe a fact and are thus verifiable.2.Felicity ConditionsThere must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevant participants andcircumstances must be appropriate;The procedure must be executed, correctly and completely;Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thought, feelings and intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.A theory of the Illocutionary act （大题）The theory of the illocutionary act was set up by Austin. There are three acts, locutionary act, illocutionary act, perlocutionary act.locutionary act: the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.Illocutionary act: an act performed in saying something, that is to say something is to do something. It is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.Conversational implicature: （大题or名词解释）It is the use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.in order to avoid the logical use of implication (in the section on logical semantics), Grice coined the term implicature.The characteristics of Conversational implicature:CalculabilityThe fact that speakers try to convey conversation implicature and hearers are able to understand them indicates that implicature are calculable.CancellabilityIf the linguistic or situational contexts change, the implicature will also change.Non- detachabilityIt means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact.Non- conventionalityConversational implicature is by definition different from the conversational meaning of words. It is indeterminate and it varies with context.The Cooperative Principle （大题）A speaker can mean more than what is said and the hearer can understand the speaker’s meaning. Grice argues that there is a set of assumption guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls The Cooperative Principle. CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.To specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows:Quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required; do not make your contribution more informative than is required.Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.Relation: be relevant.Manner: be perspicuous. (avoid obscurity of expression, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly)Relevance Theory （名词解释）This theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Wilson in their book Relevance, Communication and Cognition in 1986. They believe that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to single principle of relevance, which can be define d as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.Chapter 9（名词解释）Literary StylisticsThe branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and literature is Literary Stylistic, which focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style.StylisticsStylistics is the study of varieties of language which properties position that language in context.ForegroundingOriginally coming from usual arts and in contrast with back grounding, the concept of foregrounding, a popular term in stylistics, was applied in literary studies by the Prague School, modern stylisticians. It is defined as “artistically motivated deviation”. This deviation, or uncommon usage, involves all levels of language, sound, syntax, meaning, etc.RegisterIn linguistic, a register is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.。

西南大学《英语文体学引论》复习思考题及答案(0099) 《英语文体学引论》复习思考题I. Explain in brief the following terms. (10 points; in test it contains 10 terms)1. stylistics2. style3. dialect4. morpheme5. phoneme6. language7. register 8. acoustic phonetics 9. auditory phonetics10. syllable 11. general stylistics 12. literary stylistics13. form 14. content 15. phonological analysis16. lexical analysis 17. syntactical analysis 18. discoursal analysis19. paralinguistic features 20. social dialect 21. taboo22. whispery voice 23. breathy voice 24. creaky voice25. falsetto 26. common core words 27. technical words28. standard words 29. non- standard words 30. spoken words31. literary words 32. extension 33. specialization34. elevation 35. degradation 36. metaphor37. litotes 38. irony 39. compound sentence40. periodic sentence 41. loose sentence 42. elliptical sentence43. inverted sentence 44. antithesis 45. parallelism46. repetition 47. deviation 48. cataphora49. progressive conjunction 50. field of discourseII. Answer the following questions. (50 points; in test itcontains 5 questions)1. What is the relationship between form and content?2. What are the differences between language and speech?3. What is the methodology of stylistic analysis? What are the levels of stylistic analysis?4. Define paralinguistic features. What are they?5. What are the three ways of studying the sound of language?6. What are the four typical meters in English poetry?7. What is the relationship between sound and meaning?8. What is the relationship between style and the choice of words, according to thestylisticians?9. How many kinds of word meanings may be classified? And what are they?10. What are the three basic components of the English vocabulary?11. Functionally speaking, what are the four types of English sentences?12. What are the conjunctions used in combining English sentences?13. What are the gestures may be used in a casual conversation?14. What are the three types of substitution? Can you give some examples?15. What is the relationship between dialect and register?16. Name at least five kinds of figures of speech in English.17. Can you give some examples of rhetorical questions?18. What are the stylistic features of the Bible?19. What are the five kinds of reference in the English language?20. What are the three factors of register?21. Give examples to illustrate power relationship and solidarity relationship.22. What are the non-linguistic features of casual conversation?23. What are the linguistic features of the language of news reporting?24 .What are the linguistic features of the language of advertisement?25. What is the relationship between literary language and ordinary language?III. Stylistic analysis (20 points):1. Explain the connotative meaning of the italicized words or expressions in the followingsentences (12 points; in test it may or may not appear; it contains 3 words or expressions):.1) Don’t trust her; she is a snake i n the grass.2) The enemy will attack us tomorrow morning, but we are still not well prepared. TheDa mocles’ sword is hanging over us.3) We have to consult him, you know, he is the real Titan in our class.4) News from Pentagon today says …5) She knows nothing about the cruelty of the world. She isa lily.6) Hamlet, according to some psycho-analysis theory, is a character who has theOedipus complex.7) He is a wolf in sheep’s clothing. Don’t believe what he says.8) The doctor told him it is not cancer, however, it is only a white lie.9) He is always ready to help people when they are in need. He’s a real Robin Hood.10) Their policy is all sticks and no carrots.11) 0China never stands on the side of Chauvinism.12) Children are flowers of our country.2. What possible social relationships exist between the participants in the followingsentences? (12 points; in test it may or may not appear)1) Excuse me, could you tell me the right time, please?2) What time is it, please?3) What’ the time?3. Indicate what kind of figures of speech is used in the following examples? (8 points; intest it may or may not appear; it contains 2 items)The young hunter was as strong as a lion.Life is but a brief candle.from the cradle to the graveMany hands make light work.She’s as old as a mountain.A victorious defeatHe is a fool. He never knows where his personal interest lies. His whole heart is concerned about the interest of other people.Belinda smiled, and all the world was gay.The drunkard loves his bottle better than his wife.My love is a red, red rose.4. Try to analyze the following sentence and point out its stylistic value (12 points; it mayor may not appear in test; if it appears, it contains onesentence)1) It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a fortunemust be in want of a wife. (J. Austin. Pride and Prejudice)2) I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)3) O, my luve is like a red, red roseThat’s newly sprung in June;O, my luve is like the melodieTha t’s sweetly play’d in tune.(Robert Burns, A Red, Red Rose)4) A grief ago (Dylan Thomas)5) “Don’t be such a harsh parent, father!”“Don’t father me!”(0099) 《英语文体学引论》复习思考题答案I. Explain in brief the following terms (10 points; in test it contains 10 terms):1. stylistics: the study or the investigation of style.2. style: the linguistic habit of a particular person(s) or characteristic of typical situations.3. dialect: a subtype of language which may be determined by geographical locality orparticular social groupings.4. morpheme: the smallest unit in a language that carries meaning.5. phoneme: the smallest sound unit in a specific language capable of semantic distinction.6. language: a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7. register: language determined by situation.8. acoustic phonetics: a branch of phonetics dealing with thephysical properties of thespeech sounds of a language.9. auditory phonetics: the study of how the sound of speech is received by the hearer.10. syllable: a vowel sound either with or without a consonant or consonants in clusters.11. general stylistics:the investigation of the linguistic features of all kinds of language use.12. literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features of literature in particular, such asthose of poetry, novels and dramas.13. form: the particular way of expressing the message.14. content: the message or information or the communicative value that is encoded orloaded in a linguistic expression.15. phonological analysis: it is chiefly concerned about the sound patterns of a piece ofliterature, especially those of poetry.16. lexical analysis: it is chiefly concerned about the internal structure and the stylisticcoloring and the semantic relationship of the words in the text.17. syntactical analysis: it is chiefly concerned about how the words in a text are puttogether to produce meaning and other kinds of message.18. discoursal analysis: it is concerned about how sentences are joined together to produce acohesive and coherent text.19. paralinguistic features: the vocal effects caused by different shaping of the vocal cordsand openings20. social dialect: it is determined by the social groupings that a person belongs to.21. taboo: words forbidden to be used in public because of their being dirty or offensive22. whispery voice: utterance without any vocal cord vibration at all. Emphasizing contrast.23. breathy voice: utterance where there is too much breath for the needs of the articulation.24. creaky voice: a slow crackle of vocal cord vibrations at a low pitch, like a stick being runalong a fence.25. falsetto: a switch of the voice from one vocal register toa higher one; usually found onlyin males.26. common core words: refer to those words used in everyday life.27. technical words: refer to those words used in special professions.28. standard words: words that are used in the standard dialect.29. non-standard words: words labeled as slangs, vulgarisms and colloquialisms in thedictionary. the cultural and social implications of a word simile: a comparison between two things with emphasis on the similarity or likeness between them30. spoken words: words that most often used in face-to- face, casual and everydayconversations.31. literary words: words used in formal writings or literature.32. extension: a specific word comes to mean a general idea.33. specialization: the change of the word meaning may move in the opposite direction, aword with general reference is narrowed to a specific reference.34. elevation: words of derogatory association become words of favorable association.35. degradation: neutral words or words of favorable association degenerated intoderogatory words.36. metaphor: a covert comparison37. litotes: understatement38. irony: a figure of speech that takes the form of saying or implying the opposite of whatone feels to be the case39. compound sentence: a sentence made up of two or more simple sentences, joinedtogether by conjunctions or punctuations40. periodic sentence: one that is not grammatically complete until the end is reached41. loose sentence: one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached42. elliptical sentence: one in which either the subject or the predicate or part of thepredicate is missing43. inverted sentence: one in which the subject position is filled by other sentence elements44. antithesis: a figure of speech in the formula of X conj. Y with a contrast between them45. parallelism: a rhetorical device in which two or more thantwo similar syntacticstructures with different words are placed side by side46. repetition: a rhetorical device in which identical words are used but not necessarily inidentical position47. deviation: violation of standard use of the language48. cataphora: If the referred item comes after the referring item in a text, then it is a case ofcataphora.49. progressive conjunction: one sentence that joined by the use of conjunctive words ofaddition or progression50. field of discourse: the topic under discussion or the nature of the activity in whichlanguage is involvedII. Answer the following questions (50 points; in test it contains 5 questions):1. What is the relationship between form and content?One way of talking about style is to make a distinction between form and content.Content is the message or information or the communicative value that is encoded or loaded in a linguistic expression. Form is the particular way of expressing the message.The form is the style which may be different from case to case although the meaning may remain the same. For example, the Chinese term 开始may be expressed indifferent English words, such as start, begin and commence, but each suggests a different style.2. What are the differences between language and speech?Another way of talking about style is to make a distinctionbetween language and speech, which may be translated in Chinese as 语言and 言语. This distinction was first proposed by Saussure, the founder of the modern linguistics. According to Saussure, there are four major differences between language and speech.A. Language is abstract whereas speech is concrete. Language is abstract in the sensethat it has only psychological instead of physical existence. Language is notsomething that you can bring to the classroom and examine under the microscope,not something you can hear, see, smell , touch or taste. Speech is concrete in thesense that it has physical properties. Either can be heard in the spoken form or seenin the written form.B. Language is potential whereas speech is actual. Language is potential in the sensethat it is a kind of can-mean system, while speech is something that has an actualmeaning.C. Language is code whereas speech is message(语言是一个代码系统，言语才是信息). Language is a set of symbols that can be used to transmit information. Speechis the actual use of the language in an act of communication in a particular situationfor a particular purpose. It carries a real message.D. Language is stable and systematic whereas speech is subject to personal andsituational constraint. For example, the word book in the English language alwaysrefers to some printed matter. But in speech it may be used to refer to anything thatthe speaker wants to refer to by the use of it as long as it is understandable. Thecommon example is the sentence: He is a walking dictionary(a kind of book)meaning that he is very knowledgeable.3. What is the methodology of stylistic analysis? What are the levels of stylistic analysis?The major methodology for stylistic analysis is linguistic analysis. It tries to be objective or scientific in its analysis. According to the advocates of this methodology, anyone using this methodology to analyze a given text of literature will reach roughly the same conclusion.Levels of analysisSince stylistic analysis is a kind of linguistic analysis, naturally, how many levels of structure we have in a language correspondingly how many levels of structure at which we may do stylistic analysis.1) PhonologicalPhonological analysis is chiefly concerned about the sound patterns of a piece of literature, especially those of poetry.2) LexicalLexical analysis is chiefly concerned about the internal structure and the stylistic coloring and the semantic relationship of the words in the text.3) SyntacticalSyntactical analysis is chiefly concerned about how the wordsin a text are put together to produce meaning and other kinds of message.4) DiscoursalDiscoursal analysis is concerned about how sentences are joined together to producea cohesive and coherent text.4. Define paralinguistic features. What are they?Definition: the vocal effects caused by different shaping of the vocal cords and openings.Kinds and the corresponding stylistic effects.1) Whispery voice: utterance without any vocal cord vibration at all. Emphasizingcontrast.2) Breathy voice: utterance where there is too much breath for the needs of thearticulation, the effect being one of mild ‘puffing and blowing’. Expressing surprise and astonishment.3) Creaky voice: a slow crackle of vocal cord vibrations at a low pitch, like a stickbeing run along a fence.4) Falsetto: a switch of the voice from one vocal register to a higher one; usually foundonly in males.5. What are the three ways of studying the sound of language?A. articulatory phoneticsThe study of the sounds of a language with special attention to the speaker: the movement of the lungs, vocal cords, tongue, the lips and other organs which produce and control the noisy outward breathing.B. acoustic phoneticsThe study of the physical properties of the sound waves in the air when being transmitted from the speaker to the hearer.C. auditory phoneticsThe study of how the sound of speech is received by the hearer6. What are the four typical meters in English poetry?In English poetry, stress is usually used in the realization of meter. The followings arethe four most typical meters.1) Iamb: Iamb is a metric foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by astressed syllable.2) Trochee: Trochee is a metric foot consisting of a stressed syllable followed by anunstressed syllable.3) Anapest: Anapest is a metric foot composed of two unstressed syllables followed byone stressed one.4) Dactyl: Dactyl is a metric foot composed of one stressed syllable followed by twounstressed ones7. What is the relationship between sound and meaning?According to Saussure, the relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary in the sense that why a certain meaning takes a particular sound has no reason and it is completely accident. But in literature, the writers always try to arrange the words in sucha way as to make the patterns of sound to directly suggest the meaning.8. What is the relationship between style and the choice ofwords, according to thestylisticians?The stylisticians’ attitude: they lay emphasis on the adaptability to the sit uation.Standard, non-standard, black, dialectal, slang, archaisms are equally good in their expressiveness. There is no distinction of one being superior and other being inferior.9. How many kinds of word meanings may be classified? And what are they?According to the linguists, a word has various kinds of meaning. The first kind of meaning is denotative meaning.1) Denotative (概念意义)The kind of meaning we can get from the dictionary. It can also be termed as dictionary meaning, conceptual meaning, logical meaning and referential meaning.This is the most basic meaning that we understand a word has.2) Stylistic = social (社会意义)The kind of meaning associated with a particular social situation in which a particular word is often used. e.g begin, start, commence3) Affective meaning(情感意义)It is the emotional, attitudinal and evaluative coloring of a word. e.g. cunning and clever. Both mean the skillful handling of a delicate or difficult situation. But they reveal different attitudes and evaluation of the speaker.4) Collocative (搭配意义)Some words may have the same dictionary meaning, but they collocate withdifferent words, as shown by the pair or synonyms of prettyand handsome.5) Connotative (内涵意义)the cultural and social implications of a word.10. What are the three basic components of the English vocabulary?The three basic components of the English vocabularyA Anglo-Saxona. Members of the familyb. Parts of the bodyc. Natured. Timee. One-syllabled verbsB Frencha. Government and Lawb. Army and military activitiesc. Religiond. CostumesC Latina. Medicineb. Lawc. Theologyd. Sciencee. Literature11. Functionally speaking, what are the four types of English sentences?1) Declarative 2) Interrogative3) Exclamatory 4) Imperative12. What are the conjunctions used in combining English sentences?1) Progressive conjunction (推进性连接): by the use ofconjunctive words of additionor progression, such as and, furthermore, moreover, etc.2) Contrastive conjunction (对照性连接): by the use of conjunctive words of contrastor transition, such as but, whereas, while, on the contrary, on the other hand, etc.3) Temporal conjunction (时间性连接): by the use of conjunctive words of temporalsequence, such as then, later, afterwards, at last, or finally, etc13. What are the gestures may be used in a casual conversation?Facial expressions, eye-contact, body positions, distance, physical touch, soundmodification, clothing, and environment14. What are the three types of substitution? Can you give some examples?A. Nominal substitution (名词性替代)1) The meaning of one/ones e.g. You bought a red pencil, I’d like a blue one.2) The use of the “same”Example:A: I want a cup of teaB: The same.3) T he use of “kind, sort”. e.g. American food is not t he same as the English kind.B. Verbal substitution (动词性替代)Do you like Chinese food?Yes, I do.He likes Chinese food. So do I.C. Clausal substitution (分句性替代)1) The use of “so” “not”Example: A: Do you think he will come tomorrow?B: Yes, I think so./ No, I think not.2) LimitationClausal substitution applies only to sentences, where the predicate verb of amain clause is one of the following verbs:believe, be afraid, expect, fear, hope, imagine, say, tell, think, suppose.15. What is the relationship between dialect and register?Another way of talking about style, is to make a distinction between dialects and registers.A: Speaker orientedDialects are speaker oriented. What kind of speaker speaks what kind of dialect.Dialects may be regional or social. Regional dialect (地域方言)is determined by the geographical locality the speaker lives in. The social dialect is determined by the social groupings that a person belongs to.B: Situation orientedRegister is situational oriented. Register is the language determined by situation, and because of this we have such registers as formal English, informal English, classroom English, legal English, etc.16. Name at least five kinds of figures of speech in English.Simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, overstatement, etc.17. Can you give some examples of rhetorical questions?Idea: a rhetorical question is one which does not really need an answer, or the answer is obviousExamples:Is that a reason for despair?Can any one doubt the wisdom of this action?Is no one going to defend me?What difference does it make then?18. What are the stylistic features of the Bible?1. 1. Biblical simplicity2. Full of balanced sentences3. The use of concrete words4. Short paragraphs5. Heavy use of and to begin a new paragraph6. Syntactical features1) simple and complete sentences2) the use of old forms of personal pronouns3) the second personal pronoun take the verb of –est as in shouldest,gavest,etc.,and the third person doth and hath which are absent in other styles of writing4) negation takes the form of“verb+not” without the use of auxiliaries19. What are the five kinds of reference in the English language?According to relative positions of the referring item and the referred item, reference may be classified into the following kinds.1) Anaphora(后照应)In a case of reference, if the referred item (a word or a phrase) come before the referring item in a text, then it is a case of anaphora.Example: Mr. Wang is an engineer, he graduated from Beijing University.2) Cataphora(前照应)On the other hand, if the referred item comes after the referring item in a text, then it is a case of cataphora. As in the example:I was introduced to them; it was John Leathwall and his wife.3) Exophora(外照应)If the interpretation of an item in a text depends on something in the immediate environment, then it is a case of exophora.Example: Did the gardener water those plants?4) Paraphora(平行照应)An item which refers to something in another text.Example: He is the Shylock Holmes in our class.5) Homophora(自照应)When the class is composed of only one member, then any mention of it is a case of homophora.Example: The moon moves around the earth.20. What are the three factors of register?1) Field of discourse —the topic under discussion or the nature of the activity inwhich language is involved.2) Tenor of discourse —the kind of social relationships between the participants in aconversation.3) Mode of discourse —the medium along which the message is being transmitted.21. Give examples to illustrate power relationship and solidarity relationship.Power relationship is a kind of vertical relationship in the sense that the two participants in the conversation hold unequalauthority. For example, the relations between boss and employee, or between parents and children, or between teacher and students.Solidarity relationship is a horizontal relationship in that participants in a conversation hold equal authority. For example, the relations between playmates, classmates, friends, etc.22. What are the non-linguistic features of casual conversation?1) Unpreparedness or low degree of preparedness2) Frequent change of roles3) Monitoring4) Simultaneity in space and time5) Topic drifting6) Channel limitation7) Gestures23. What are the linguistic features of the language of news reporting?In news reporting one can find some characteristics in syntax, lexis, and textual structure.A. SyntaxThere is a heavy use of complex sentences and a heavy use of non-finite verb phrases. The subjects of sentences are usually very complicated. Compared with the verb phrases in the previous discussed varieties, the composition of the verb phrases in newspaper reporting is even simpler, mainly simple present or past tense. The structure of the noun phrases in news reporting is very complicated. There is a remarkable increase in the number of modifiers for an average sentence in the variety of newspaper reporting. And the modifiers themselves tend to be more complicatedly structured.B. LexisThere is rare use of pronouns, but by contrast, there is a remarkable increase of the use of proper nouns. The degree of complication in the aspect of word structure is about the same as that in public speech. Both in terms of the number of letters in an average word and the number of morphemes in an average word. Although the word structure in the style of newspaper reporting tends to be complicated, it is ever ready to use short instead of big word wherever possible, especially in headlines.Compound words are used frequently. Moreover, non phrases which actually express actions or state and heavily used, and they are derived from verb phrases in order to make the sentences more compact and save space without lowering the amount of information conveyed.C. Textual structureIn textual structure, one of the most outstanding characteristic is straightforwardness.24. What are the linguistic features of the language of advertisement?A. Syntax:In terms of syntax, the language of advertisement is simple in structure for easy understanding, and colloquial in style for familiarity, intimacy and solidarity. There is a higher frequency of imperative and interrogatives. As to structure, according to statistics, we have the lowest rate of occurrence of passive in comedies, the second lowest is in ads. There is also a heavy use of pre-modifiers, possessive’s, comparative and superlative adjectivesB. Lexis:There is a heavy use of compounds. Simple, short, innerstructure and a high percentage of active, affirmative, commendatory and large quantities of proper names could be found in the vocabulary of advertisement.C. Rhetorical devices:One can easily find a lot of parallelism, reiteration and alliteration.25. What is the relationship between literary language and ordinary language?1) The kind of language people use in daily conversation is the ultimate source of thelanguage of literature.2) Ordinary language follows the norm of convention, and the purpose is to beunderstood fully.3) Literary language is not the mechanical copy of ordinary language, but refined andprocessed.4) Literary language has some linguistic deviation.III. Stylistic analysis (20 points):1. Explain the connotative meaning of the italicized words or expressions in the followingsentences (12 points; in test it may or may not appear; it contains 3 words or expressions):1) Don’t trust her; she is a snake in the grass.Snake is a kind of animal, because of prejudice and cultural conventions now oftenused to refer to a person who is cunning and untrustworthy2) The enemy will attack us tomorrow morning, but we are still not well prepared. TheDamocles’ sword is hanging over us.Damocles’ sword is an allusion to Greek mythology. Damocles was invited to abanquet in the court. In the midst of the entertainment, Damocles looked up and sawsuspended above his head by a single thread a naked sword. By extension, it comesto mean an immediate danger.3) We have to consult him, you know, he is the real Titan in our class.Titan is a name used to refer to a class of gods huge in physical size. By extension,it comes to mean a person of great strength or influence.4) News from Pentagon today says …Pentagon is a huge building in Washington in which the U.S. Department ofDefense exercises its functions, now often used to refer to the ministry itself5) She knows nothing about the cruelty of the world. She isa lily.Lily is a flower and by cultural conventions a symbol of purity and innocence in thewest.6) Hamlet, according to some psycho-analysis theory, is a character who has theOedipus complex.According to psycho-analysis theory, Oedipus complex refers to the sexual love ofan infant for the parent of the opposite sex, with jealousy of the other parent, oftenin an unconscious way. In this play, Hamlet is believed to have。

苏州大学硕士学位论文从文体学和叙述学的视点看《围城》中自由间接引语的翻译姓名：***申请学位级别：硕士专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：***201105摘要叙述学和文体学在当代叙事小说中占有非常重要的位置。

两个学科都具有旺盛的生命力，且都属于跨学科研究，二者通过利用语言学的模式来研究文学。

由于二者重视文本并将文学作品视为自成一体的艺术品，所以归为形式批评主义下的两个分支。

随着２０世纪形式主义的兴起，叙述视点成为学者激烈探讨的话题。

其作为叙述技巧，对文本描写叙述起着非常重要的作用。

本文采用视点理论来研究文体学和叙述学框架下的自由间接引语翻译。

虽然文体学和叙述学在研究主题、研究方向和研究目的侧重不同，但在视点理论上二者有重合之处，皆可应用于小说叙事分析。

叙述学通过结构主义和形式主义分析，着重研究叙述形式及其对特定语境的影响。

通过分析，叙述学家可以了解到原文是否很好地再现与译文中，译文的叙事效果是否与原文一致。

在叙事小说及叙事小说翻译研究中，叙述学能够帮助研究者考察源语文本中的叙事形式能否在译语文本中得到准确的重现。

文体学家侧重研究语言表达方式对文学效果的影响。

在文学翻译研究中，文学文体学可以通过阐述文学文体学的本质、功能和有效性，来探讨表达人物语言和思想的词句的作用及其对文本自身的影响。

本文通过对文体学和叙述学理论的整合，对小说《围城》中的自由间接引语的翻译进行研究，同时探讨了译文中译者的痕迹对译文的影响，为自由间接引语的汉英翻译提供了参考。

文章立足于文体和叙述两大领域，结合翻译研究中的视点理论，对比分析了自由间接引用原文和译文，探索了引起译文变化的原因。

关键词：视点；自由间接引语；文体学；叙述学ＡＢＳＴＲＡＣＴＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｂｅｉｎｇｉｎｔｅｒｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎａｒｙｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｗｉｔｈｇｒｅａｔｖｉｔａｌｉｔｙ，ｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｌｏｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｍｏｄｅｌｓｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅ．Ｔｈｅｙｐａｙａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｒｅｇａｒｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｗｏｒｋｓａｓｓｅｌｆ－ｃｏｎｔａｉｎｅｄａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃｗｏｒｋｓ．ｔｈｕｓｂｅｌｏｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｅｔｗｏｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｉｎｔｈｅｆａｍｉｌｙｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｉｎｇｔｈｅｒｉｓｅｏｆｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍｉｎ２０ｍｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｂｅｃａｍｅａｌｉｖｅｔｏｐｉｃ．Ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｉｔｐｌａｙｅｄａｎｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｄｏｐｔｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｓｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉｎｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓ，ｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓ，ｔｈｅｙｇｅｔｓｏｍｅｈｏｗｏｖｅｒｌａｐｐｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．ＢｏｔｈＣａｎｂｅａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｎａｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｉｓｍａｎｄｆｏｒｍａｌｉｓｍａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｋｎｏｗｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔｉｓｗｅｌｌｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔａｎｄｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｓｉｄｅａｌ．ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＣａｎｈｅｌｐｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｓｔｏｅｘａｍｉｎｅｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｒｅｗｅｌｌｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃｅｎｔｅｒｓｏｎｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｅｆｆｅｃｔｓａｒｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｂｙｍｅａｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｆｏｒｍ．Ｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｉｎｇｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｓａｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＣａｎｂｅｕｓｅｄｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎａｎｄｓｙｎｔａｘｆｏｒｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｍｂｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｏｌｏｇｉｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｗｏｄｉｓｃｉｐｌｉｎｅｓ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｋｅｓａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｓｔｕｄｙｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎｎｏｖｅｌＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄａｎｄｔｈｅｃｈａｎｇｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｉｎｔｏＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｐｌａｃｅｓｉｔｓｅｌｆｉｎｔｈｅｔｗｏｆｉｅｌｄｓ，ｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｔｏｇｅｔｈｅｒａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｗｉｔｈｉｎａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｏｎｅｈａｎｄａｎｄｆｏｃｕｓｉｎｇｏｎｔｈｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｃｏｍｐａｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔａｎｄｉｔｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｎｔｈｅｏｔｈｅｒ．Ｋｅｙｗｏｒｄｓ：ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ；ｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ；ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ；ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＡＣＫＮＯＷＬＥＤＧＥＭＥＮＴＳ１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｔｈａｎｋｍｙｔｕｔｏｒａｎｄｆｒｉｅｎｄｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｉｎｖａｌｕａｂｌｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｔｈｅｙｈａｖｅｇｉｖｅｎｍｅｉｎｗｒｉｔｉｎｇｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｍｙａｃａｄｅｍｉｃａｄｖｉｓｏｒ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＨｏｎｇｈａｓｅｘｃｈａｎｇｅｄｗｉｔｈｍｅｉｄｅａｓｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｓｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｄｂｅｆｏｒｅＩｓｔａｒｔｅｄｔｏｗｒｉｔｅ，ａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｉｍｐｒｏｖｅｍｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｒｅａｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｍａｎｕｓｃｒｉｐｔｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｈｉｓｐａｔｉｅｎｔｉｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎ，ｃｏｎｔｉｎｕｏｕｓｉｎｓｐｉｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｉｎｃｉｓｉｖｅｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｓｈｅｌｐｅｄｍｅａｌｏｔ．ＢｕｔｗｈａｔＩｌｅａｒｎｅｄｆｒｏｍｈｉｍｉＳｕｎｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｃａｄｅｍｉｃｆｉｅｌｄ．Ｔｈｅｎ，１ｗｏｕｌｄｌｉｋｅｔｏｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｍｙｄｅｅｐｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＷａｎｇＲｏｎｇｐｅｉ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＦａｎｇＨｕａｗｅｎ，ＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＤｕＺｈｅｎｇｍｉｎｇ，ａｎｄＰｒｏｆｅｓｓｏｒＨｏｎｇＱｉｎｇｆｕ．Ｉｔｈａｎｋｔｈｅｍａｌｏｔｆｏｒｔｅａｃｈｉｎｇｍｅｔｈｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｐｒｉｎｃｉｐｌｅｓａｎｄｍｅｔｈｏｄｓａｂｏｕｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｌａｓｔｂｕｔｎｏｔｔｈｅｌｅａｓｔ，１ｗａｎｔｔｏｓａｙｔｈａｎｋｓｔｏｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｓｆｒｏｍｗｈｏｓｅｗｏｒｋｓＩｈａｖｅｂｅｎｅｆｉｔｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔａｎｄｌｅａｒｎｅｄｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｔｉｎｍｙｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ｌ．Ｘ．ＬｉｓｔｏｆＴａｂｌｅｓＴａｂｌｅ２．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗ……………………………………………………………·１５Ｔａｂｌｅ３．１ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦｒｅｅＩｎｄｉｒｅｃｔＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ………………………………………………·２１ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅＩｎｔｒＯｄｕＣｔｉｏｎＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｉｓｔｏｇｉｖｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｗｉｔｈｐｕｒｐｏｓｅｓｏｆｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｉｎｇｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｏｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．１．１ＲａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄＳｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＡｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅｂｅｃｏｍｅａｗｉｄｅｌｙｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｔｏｐｉｃｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｉｒｓｕｂｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅ，ｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｈａｓｒｅｍａｉｎｅｄｒｅｌａｔｉｖｅｌｙｕｎｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｄ．Ｂｕｔｓｉｍｉｌａｒｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｃｏｍｉｎｇｃｌｏｓｅｓｔｔｏａｌｌｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｔｈｏｓｅ，ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ｂｙＢｒｉａｎＭｏｓｓｏｐ（１９８３），ｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｍｏｓｓｏｐｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｓｔｈａｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ（ＴＴ）ｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｔｈｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔ（ＳＴ）ｔｈｅｒｅｐｏｒｔｅｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅ．Ｔｈｉｓｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｔｙｐｅｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｖｉｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｍｏｒｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｃｅ１９９６，ｗｈｅｎＴｈｅｏＨｅｒｍａｎｓ（１９９６）ｕｓｅｄｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｖｏｉｃｅｉｎａｎａｔｔｅｍｐｔｔｏｐｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｔｈｅ‘ｏｔｈｅｒ’ｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｃｏｒｐｕｓ·ｂａｓｅｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｖｅａｌｓｏｆｏｃｕｓｅｄｏｎｒｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｌａｎｇｕａｇｅ，ａｎｄｃｏｒｐｕｓｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓａｎｄｔｏｏｌｓａｒｅｂｅｉｎｇｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｌｙｔｏｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓ“ｓｔｙｌｅ”ｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ（Ｂａｋｅｒ２０００）．Ａｌｌｔｈｅｓｅａｒｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｅｉｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｓｅｅｋｓｔｏｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｄｉｓｃｕｒｓｉｖｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｒｅｓｅｎｃｅｂｙｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｃｅｒｔａｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｌｓｏｔｈａｔｉｓｗｈｅｒｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｒｏｍｗｈａｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ／ｗｒｉｔｅｒａｄｏｐｔｓｉｎａｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｖｅｓｔｏｒｙ·ｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｏｆｃｏｎｃｅｍｏｆｎａｎ＇ａｔｏｌｏｇｉｓｔｓ．Ｉｔａｌｓｏａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓｗｈｏａｒｇｕｅｔｈａｔｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｇｅｔｓｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎ２０ｔ｝ｌｃｅｎｔｕｒｙｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｔｈｅｒｅａｌｍｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍａｎｄｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｔｅｘｔ’Ｓｅｎｔｉｒｅｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｉｎｇ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｔｈｅｔｗｏｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｏｆｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｌａｙｅｍｐｈａｓｉｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｌｙ．Ｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｅｒｈａｖｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｎｉｎｅｔｅｅｎｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｔｔｒａｃｔｅｄｎｏｖｅｌｉｓｔｓ’ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｔａｎｄｐｒａｃｔｉｃａｌｃｏｎｃｅｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｓｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｂｅｃｏｍｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｉｏｒｉｔｙ．Ｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｗｉｔｈｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｉｎｇｆｉｎｄｉｎｇａｂａｌａｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｉｎｏｔｈｅｒｗｏｒｄｓ，ｔｈｉｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓＳＯａｓｔｏｇｅｔａｔｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｏｆｂｏｔｈｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｃａｎｈｅｌｐｂｅｔｔｅｒｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｂｏｔｈａｕｔｈｏｒ’Ｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ’Ｓｓｔａｎｃｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｎａｒｒａｔｏｒ，ｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒａｎｄｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ａｎｄｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙ，ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｔｈａｔｅｍｂｏｄｙｔｈｅｉｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｌｕｅｓ，ｌｉｋｅｔｏｎｅａｎｄａｔｔｉｔｕｄｅ，ａｒｅａｌｓｏｃｏｎｄｕｃｉｖｅｔｏｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｔｈｅａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｕｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．１．２ＳｐｅｃｉｆｉｃＲｅｓｅａｒｃｈＱｕｅｓｔｉｏｎＩｎａｎｏｖｅｌ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｄｅｃｉｄｅｓｔｈｅｗｏｒｋ’Ｓｓｕｃｃｅｓｓａｎｄｖａｌｕｅ．Ａｓｔｏｄｅｐｉｃｔｖｉｖｉｄａｎｄａｔｔｒａｃｔｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ，ａｎａｕｔｈｏｒｔｒｉｅｓｔｏｍａｋｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ．Ｆｏｒｒｅａｄｅｒｓ，ｔｈｅｙｔｒｙｔｏｇｅｔｋｎｏｗｌｅｄｇｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｇａｉｎａｐｉｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｏｃｉａｌｌｉｆｅ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｋｅｙｔａｓｋｆｏｒｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｉｓｔｏｃｒｅａｔｅｉｍｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｍａｇｅｓ．Ｔｏｐｏｒｔｒａｙｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｕｓｕａｌｌｙｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｔｏｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｉｒｓｏｃｉａｌｓｔａｔｕｓ，ｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ，ｅｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎ，ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｙ，ｑｕａｌｉｔｙａｎｄｔｈｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎ，ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｅｖｅｎｔｈｅｃｕｌｔｕｒｅ，ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｉｒｓｐｅｅｃｈｓｈｏｕｌｄｅｒｓａｌｌｔｈｏｓｅｆａｃｔｏｒｓ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｗａｙ，ｔｈｅｒｅａｄｅｒｓｆｕｌｌｙｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｉｍａｇｅｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｙｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｄｔｈｅｎｏｖｅｌｃｏｍｐｌｅｔｅｌｙ．Ｉｔｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｎｏｔｅｄｔｈａｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓｉｎｎｏｖｅｌｓａｒｅｈｉｇｈｌｙｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｚｅｄ，ｂｕｔｎｏｔｌｉｋｅｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓｃｏｍｍｏｎｔａｌｋ．Ａｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｒｅｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｐａｒｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅＣｒｅａｔｉｏｎｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｏｓｏｍｅｅｘｔｅｎｔ，ｉｔｃｏｎｔｒｏｌｓｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｐｅｒｓｏｎａｌｉｔｉｅｓ，ｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｆｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｄｏｆｔｈｅｗｈｏｌｅｐｌｏｔ．Ｆｏｒｖａｒｉｏｕｓａｉｍｓ，ｔｈｅａｕｔｈｏｒｃｈｏｏｓｅｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｒｄｅｒｓｏｆｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ，ｉ．ｅ．，ｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｗａｙｓｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｂｏｔｈｔｈｅｆｏｒｍｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｎｅｅｄｓｅｒｉｏｕｓｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｅｎｔｉｒｅｓｔｏｒｙ．Ｉｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ２ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｒｅｑｕｉｒｅｓｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｍｅａｎｉｎｇ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｒｕｅｖａｌｕｅｏｆｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｔｅｘｔ，ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｗｏｕｌｄｎｅｖｅｒｎｅｇｌｅｃｔｆｏｒｍｓ－ｏｆｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｐｒｏｃｅｓｓｍａｙｈａｖｅｄｉｒｅｃｔｅｆｆｅｃｔｏｎｒｅａｄｅｒ’Ｓｆｅｅｌｉｎｇ．Ｗｈｅｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｚｅｄｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅ，ａｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｆｒａｍｅｉｓｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄｆｏｒｄｅｅｐｅｘｐｌｏｒａｔｉｏｎｂｙｌｅａｄｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｉａｎｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓＲｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎｎａｎ，ＢａｎｆｉｅｌｄＡｎｎ，ＬｅｅｃｈＧｅｏｆｆｒｅｙ，ＭｉｃｈａｅｌＳｈｏｒｔａｎｄＮｏｒｍａｎＰａｇｅ，ｐｅｏｐｌｅｗｈｏｈａｖｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓ’ｓｐｅｅｃｈｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｌｙｆｏｒｄｅｃａｄｅｓ．Ｔｈｅｙｃｌａｓｓｉｆｙｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｓａｎｄａｎａｌｙｚｅｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｄｒｉｖｅｈｏｍｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｓ．Ｔｈｕｓｔｈｅｙｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｔｏａｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃｗａｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｌｅｓｓｅｎｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｔｏｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌｓａｎｄｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ．Ｂａｓｅｄｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｖａｌｕｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｕｐｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍａｉｎｌｙｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｏｓｅｓｐｅｅｃｈｆｏｒｍｎｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈｏｒｔｈｏｕｇｈｔ（ＦＩＳ／Ｔ），ａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｉｎｔｅｒｐｒｅｔｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｌｙｎｏｎ—ｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｅｒｍｓｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍ．ＴｏｆｕｌｌｙｅｘｈｉｂｉｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆＦＩＳ，ａｃｌａｓｓｉｃｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄ，ｉｓｃｈｏｓｅｎ，ｃｒｅａｔｅｄｂｙＱｉａｎＺｈｏｎｇｓｈｕ，ａｗｅｌｌ－ｋｎｏｗｎＣｈｉｎｅｓｅａｕｔｈｏｒ．Ｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｉｎｔｅｎｄｓｔｏｒｅｖｅａｌｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｃｅｓｉｍｐｒｉｎｔｅｄｂｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓ’ｉｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔａｎｄｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｆｅｅｌｏｆｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｈａｎｇｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ．１．３ＯｒｇａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅＴｈｅｓｉｓＴｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｓｏｆｆｉｖｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒｓｗｈｉｃｈｗｉｌｌｂｅｅｌａｂｏｒａｔｅｄｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙａｓｆｏｌｌｏｗｓ：ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＯｎｅｓｅｒｖｅｓａｓａｌｅａｄ－ｉｎｔｏｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｓｏｍｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｉｓｓｕｅｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｔｈｅｒａｔｉｏｎａｌｅａｎｄｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓａｎｄｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ．ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｌｙｒｅｖｉｅｗｓｓｏｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｏｐｉｃｗｈｉｃｈｃｏｎｔａｉｎｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄｎａｌｌｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｖｅｒｙｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｅｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｕｍｍａｒｉｚｅｄｔｏｊｕｓｔｉｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ｆｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｆｏｒｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｈｒｅｅｉｓｄｅｄｉｃａｔｅｄｔｏｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｔｈｅｓｉｓ．ＴｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｆｉｒｓｔｌｏｏｋｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳ，ｆｏｌｌｏｗｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆＦＩＳｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓａｎｄｔｈｅｌａｓｔｉｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｎｄＦＩＳ．ａｎｄｉｔｓＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｏｕｒｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｎＦＩＳｉｎＦｏｒｔｒｅｓｓＢｅｓｉｅｇｅｄＥｎｇｌｉｓｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒｓｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｒｅｉｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｅｄｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌｌｙａｎｄａｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓ（４．３ａｎｄ４．４）ｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｗｏｐａｒｔｓａｒｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｖｅｏｆｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｈｉｇｈｌｉｇｈｔｅｄｆｏｒｅａｃｈｉｎｄｉｃａｔｏｒ．Ａｎｄｉｎｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｕｌｔｓｏｆｔｈｅｃａｓｅａｎｄｃｏｍｍｅｎｔｅｄｕｐｏｎ．ｓｔｕｄｙｏｎｔｈｅｔｒｅａｔｍｅｎｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＴｈｅｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎ，ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＦｉｖｅ，ｃｏｎｃｅｎｔｒａｔｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｃｕｒｒｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇｍａｊｏｒｆｉｎｄｉｎｇｓａｎｓｗｅｒｉｎｇｔｈｅｓｐｅｃｉｆｉｃｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓ，ｉｍｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｌｉｍｉｔａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｅｎｄｏｆｔｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒ，ｓｏｍｅｓｕｇｇｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｆｏｒｆｕｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｐｕｔｆｏｒｗａｒｄ．４ＣｈａｐｔｅｒＴｗｏＬｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅＲｅｖｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｃｈａｐｔｅｒｇｉｖｅｓａｌｌｅｘｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｎｄｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｆｉｎａｌｌｙｉｔｇｉｖｅｓａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｏｆｓｏｍｅｃｒｉｔｉｃａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｔｏｖｅｉｌｆｙｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．１ＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９７５：１０）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｒｅｉｎｃｏｍｐｌｅｍｅｎｔａｒｙｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００７）ｓｔａｔｅｓｔｈａｔａｎａｌｙｔｉｃａｌｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｇｉｖｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｅｒｒｉｇｈｔａｃｃｅｓｓｔｏｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｏｆｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈＣａｎａｌｓｏｂｅｕｓｅｄｆｏｒｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．Ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｍｉｃｒｏｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｅｘｔｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｅｘｔｓｗｉｔｈｖａｒｉｏｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｓｐｅｅｄ．ＩｔｈａｓｒｅｃｅｉｖｅｄｗｉｄｅｓｅｎｓｅｔｈａｔｔｈｅｂｏｔｈｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｓｏｆｇｒｅａｔｈｅｌｐｔｏｔｈｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｅｘｔｓａｎｄＣａｎｓｅｒｖｅｔｏｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅｌｙｈｏｗｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｓａｒｅｒｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｅｄｉｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓ．ｉｎｖｅｓｔｉｇａｔｅＴｈｅｒｅａｒｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｘｔ，ｎａｍｅｌｙｔｅｎｓｅ，ｍｏｄｅａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅ，ａｓｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｄｂｙＧｅｎｅａｅ（１９８０）ｉｎａｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｍｏｄｅｌｆｏｒｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｔｅｎｓｅｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏｉｎｔｅｒａｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｔｏｒｙｔｉｍｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｍｏｏｄｉｓｕｓｅｄｔｏｍｏｄｕｌａｔｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｔａｎｃｅａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉ．ｅ．ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｉｎｖｏｌｖｅｓｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｎａｒｒａｔｏｒａｎｄｐｏｔｅｎｔｉａｌｒｅａｄｅｒ．Ｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍａｓｗｅｌｌａｓｓｋｉｌｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍ（ｉｂｉｄ），ａｌｌｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅａｒｅａｓａｔｔｒａｃｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｂｏｔｈｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌａｎｄｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ．Ｔｈｅｙｃａｎｂｅｒｅａｄｉｌｙｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｓｔｈｅｔｈｒｅｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓａｒｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｉｎａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｗｈａｔ’Ｓｍｏｒｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｐｒｏｐｏｓａｌｏｆｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｅｄｆｒｏｍｖｏｉｃｅｃａｔｌｂｅｓｅｅｎａｓａｎｅｗ－ｒｉｓｉｎｇｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｓｎｅｗｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｍｏｒｅａｂｏｕｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｗｉｌｌｂｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｌａｔｅｒ．ＺｈｅｎｇＭｉｎｙｕ（２００１）ｄｒａｗｓｕｐｏｎｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ５ｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ｈｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔａｋｅｙｔｏｔｈｅｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｏｆｆｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｃａｎｂｅａｔｔａｃｈｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｔｔｒａｎｓｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｙｐｅ．Ａｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｓｈｏｕｌｄｎｏｔｏｎｌｙｓｔｒｉｖｅｆｏｒｔｈｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｔｏｒｙ，ｂｕｔａｌｓｏｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｓｔｙｌｅｏｆａｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．ＢａｓｅｄｏｎＧｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓ（１９７２：７１—７６）ｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｍｅｌｙ，ｈｉｓｔｏｉｒｅ，ｒ＆ｉｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，Ｒｉｍｍｏｎ－Ｋｅｎａｎ（２００２：３）ｐｕｔｓｆｏｒｗａｒｄａｓｉｍｉｌａｒｔａｘｏｎｏｍｙ：ｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｓｈｅｆｕｌｌｙａｎａｌｙｚｅｓｅｖｅｎｔｓａｎｄｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｓｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｉｍｅ，ｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｌｅｖｅｌｓｏｆａｔｅｘｔａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｖｏｉｃｅｓｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ａｓｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｆｏｒｍｓｏｃｃｕｐｙｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｏｕｔｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙ．ＴｈｕｓＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｗｏｒｋｓｌａｙａｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．Ａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ，Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ’Ｓｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｉａｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓｃｏｐｅｉｓｂｒｏａｄｅｎｅｄｂｙａｄｄｉｎｇｖｉｓｕａｌ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅ，ｅｍｏｔｉｖｅａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｉｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｌｉｇｈｔｏｆＫｅｎａｎ’Ｓｅｘｅｒｔｉｏｎ，ｗｈｉｃｈｂｒｉｎｇｍｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕａｌｉｚｅｄａｎｄｅｘｔｒａ－ｔｅｘｔｕａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＦａｎｇＫａｉｒｕｉ（２００３）ａｔｔａｃｈｅｓｇｒｅａｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｃｅｔｏｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｅｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｏｄｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｉｓａｌｍｏｓｔｈａｒｄｔｏｄｉｓｃｅｒｎ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｇｕｌａｒｌｙｃｏｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｓｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒ．Ｓｏｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏ“ｐａｙａｄｅｑｕａｔｅａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏａｇｒｅａｔｃｈａｌｌｅｎｇｅｔｏｔｈｅｖｉｅｗ’ａｎｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｉｇｕｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｅｆｆｅｃｔｅｍｂｅｄｄｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ．ｒｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｅｉｔｓＡｓｉｓｋｎｏｗｎｔｏａｌｌ，ｆｒｏｍ１９６０ｓｔｏ１９８０ｓｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｎｔｈｅｗｅｓｔｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｉｎｇｏｆｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄａｇｒｅａｔｄｅａｌｂｅｆｏｒｅｐｏｓｔｃｌａｓｓｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｍｅｒｇｅｄｆｅｍｉｎｉｓｍｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｌｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙ，ｃｏｇｎｉｔｉｖｅｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｅｔｃ．Ｔｈｅｓｅｓｃｈｏｏｌｓｂｒｉｎｇｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｈｉｓｔｏｒｉｃ·ｓｏｃｉａｌａｎｄｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｏｍｐｏｎｅｎｔｓｉｎｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｎｅｒｆｏｒｍａｎｄｓｔｒｕｃｔｕｒｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔｎｅｗｌｙ－ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｄｗｉｔｈｏｆａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ．ｂｏｕｎｄｔｅｘｔｐｕｓｈｅｓｔｈｅｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｆｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｘｐｌａｉｎｓｔｈｅ‘ｒｅｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ’ｏｕｔｏｆｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌａｎｄｓｏｃｉａｌｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｒｅａｌｍ．２．２ＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ６Ｏｎｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｓｈｏｗｔｏｍａｋｅｐｒｏｐｅｒｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｖａｒｉａｎｔｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｏｕｒｃｅｔｅｘｔａｎｄｔａｒｇｅｔｔｅｘｔ，ｅｖｅｎｉｆｔｈｅｙｆｉｒｅｇｒａｍｍａｔｉｃａｌｌｙｃｏｒｒｅｃｔ．Ｉｓｓｕｅｓｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｉｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｄｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｂｙｎｕｍｅｒｏｕｓｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ．ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｐａｙｇｒｅａｔａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｔｈｅｎｅｃｅｓｓｉｔｙｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｉｎｇｔｈａｔ“ｅｘａｍｉｎｉｎｇｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｏｆａｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｅｘｔｃａｎｂｅａｍｅａｎｓｔｏａｆｕｌｌｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇａｎｄａｐｐｒｅｃｉａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓａｒｔｉｓｔｉｃａｃｈｉｅｖｅｍｅｎｔ”（２００１）．Ｂｙａｐｐｌｙｉｎｇｍｏｄｅｍｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｓａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ，ｔｈｅｙｓｕｍｕｐｍｅｔｈｏｄｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｎｄｍｉｃｒｏｃｏｓｍｉｃａｌｌｙｓｈｏｗｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔａｓｐｅｃｔｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ：ｗｏｒｄｓ，ｇｒａｍｍａｒ，ｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃ，ｃｏｈｅｒｅｎｃｅａｎｄｃｏｎｔｅｘｔ，ｗｈｉｃｈｐｒｏｖｉｄｅａｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｆｏｒｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓ．Ａｎｄｍｅａｎｗｈｉｌｅｔｈｅｙｍｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｈｒｅｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒｓ：‘‘ｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｏｒｄｅｒ’’‘＇ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒ’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｏｒｄｅｒ＇’（ｉｂｉｄ）．Ｔｈｅｙｌａｙａｓｏｌｉｄｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＱｉｎＸｉｕｂａｉ（２００１）ｈａｓａｌｓｏｔｏｕｃｈｅｄｕｐｏｎｔｈｅｉｓｓｕｅｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ．ＩｎｈｉｓＥｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｓｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｈｅｏｕｔｌｉｎｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｍａｉｎｌｙｉｎｔｈｒｅｅｆｉｅｌｄｓ：ｐｒｏｎｏｕｎａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅ／ｄｅｓｃｒｉｐｔｉｏｎａｎｇｌｅ，ｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌｄｉａｌｏｇｕｅ，ａｎｄｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓａｒｅｉｎｃａｒｎａｔｅｄｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｏｎｃｅｒｎｉｎｇｉｎｖａｒｉａｂｌｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ，ｈｅｍａｋｅｓｓｏｍｅｒｅｆｅｒｅｎｃｅａｖａｉｌａｂｌｅｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｗｈｏｍａｙｅｘａｍｉｎｅｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｆｒｏｍｔｈｏｓｅａｓｐｅｃｔｓ．Ｆｅｗｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓｈａｖｅｍａｄｅｓｙｓｔｅｍａｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎａｎａｌｙｓｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ａｌｔｈｏｕｇｈｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆｓｔｙｌｅｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｈａｖｅａｃｈｉｅｖｅｄｆｒｕｉｔｆｕｌｒｅｓｕｌｔｓ．Ｎｅｖｅｒｔｈｅｌｅｓｓ，ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｌｙａｐｐｌｉｃａｂｌｅｔｏｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓａｎｄｈａｓｄｒａｗｎｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＺｈａｎｇＭｉｎ（２０１０：２１６—２１７）ａｐｐｌｉｅｓｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｎｏｎ—ｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｈａｓｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｄａｐｐｒｏａｃｈｔｏｍｏｄｉｆｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｅｄｔｅｘｔｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｉｎｓｐｉｒｉｎｇｆｏｒｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｉｎｇｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｗｉｔｈｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ．ＮｏｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｗｅｒｅｐｒｏｆｏｕｎｄｅｎｏｕｇｈｕｎｔｉｌＳｈｅｎＤａｎｐｕｂｌｉｓｈｅｄＬｉｔｅｒａｒｙＳｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓａｎｄＦｉｃｔｉｏｎａｌＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｉｎ１９９５．Ｓｈｅ（１９９５：７）ｈｏｌｄｓｔｈａｔ“ｂｙｓｈａｒｐｅｎｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｓｅｎｓｉｔｉｖｉｔｙｔｏｔｈｅｗｏｒｋｉｎｇｓｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓｙｓｔｅｍ，ｂｙｉｍｐｒｏｖｉｎｇｏｎｅ’Ｓｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｔｈｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｎｏｒｍｓ，ａｎｄｂｙｅｎｈａｎｃｉｎｇａｎｄｔｈｅｗｒｉｔｅｒ’Ｓｃｒｅａｔｉｖｅａｃｔｓｃｏｍｂｉｎｅｔｏｏｎｅ’Ｓａｗａｒｅｎｅｓｓｏｆｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｏｎｖｅｎｔｉｏｎｓ７ｍａｋｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｏｒｍｔａｋｅｏｎａｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｓｉｇｎｉｆｉｃａｎｃｅ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｏｐｅｒａｔｅｓｔｏｈｅｌｐｔｈｅｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｔｏａｃｈｉｅｖｅｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅｏｒｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｖｅｉｄｅｎｔｉｔｙ．”Ｓｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｂｙｅｘｐｌｉｃａｔｅｓｗｈｙａｎｄｈｏｗｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓｃａｎｂ氐ｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎａｎｄｖａｌｉｄｉｔｙｏｆｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ．Ｄｅｔａｉｌｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｌｅｘｉｃａｌｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎ，ｓｙｎｔａｘ，ａｎｄｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎａｒｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄａｉｍｉｎｇｔｏｅｆｆｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙｓｏｌｖｅｔｈｅｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｏｆ“ｄｅｃｅｐｔｉｖｅｅｑｕｉｖａｌｅｎｃｅ”．ＣｈｅｎＳｈｕｋｕｎ（２０１０）ｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｓｔｈｅｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｏｆｂｒｉｎｇｉｎｇｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃａｎａｌｙｓｉｓｔｏｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎｓｔｕｄｉｅｓ，ｃｌａｉｍｉｎｇｔｈａｔｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓｉｎＳＴｓｈｏｕｌｄｂｅｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｇｒｅａｔｅｓｔｅｘｔｅｎｔｆｏｒｔｒａｎｓｍｉｔｔｉｎｇｒｈｙｔｈｍｔｏＴＴ．ＤｕｅｔｏｔｈｅｉｎｔｒｉｎｓｉｃｔｒａｉｔｓｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｍａｋｅｕｐｕｎｔｒａｎｓｌａｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙｂｙｃｒｅａｔｉｏｎＳＯｔｈａｔｔａｒｇｅｔｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｓ，ｔｈｅｔｒａｎｓｌａｔｏｒｈａｓｔｏｒｅａｄｅｒｓｈａｖｅｔｈｅｓｉｍｉｌａｒｅｓｔｈｅｔｉｃｆｅｅｌｉｎｇｔｏｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｒｅａｄｔｈｅｏｒｉｇｉｎａｌ．２．３ＴｈｒｅｅＣａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＩｎｔｈｉｓｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄｉｎｍａｉｎｌｙｔｈｒｅｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ，ａｎｄａｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄ．Ｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ“ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｈａｓｂｅｅｎｅｍｐｌｏｙｅｄｉｎｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｓｔｙｌｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅｓｔｕｄｙｂｙｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｅｓｓｅｎｔｉａｌｔｏｂｒｉｎｇｏｕｔｔｈｒｅｅｓｅｎｓｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｂｅｆｏｒｅｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄＳＯｔｈａｔｔｈｅｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｉｏｎｓａｐｐｌｉｅｄｉｎｔｈｅｔｈｅｓｉｓａｒｅｃｌａｒｉｆｉｅｄ．Ｓｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３）ｉｄｅｎｔｉｆｉｅｓｆｏｕｒｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ：ｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌ，ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌ，ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌａｎｄｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉａｌａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｒｅｍｅｒｇｅｄａｓｔｈｅｆｉｒｓｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｙ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｌｅｆｔｔｗｏａｎｄｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｒｅｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｌｙ．ｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓａｒｅｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ２．３．１Ｓｐａｔｉｏ－ＴｅｍｐｏｒａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＬａｎｇｕａｇｅｉｓｃｏｎｎｅｃｔｅｄｔｏｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ．Ａｎｄｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｉｓａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄ谢ｔｈｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎｓ，ｗｈｅｒｅｍｅｎｔａｌｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｓａｒｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｄ．Ｉｎｏｒｄｅｒｔｏｄｒａｗｐｅｏｐｌｅ’Ｓａｔｔｅｎｔｉｏｎｔｏｏｂｊｅｃｔｓｆｒｏｍａｎｙｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｅｄｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ｒｅｆｅｒｒｉｎｇａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｇｆｏｒｍｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ．Ｔｈｅｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｉｓａｒｅｕｓｅｄｔｏｓｅｌｅｃｔｔｈｅｍ；ｔｈｅｓｅｎｅｅｄｔｈｅｅｘｐｅｒｉｅｎｔｉａｌａｒｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｍｍｅｄｉａｔｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉｏｎａｒｏｕｎｄｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓｏｒｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｉｍａｇｉｎａｔｉｏｎｏｒｍｅｍｏｒｙｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒｓ．Ｈｅｎｃｅｄｅｉｘｉｓｄｅａｌｓｍａｉｎｌｙｗｉｔｈｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅ８ａｎｄｉｓｏｆｔｅｎｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍａｎｉｎｄｉｖｉｄｕａｌ’ｓｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ，ｔｈｕｓｉｔｉｓｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｓｐａｔｉｏ—ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．Ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓｏｆｄｅｉｘｉｓ：ｐｅｒｓｏｎｄｅｉｘｉｓ（ｅ．ｇ．磊ｙｏｕ，ｓｈｅａｎｄｈｅ），ｄｅｆｉｎｉｔｅａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓ，ｄｅｍｏｎｓｔｒａｔｉｖｅｐｒｏｎｏｕｎｓａｎｄａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓ（ｅ．ｇ．ｔｈｉｓａｎｄｔｈａｔ，ｈｅｒｅａｎｄｔｈｅｒｅ，ｎＯＷａｎｄｔｈｅｎ），ｌｏｃａｔｉｖｅｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｏｎｓ，ｓｐａｔｉａｌａｄｖｅｒｂｓ，ａｎｄｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌａｎｄｔｅｎｓｅｃａｔｅｇｏｒｉｅｓ．Ｕｓｕａｌｌｙｄｅｉｘｉｓｉｓｕｔｔｅｒｅｄｂｙａｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ａｓｐｅａｋｅｒ，ａｎｄｉｓａｄｄｒｅｓｓｅｄｔｏａｎｏｔｈｅｒｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｔｈｅｈｅａｒｅｒ．Ｉｔｒｅｌａｔｅｓｕｔｔｅｒａｎｃｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｉｍｅａｎｄｓｐａｃｅｃｏｏｒｄｉｎａｔｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｓｐｅｅｃｈａｃｔ．Ｄｅｉｘｉｓｐｌａｙｓａｑｕｉｔｅｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｒｏｌｅｉｎｔｈｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｍｏｒｅｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙ，ｏｆｔｈｅｓｐａｔｉｏ－ｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ．２．３．２ＩｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＳｔｙｌｅｉｎｌｉｔｅｒａｔｕｒｅａｎｄｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓｔｕｄｉｅｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎａｓｓｏｃｉａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｆｅａｔｕｒｅｓ．Ｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｗａｙｓｔｏｄｅｆｉｎｅｉｔｉｓｔｏｗｅｉｇｈ“ｓｏｍｅｏｒａｌｌｏｆｔｈｅｌａｎｇｕａｇｅｈａｂｉｔｓｏｆｏｎｅｐｅｒｓｏｎ…ｗｈｅｎｗｅｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｄｉｓｐｕｔｅｄａｕｔｈｏｒｓｈｉｐ’’（ＣｒｙｓｔａｌａｎｄＤａｖｙ１９６９：９）．Ｉｔｉｓｗｉｄｅｌｙａｓｓｕｍｅｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｗａｙｗｒｉｔｅｒｓｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｌｙｄｒａｗｏｎｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｃｏｎｔｒｉｂｕｔｅｓｔｏｔｈｅｉｒｓｔｙｌｅ．Ｔｈａｔｉｓｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｍｏｄａｌｗｏｒｄｓａｒｅｃｏｎｓｉｄｅｒｅｄ．Ｔｏｐｕｔｉｔａｎｏｔｈｅｒｗａｙ，ｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｉｓｃｒｕｃｉａｌｉｎｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｂｙｗｈｉｃｈａｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒｏｒａｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｍａｙｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｈｉｓｊｕｄｇｍｅｎｔｓａｓｔｏｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｒｐｏｓｓｉｂｉｌｉｔｙ，ｖａｌｕｅａｎｄｄｅｓｉｒａｂｉｌｉｔｙｉｎａｓｐｅｅｃｈｅｖｅｎｔａｎｄｏｆｐｅｏｐｌｅｒｅｆｅｒｒｅｄｔｏ．Ｔｈｅｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｆｅａｔｕｒｅｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙｕｎｄｅｒｐｉｎｓｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３：４７），ｔｈｅｒｅａｒｅｆｏｕｒｔｙｐｅｓｏｆｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ：１）ｍｏｄａｌａｕｘｉｌｉａｒｉｅｓ（ｄｅｏｎｔｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｓｕｃｈａｓｓｈｏｕｌｄ，ｍｕｓｔａｎｄｍａｙｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｉｎｇｄｕｔｙａｎｄｃｏｍｍｉｔｍｅｎｔ２）ｍｏｄａｌｖｅｒｂｓ（ｂｏｕｌｏｍａｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ），ｌｉｋｅｈｏｐｅ，ｗｉｓｈａｎｄｒｅｇｒｅｔｄｅｎｏｔｉｎｇｄｅｓｉｒｅｓ，３）ｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒｓ（ｅｐｉｓｔｅｍｉｃｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｌａｔｅｄｔｏｔｈｅｓｐｅａｋｅｒ’Ｓｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｏｒｌａｃｋｏｆｃｏｎｆｉｄｅｎｃｅｉｎｔｈｅｔｒｕｔｈｏｆａｐｒｏｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎｅｘｐｒｅｓｓｅｄ，ｆｏｒｅｘａｍｐｌｅ，ｓｕｒｅ，ｐｒｏｂａｂ砂ａｎｄｃｏｕｌｄｎ｝ａｎｄ４）ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎａｄｊｅｃｔｉｖｅｓｏｒａｄｖｅｒｂｓ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｉｏｎｍｏｄａｌｉｔｙ）ｒｅｇａｒｄｅｄａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｍｏｄａｌｏｐｅｒａｔｏｒ，ｌｉｋｅａｐｐａｒｅｎｔ（１ｙ），ｏｂｖｉｏｕｓ（１ｙ）ａｎｄｃｌｅａｒ（１ｙ）．Ｏｎｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｓｙｎｔａｘ，ＬｅｅｃｈａｎｄＳｈｏｒｔｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｓｔｈａｔ“ｄｉｆｆｅｒｉｎｇｃｈｏｉｃｅｓａｔｔｈｅｌｅｖｅｌｏｆｐａｒｔｉｃｉｐａｎｔｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｏｎｅｃｌａｕｓｅｃａｎｉｎｄｉｃａｔｅｖａｒｙｉｎｇｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｕａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｖｅｎｔ”．Ｔｈｅｒｅｆｏｒｅｃｏｎｔｅｘｔｕｒｅｏｆｉｄｅｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｃｈｏｉｃｅｉｎｓｅｎｔｅｎｃｅｅｍｂｏｄｉｅｓａｃｏｎｓｉｓｔｅｎｔｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｗｏｒｌｄ，ｇｉｖｉｎｇｒｉｓｅｔｏａｎｅｎｔｉｒｅｔｙｏｆｍｉｎｄ—ｓｔｙｌｅ，ａｓｎａｍｅｄ９ｂｙＦｏｗｌｅｒ（１９８６：１５０）．２．３．３ＰｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｅｔｈｉｒｄｍａｊｏｒｓｅｎｓｅｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｎａｍｅｄｂｙＦｏｌｗｅｒ（１９８６：１３４），ｏｒｗｈｉｃｈＵｓｐｅｎｓｋｙｐｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｍｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ（１９７３：８０）．ＡｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏＳｉｍｐｓｏｎ（１９９３），ｉｔｉｓｄｅｆｉｎｅｄａｓｔｈｅｐｓｙｃｈｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｗｈｉｃｈａｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｔｏｌｄ．Ｉｔａｃｃｏｕｎｔｓｆｏｒｔｈｅｄｏｍｉｎａｎｔｐｏｓｉｔｉｏｎａｄｏｐｔｅｄｉｎａｓｔｏｒｙ，ｎｏｍａｔｔｅｒｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙｉｓｎａｒｒａｔｅｄｔｈｒｏｕｇｈｆｉｒｓｔ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎｏｒｔｈｉｒｄ－ｐｅｒｓｏｎ，ｒｅｓｔｒｉｃｔｅｄｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｒｏｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｔｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ．ＵｓｉｎｇｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆＶ论ｗｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｎａｒｒａｔｏｒｓｃａｎｍａｎｉｐｕｌａｔｅｔｈｅｒｏｌｅｔｏｒｅｐｏｒｔｏｒｔｏｃｏｍｍｅｎｔ．Ｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｔｉｍｅ－ｈｏｎｏｒｅｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｔｈａｔｄｒａｗｓＨｅｎｒｙＪａｍｅｓ’ｏｖｅｒｄｕｅｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｈｉｓｗｒｉｔｉｎｇ．Ａｓａｓｕｂｓｅｔｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｔｈｅｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｈａｓｃｏｎｔｒｏｖｅｒｓｉａｌｔｙｐｏｌｏｇｉｅｓ，ｗｈｉｃｈｈａｖｅｔｏｂｅｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｓｃｕｓｓｅｄｉｎｓｅｃｔｉｏｎ２．５．２．４ＳｔｕｄｉｅｓｏｆＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗｉｎＮａｒｒａｔｏｌｏｇｙＰｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓａｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｆｒｅｑｕｅｎｔｌｙａｐｐｌｉｅｄｔｏｒｈｅｔｏｒｉｃａｎｄｌｉｔｅｒａｒｙｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ．Ｉｎｔｈｅｌａｔｔｅｒ，ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｍａｉｎｌｙｒｅｆｅｒｓｔｏｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｍｅｔｈｏｄ，ｉｎｃｌｕｄｉｎｇ“ｔｈｅｖｉｓｕａｌ（ｐｅｒｃｅｐｔｕａｌ）ａｎｇｌｅｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ”ａｎｄ“ｌｉｔｅｒａｌｌｙｒｅｖｅａｌｅｄｓｔａｎｄｐｏｉｎｔ，ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅａｎｄｍａｎｎｅｒｏｆｓｐｅａｋｉｎｇ”（ＳｈｅｎＤａｎ，２００４：２０５）．Ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｂｅｇｉｎｎｉｎｇｏｆｃｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙｗｅｓｔｅｒｎｎｏｖｅｌ，ｔｈｅｖｉｅｗｐｏｉｎｔｉｎｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎｈａｓｌｏｎｇｂｅｅｎｎｏｔｉｃｅｄ．Ｓｈｏｒｔ（１９９９：１７２—１８６）ＵｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇＴｅｘｔｓ：ＰｏＲｔｏｆＨｅｗｍａｉｎｔａｉｎｓｔｈａｔｉｔｉｓｔｈｅｃｏｒｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｉｎｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍｉｎｔｗｅｎｔｉｅｔｈｃｅｎｔｕｒｙ，ｗｈｉｃｈｒｅｌａｔｅｓｔｏａｎｙｆｏｒｍｏｆｔｅｘｔ．Ｔｈｅｃｈａｒａｃｔｅｒ’Ｓｓｐｅｅｃｈａｎｄｔｈｏｕｇｈｔｉｎｍｏｄｅｍｆｉｃｔｉｏｎｉｓｃｌｏｓｅｌｙｂｏｕｎｄｕｐｗｉｔｈｔｈｅａｂｕｎｄａｎｔａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｒｅｅｉｎｄｉｒｅｃｔｓｐｅｅｃｈ．Ｉｎ１９７０ｓａｎｄ１９８０ｓ，ｔｈｅｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｇｏｔｔＯｉｔｓｕｎｐｒｅｃｅｄｅｎｔｅｄｃｌｉｍａｘ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｂｅｉｎｇａｔｔａｃｋｅｄｂｙｂｏｔｈｓｉｄｅｓｏｆｄｅｃｏｎｓｔｒｕｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｐｏｌｉｔｉｃａｌｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌｃｒｉｔｉｃｉｓｍ，ｉｔｔｈｅｎｗｅｎｔｄｏｗｎｔｏａｌｏｗｐｏｉｎｔ．Ｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔｙｅａｒｓ，ｔｈｅｆｉｅｌｄｏｆｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃｓ，ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｌｉｎｇｕｉｓｔｉｃ，ｈｏｌｄｓｇｒｅａｔｉｎｔｅｒｅｓｔｉｎｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ａｎｄＳＯｉｓｔｈａｔｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ．ＶａｎＤｉｊｋ（１９８１：３１１）ｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｓｔｈｉｓｓｕｂｊｅｃｔｔｈｏｒｏｕｇｈｌｙａｎｄｅｎｌａｒｇｅｓｔｈｅｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｔｆｏｒｔｈｅａｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｒａｇｍａｔｉｃｓ，ｓｕｃｈａｓｍｅａｎｉｎｇａｎｄｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎｓｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｘｔ．ＴｈｅＲｕｓｓｉａｎＦｏｒｍａｌｉｓｔｓＳｈｋｌｏｖｓｋｙｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｈｅｗａｙｉｔｉｓｔｏｌｄ，ｕｓｉｎｇｔｈｅｔｅｒｍｓ４，ａ６ｙ．７ａａｎｄｃｔｏ．）ｌｃｅｍ，ｗｈｉｃｈｅｑｕａｔｅｔｏｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅｉｎＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ．Ｔｈｅｓｅ‘ｔｗｏｍａｊｏｒｄｏｍａｉｎｓｏｆｉｎｑｕｉｒｙｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｆｕｒｔｈｅｒｄｉｖｉｄｅｄｉｎｔｏｔｈｒｅｅｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｆｏｒｉｎｓｔａｎｃｅ，ＭｉｅｋｅＢａｌ（１９８５）ｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｅｓｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｒｅｅｔｅｘｔｌｅｖｅｌｓ：ｆａｂｕｌａ，ｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｔｅｘｔ，ａｎｄＲｉｍｍｏｎ—Ｋｅｎａｎ（１９８３）ｏｆｆｅｒｓｓｔｏｒｙ，ｔｅｘｔａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ．Ｈｏｗｅｖｅｒ，ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｐａｒｉｔｙｏｆｔｅｒｍｉｎｏｌｏｇｙｉｓｎｏｔｒｅｌｅｖａｎｔｔｏｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｂｅｃａｕｓｅｉｔｆｏｃｕｓｅｓｏｎｔｈｅｂａｓｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｄｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅａｎｄｂｏｔｈｂｉｎａｒｙａｎｄｔｒｉａｄｉｃｄｉｖｉｓｉｏｎｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｓｅｔｗｏｍａｉｎｌｅｖｅｌｓ．Ｔｈｉｓｄｉｓｔｉｎｃｔｉｏｎｔｈｕｓｅｍｐｈａｓｉｚｅｓｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｔｈｅｆｕｎｄａｍｅｎｔａｌｅｖｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｉｔｓｐｒｅｓｅｎｔａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｎａｒｒａｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｓａｍｅｅｌｅｍｅｎｔｓｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙｍａｙｂｅｔｒｅａｔｅｄｗｉｔｈｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｔｅｍｐｏｒａｌｏｒｄｅｒｉｎｇｓａｎｄｓｅｅｎｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｎａｒｒａｔｉｎｇｖｏｉｃｅ（ｉｂｉｄ．ｐ１５）．Ｉｔｉｓｖｅｒｙｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｔｏｄｉｓｔｉｎｇｕｉｓｈｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｓｔｏｒｙａｎｄｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｗｈｅｎａｎａｌｙｚｉｎｇａｗｏｒｋｏｆｆｉｃｔｉｏｎ，ｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｎｏｔｉｏｎｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｓｌｏｃａｔｅｄｉｎｔｈｅａｒｅａｓｏｆｖａｒｉａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｈｅｔｅｌｌｉｎｇｏｆａｓｔｏｒｙ．Ａｎｏｔｈｅｒｃｒｕｃｉａｌｐｒｏｂｌｅｍｉｎｔｈｅｓｔｕｄｙｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ，ｔｈｅｃｏｎｆｕｓｉｏｎｏｆ‘＇ｗｈｏｓｅｅｓ？’’ａｎｄ‘‘ｗｈｏｓｐｅａｋｓ？’’ｓｕｓｔａｉｎｅｄｆｏｒｑｕｉｔｅａｌｏｎｇｔｉｍｅ．Ｓｏｉｔｉｓｎｅｃｅｓｓａｒｙｔｏｐｕｔｉｔｈｅｒｅ，ｗｈｉｃｈｉｓｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｏｆｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓ．Ｇｅｎｅｔｔｅ（１９９０：７４）ｉｎｈｉｓｂｏｏｋＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＤｉｓｃｏｕｒｓｅＲｅｖｉｓｉｔｅｄｔａｋｅｓｔｈｅｔｅｒｍ‘‘ｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ’’ｉｎｓｔｅａｄｏｆ‘‘ｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗ＇’ｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｍｅａｎｉｎｇｏｆ‘＇ｖｉｅｗｉｎｇｐｏｉｎｔ”ｆｒｏｍｗｈｉｃｈｔｈｅｏｂｊｅｃｔｓａｒｅｓｅｅｎ．Ｈｅａｓｓｕｍｅｓｔｈａｔｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ，ｗｉｔｈａｄｅｇｒｅｅｏｆａｂｓｔｒａｃｔｎｅｓｓ，ｉｓｔｈｅｉｎｓｔｒｕｍｅｎｔｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｓｓｉｂｌｅｓｅｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ，ａｓｏｒｔｏｆｐｉｐｅｔｈａｔａｌｌｏｗｓｐａｓｓａｇｅｏｎｌｙｏｆａｕｔｈｏｒｉｚｅｄｉｎｆｏｒｍａｔｉｏｎ．Ｔｈｕｓｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗｉｎｔｈｉｓｔｈｅｓｉｓｍｅａｎｓｆｏｃａｌｉｚａｔｉｏｎ．２．５ＣｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＮａｒｒａｔｉｖｅＰｏｉｎｔｏｆＶｉｅｗＴｈｉｓｉｓａｓｅｃｔｉｏｎｔｈａｔＣａｎｏｂｔａｉｎａｃｌｅａｒｅｒｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇｏｆｐｏｉｎｔｏｆｖｉｅｗａｓａｎａｒｒａｔｉｖｅｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅ．Ａｎｄｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｓｃｈｏｌａｒｓ’ｔａｘｏｎｏｍｉｅｓｗｉｌｌｂｅｓｈｏｗｎｂｅｆｏｒｅａｃｏｎｃｌｕｓｉｏｎｉｓｒｅａｃｈｅｄａｐｐｒｏｐｒｉａｔｅｌｙｆｏｒｔｈｅｐｒｅｓｅｎｔｔｈｅｓｉｓ．２．５．１Ｆｒｉｅｄｍａｎ’ＳＥｉｇｈｔ－ｔｅｒｍＴａｘｏｎｏｍｙＮｏｒｍａｎＦｒｉｅｄｍａｎ（１９５５）ｐｒｏｐｏｓｅｓａｖｅｒｙｃｏｍｐｌｅｘａｎｄｄｅｔａｉｌｅｄｃｌａｓｓｉｆｉｃａｔｉｏｎｗｉｔｈｅｉｇｈｔｔｙｐｅｓ：ＥｄｉｔｏｒｉａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＮｅｕｔｒａｌＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，Ｉ－ａｓ—ｗｉｔｎｅｓｓ，Ｉ－ａｓ－ｐｒｏｔａｇｏｎｉｓｔ，ＭｕｌｔｉｐｌｅＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＳｅｌｅｃｔｉｖｅＯｍｎｉｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＴｈｅＤｒａｍａｔｉｃＭｏｄｅ，ａｎｄＴｈｅＣａｍｅｒａ．Ｔｈｅｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｃｅｏｆｆｉｒｓｔｔｗｏ。

Chapter 9 Implications of Stylistics for Teaching English Literature Our task in this chapter is to explore the implications of stylistics for teaching English literature to advanced Chinese EFL students. Stylisticians abroad, especially in Britain, have enthusiastically started to apply stylistics to the teaching of English literature to both home and foreign students. The works based on their teaching experience of such scholars as H. G. Widdowson, A. Rodger and R. Carter are indeed invaluable and insightful. Much of what is said in this chapter results from the inspiration received from reading these works.To examine the implications of a particular theory for teaching, it makes sense to first find out as much as possible about the target students.9.1 Brief Description of StudentsAccording to the most recent "National Syllabus for University English Majors" (National Advisory Board on University Foreign Language Teaching, 2000), there are two required English literature courses: "British Literature" and "American Literature". These are one-year courses and designed to be taught to the third-year and fourth-year students. The students are mostly over twenty years of age, and are therefore physically and emotionally mature. When they graduate, most of them will work as "Foreign Language Workers" - an umbrella term for foreign language teachers, translators, interpreters and researchers. Some may go on to postgraduate studies. As we know, most of these professions ask for a basic literary competence.Our students are usually highly motivated to study, though a small number of them are less motivated for one reason or another. Nevertheless, even the less motivated students are often interested in English literature for the pleasure it provides and out of love and respect for great literature in general. The English literature that the students have encountered by the third year of their study consists mostly of simplified or abridged short stories, novels and some short poems. Their reading is oriented to language study, not to thematic message. Students may have, however, read a fair amount of Chinese literature and the translated versions of some English literary works. As far as the students' English language proficiency is concerned, it is assumed that they have moved into the advanced stage of learning. In the first two years of their college work, according to the new national syllabus, they should have acquired a good mastery of basic English pronunciation and intonation and the essentials of English grammar. They should have covered 5,500 ～6,500 English words and be able to fluently and appropriately use 3,000 ～4,000 of them and their collocations. In short, they should have acquired a good grammatical competence and even a fairly good communicative competence.With the above-mentioned characteristics of the target students in mind, we are now in a better position to start to explore the implications of stylistics which affect all aspects of literature teaching. In this chapter, we will be able to discuss only two aspects, namely, defining the aims of teaching literature and devising classroom literary exercises.9.2 Implications of Stylistics for Defining the Aims of Teaching LiteratureIt is of paramount importance for the teacher to have a clear idea of the aims of the course he or she is teaching. It is even more important, however, for the aims to be defined appropriately on the basis of theory and practice. The failure to do so will necessarily lead to the failure of the course.How might we define the aims of teaching English literature in the light of the theory and methods of stylistics? As discussed in Chapter One, an important assumption of a stylistic approach is that literature is made of language. The medium of the literary writer is very different from the medium of the sculptor or painter. It is already meaningfully structured and systematized. As the most complex mode of human communication, language already has its own built-in rules and conventions. This the literary writer may exploit and arrange in unusual ways to create a fictional world independent of any concrete situation. But the meaning of a piece of work unquestionably depends on the norms of that language even where it most deviates from them. Thus, the facts of a literary text are linguistic facts. Everything else in a work is only inference from these facts. In conventional discourse, concrete situations are given; we understand the text or conversation partly because we know what to expect in those situations. In Widdowson's (1983) words, we "count on schematic knowledge". For example, if we listen to the weatherman on a summer's day in Beijing, we will not be surprised to hear that there will be rain or a storm. But we will be surprised to hear of a heavy snow coming up. In literature, however, there are no established conventional schemata of this sort. Literature is contextually dislocated. The context of situation in literature is only created from the clues supplied by the language of the text. Therefore, our understanding of a piece of literary work relies heavily on a highly developed awareness of the workings of language in everyday communicative situations as well as in literary discourse.Based on this analysis, we may now suggest that what is of primary concern for a literary course is the development of a keen awareness in the student of how language works in literary discourse. Widdowson has made the point explicitly, "literature as a subject has as its principal aim the development of the capacity for individual response to language use" (1975: 76).The adoption of the above aim as the primary goal of a literary course would mean that the teacher should focus the students' attention mainly on the intrinsic facts of a text as opposed to extrinsic facts such as those about the lives and opinions of authors, about sources and influence, about genres, fashions, schools and movements. The teacher must realize that these extrinsic facts are only secondary to the intrinsic facts.The adoption of such a primary aim would also mean that the chief criterion for selecting the teaching content should be different from that of a knowledge-oriented course. It should not be the classic status of the texts, "but has to do with whether the work can be used to develop sensitivity to language in the most effective way" (Widdowson, 1975: 85). A selection made chiefly according to this criterion may not contain as many classics as was usually the case, but is nevertheless suitable for preparing the way for a meaningful and enjoyable reading of them at a future date.The adoption of such an aim does not mean the rejection of other teaching aimssuch as 'the acquisition of literary knowledge', 'the learning of cultural facts' and 'the cultivation of morality'. But it should be realized that these aims cannot be achieved if the student is unable to understand the language of the texts. Putting it in another way, the realization of the primary aim can facilitate the attainment of other aims.9.3 Implications of Stylistics for Devising Classroom Literary ExercisesWe briefly discussed the implications of stylistics for defining aims of teaching literature in the preceding section. In this section we will explore the implications of stylistics for devising literary exercises for classroom use.We made the point in Section 1.5 that to ascertain the style or uniqueness of a text naturally involves comparisons of language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and concluded that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature. In Section 1.3, we examined the assumption that literature is made of language. In the preceding section, we further pointed out that the facts of a literary text are linguistic facts and everything else in it is only inference from these. The understanding of a literary text thus relies heavily on a highly developed awareness of the workings of language in everyday communicative situations as well as in literary discourse. The points we made in these sections have many implications for devising classroom literary exercises. What we said chiefly implies that the exercises we devise for our students should be in some way comparative and should help the students make sense of literary discourse through utilizing the clues supplied by the language of the text.One type of literary exercise that Widdowson advocates is the setting of examples of literary discourse alongside examples of conventional discourse in order to demonstrate the differences in the way the language system is realized for communicative purposes (1975). For example, for teaching Tennyson's poem The Eagle, we may select from an encyclopaedia the description of the eagle and then present it to the students together with the poem.The EagleHe clasps the crags with crooked hands,Close to the sun in lonely lands,Ring'd with the azure world, he stands.The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls;He watches from his mountain walls,And like a thunderbolt he falls.eagle (e'gel), the popular name for any of several large birds of prey that belong to the hawk family. Eagles are found throughout much of the world. Some live in open mountainous areas, others inhabit forests, and still others live near the sea.Most eagles range in length from 2 to 3 feet (0.6 to 0.9 meters), and their broad wings may span more than 6 feet (1.8 meters). Like most of the hawks, the female eagle is slightly larger than the male. All eagles have a heavy, sharply hooked bill and strong sharp claws, called talons, which they use to seize and kill prey. The eagle'splumage is usually brown, gray, or black, and it is sometimes marked with white.Eagles hunt in the daytime. They have very sharp sight, and some eagles can spot a running rabbit at a distance of 3 miles (4.8 km). Several species of eagles prey on small game birds or animals, others eat fish, and some eat reptiles. One species, the monkey-eating eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi), feeds almost exclusively on monkeys. The monkey-eating eagle is a native of the Philippines.The eagle's nest, called an aerie, is usually built in an inaccessible place, such as a high treetop or rocky cliff ledge. The nest is a large, bulky structure, made of sticks and often lined with ferns and grass. Many eagles return to the same nest every year, repairing it and adding sticks before they lay their eggs. One of the largest known aeries was 20 feet (6 meters) deep and 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) across the top. It consisted of 2 tons of sticks and had been used for 36 years.Eagles lay one to four white eggs, which may be speckled with brown. The male rarely incubates the eggs, but both parents care for the young until they are able to fly, usually about 11 weeks after hatching.(Merit Student Encyclopedia, Vol. 6, p. 146, Macmillan, 1979)Using the above-listed type of exercise implies that we should not ask students questions of a factual kind such as, 'Where does the eagle stand?' or 'How does the eagle fall?'. Instead, we should ask the kind of questions that direct students' attention to how the language of the text being discussed functions to produce its unique literary message. Thus, for the set of texts on the eagle the following questions might be asked.1) In Tennyson's poem, eagle is modified by the definite article the, whereas in the encyclopedic version it is either in its plural form they or modified by the. How do you account for this? Can you perceive the multiple meanings in the title of the poem?2) In Tennyson's poem, the masculine third-person pronoun he stands for the eagle, while in the encyclopedic version, the pronouns used are it and they. What special effect does Tennyson's use of he for the eagle create in the poem?3) In line one of Tennyson's poem, there is a recurrence of plosives, e.g. /t/, /k/ and /g/. What effects do they produce?4) The closing line of the first stanza and that of the last stanza structurally run parallel to each other. How do we interpret this?This type of exercise is both interesting and helpful, and may be used as the major type of exercise in the classroom. It is also relatively easy to devise for there is a great variety of non-literary texts to choose from. However, there are other types of exercises which are useful and can be employed by the classroom teacher. In what follows, we will briefly introduce four of them.1) Original text - Translation texte.g.Original text:Four OrdersI am a trembling leafI am a withered armI am a sunken reefI am a trampled worm.Leaf, be the caterpillar's joyArm, enfold the new-born boyReef, flower into a coral isleWorm, fertilize the soil.(Ronald Bottral)Translation text:四条法规我是一片瑟瑟发抖的树叶我是一只枯干衰老的胳膊我是一块沉入大海的礁石我是一条被践踏过的虫子。

Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (January, 2015)I.Translation (1 X 20 = 20 %): Chinese into English = 10 English into Chinese = 10II.Fill in the blanks (2 X 15 = 30 %): Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms III.Definitions ( 4 X 5 = 20 %)IV.Short essays (15 X 2 = 30 %)RevisionI.Terms for sections I, II, and III.Chapter 7:1) sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics might be defined as the study of correlations between linguistic variables (e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the presence or absence of a certain element in a system and non-linguistic variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, hometown, etc.2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假说American Anthropological linguisticsLinguistic determinism: Language determines our way of thinking.Linguistic relativity: similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.3) linguistic determinism 语言决定论Language determines our way of thinking.4) linguistic relativity 语言相对论Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.5) the context of situation 情景语境According to Halliday, the context of situation contains three components:（1）Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.（2）Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversations（3）Mode of discourse: the channel of communication6) communicative competence 交际能力The implications from sociolinguistics for language teaching is called communicative competenceHymes:(1) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.(2) Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.(3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) inrelation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.(4) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.M. Canale and M. Swain:(1) Grammatical competence(2) Sociolinguistic competence(3) Discourse competence(4) Strategic competence7) woman register 女性用语According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features:(1) Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and beige（米色）.(2) Women use less powerful curse words.(3) Women use more intensifiers such as terribly and awfully.(4) Women use more tag questions: He’s right, isn’t he?(5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He’s rig ht?(6) Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men's: Could you lower your voice a little?8) linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man（used to refer to the whole human race）, he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen.There are many more words for prostitutes than for whoremasters or whoremongers.If a man behaves strangely, one may say, “There’s a woman in it.”The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.9) cross-cultural communication跨文化交际Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures.Chapter 8:1) the speech act theory 言语行为理论This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin who classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives.2) performatives 言语行为句Austin classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I sentence you ten years of imprisonment.3) constatives 表述句Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, e.g.I pour some liquid into the tube.John went to the zoo yesterday.4) locutionary act 表述性言语行为、言中行为The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.5) illocutionary act 施为性言语行为、言外行为T he act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: ∙asking or answering a question∙giving some information or an assurance or a warning∙pronouncing sentence∙making a request or an appointment or a criticism∙making an identification or giving a description, and many others.6) perlocutionary act 言后行为The consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or induce him to do something. Whether these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act performed by the speaker. This is what is called perlocutionary act.7) the cooperative principle 合作原则According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.8) maxim of quantity 数量准则(1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)(2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.9) maxim of quality 质量准则(1) do not say what you believe to be false.(2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10) maxim of relation 关联准则Be relevant11) maxim of manner 方式准则Be perspicuous(1) avoid obscurity of expression.(2) avoid ambiguity.(3) be brief(4) be orderly12) calculability 可计算性Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including:1) the conventional meaning of the words,2) the CP and its maxims,3) the context,4) other items of the background knowledge,5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.13) cancellability 可删除性Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change. Example:A: Where’s X?B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left. (implicature cancellation)14) non-detachability 非可分离性A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. For example, John’s a genius and John’s a mental prodigy said ironically both implicate that John’s an idiot.But conversational implicatures related to the Manner maxim are an exception. Example (8):At home,A: Let’s get the kids something.B: OK, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M. (manner)15) non-conventionality 非规约性Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. To show this more clearly, we can have a look at some examples of entailment (a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first necessarily follows from the falsity of the second: I saw a boy and I saw a child):John has three cows.John has only three cows. (implicature)John has some cows. (entailment)John has some animals. (entailment)John has something. (entailment)Somebody has three cows. (entailment)Somebody has some cows. (entailment)Somebody has some animals. (entailment)Somebody has something. (entailment)16) contextual meaning 语境意义A description of something in reality or a suggestion or a warning is sometimes referred to as contextual meaning, or speaker’s meaning or utterance meaning.17) pragmatics 语用学The discipline that concentrates on contextual meaning is called pragmatics.18) relevance theory关联理论Relevance theory was proposed by Sperber and Wilson who argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance. The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in any given context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction.Chapter 9:1) literary stylistics 文学文体学Literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features related to literary style, the way in which literary works are written.2) foregrounding 前景化(1) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns(2) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the level of lexis, morphological analysis can be done about new combinations of words(3) Where there is foregrounding on the level of word order and syntax, grammatical knowledge about word classes can be used to analyze unusual or marked combinations or constructions.(4) If a language unit cannot be literally interpreted, the figures of speech that are involved and used for signification may be analyzed.(5) In any case, unusual, deviant, or marked uses of language in literature (different from the everyday, non-literary language) are identified and analyzed.3) simile 明喻a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it is explicitly signaled in a text, with the words as or like, e.g.I have seen ships sail like swan asleep.Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy.4) metaphor 暗喻always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated:All the world’s a stage,And all the men and women are merely players;5) metonymy 借喻a change of name, e.g.The pen is mightier than the sword.Can grey hairs make folly venerable?In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.6) synecdoche 提喻a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.The legs could hardly keep up with the tanks.A Daniel came to judgment.England beat Argentina in the football match.7) rhyme 尾韵serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself:That night when joy beganOur narrowest veins to flush.We waited for the flashOf morning’s leveled s un. (abba)8) alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Where with blade, with bloody blameful bladeHe bravely broached his boiling bloody breast.9) assonance 类韵the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:We were the first that ever burst into the silent sea.10) consonance 辅音叠韵the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Light breaks where no sun shines;Where no sea runs, the waters of the heartPush in the tides.And broken ghosts with glowworms in their headsThe things of lightFile through the flesh where no flesh decks the bones. (abccba)11) reverse rhyme 反韵describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Quelled and quenched it leaves the leaping sun.12) pararhyme 类尾韵when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they pararhyme:And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall.By his dead smile I knew we stood in hell.13) repetition 重复the repetition of the same word:O, my luve is like a red, red rose14) metre 格when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.15) iamb 抑扬格an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one:and palm to palm is ho ly pal mer’s kiss.16) trochee 杨抑格an trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable: Wil lows whi ten, as pens qui ver.17) anapest 抑抑扬格an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross.18) dactyl 扬抑抑格A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones: one for the mas ter, and one for the dame.19) spondee 扬扬格a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of onlyspondaic feet: and a black -/ Back gull bent like an iron bar slowly.20) couplet 对句two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme:Her eyes are wild, her head is bare,The sun has burnt her coal-black hair,21) quatrain 四行诗stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.When lovely woman stoops to folly,And finds too late that men betray,What charm can soothe her melancholy,What art can wash her guilt away?O, my luve is like a red, red rose,That’s newly sprung in June.O, my luve is like the melodie,That’s sweetly play’d in tune.22) blank verse 无韵诗consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:But do not let us quar rel a ny more,No my lucrezia; bear with me for once:Sit down and all shall happen as you wish.You turn your face, but does it bring your heart?23) narrator 叙事者A narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator of the story develops to deliver information to the audience, particularly about the plot. I-narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don’t know all the facts or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths.If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third person pronouns. This is the dominant narrator type.24) schemata 图式Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience.In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints. Besides indicating their viewpoints by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particularly through evaluativeexpressions:She opened the door of her grimy, branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. The porter was nowhere, of course, but there was Harry … there, on the sordid little station under furnace …25) new information 新信息information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable26) given information 已知信息i nformation that is presented by the speaker as recoverable27) direct speech 直接引语a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” s he asked.28) indirect speech 间接引语the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.29) free direct speech 自由直接引语a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”30) free indirect speech 自由间接引语closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.31) narrator’s representation of speech acts 叙事者的言语行为表达a summary of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.32) narrator’s representation of speech 叙事者的言语表达telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.Chapter 12:1) functional sentence perspective 功能句子观According to the Prague school linguists, apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may also be a functional analysis in terms of Theme (the starting point of an utterance) and Rheme (the nucleus or the core of the utterance). In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by the grammatical subject and predicate.I went to the zoo yesterday.However, there are utterances in which they do not correspond, e.g.Yesterday I went to the zoo.At the airport I met John yesterday.The analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme is now known as the functional sentence perspective because this patterning is determined by the functional approach of the speaker.2) systemic-functional grammar 系统功能语法According to Halliday, the Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach which has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR.Systemic grammarThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language. The number system in English, for example, contains two choices: singular and plural. The person system offers three choices: first person, second person, and third person. There are also systems of gender, tense and mood, etc.Functional grammarFunctional aspect is also termed sociosemantics. According to Halliday, the context of situation or the social context is at the basic level of linguistic investigation and contains three components:Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversationsMode of discourse: the channel of communicationThese three situational components are related to the three important functions of language identified by Halliday: ideational, interpersonal and textual: language serves for the expression of content (ideational); language serves to establish and maintain social relations (interpersonal); language enables people to construct texts (textual). These three functions are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.3) American structuralism 美国结构主义American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of anthropologists and linguists as F. Boas, who held that there were no ideal types or forms of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse, E. Sapir, who tried to impose the grammatical categories from the Indo-European languages upon all other languages, L. Bloomfield, who defined linguistics as a branch of psychology known as behaviourism, Z. Harris, and C. Hocket, whose tradition actually influenced the whole of the 20th century American linguistics.4) generative-transformational grammar 生成转换语法From his practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known Generative-transformational grammar. It has undergone five stages of development. The classical theory aims to make linguistics a science. The standard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory. The extended standard theory focusesdiscussion on language universals and universal grammar. The revised extended theory focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the minimalist program, a further revision of the previous theory.5) the innateness hypothesis 天赋假说Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy.6) theme 主位the element which serves as the point of departure; it is that with which the clause is concerned. As a general guide, the Theme can be identified as the element which comes in the first position in the clause.7) rheme 述位the part in which the theme is developed, the remainder of the message, is called the Rheme.8) ideational function 概念功能language serves for the expression of content9) interpersonal function 人际功能language serves to establish and maintain social relations10) textual function 语篇功能language enables people to construct texts11) phrase structure rulesThe phrase structure component has phrase structure rules. e.g.S→NP + VPVP→V + NPNP→Det + NDet→the, a, etc.N→man, ball, etc.V→hit, took, etc.12) transformational rules 转换规则The transformational component has transformational rules which change the deep structures into surface structures. According to Chomsky, active and passive, declarative and interrogative, positive and negative sentences have the same deep structures.The difference between them simply comes from the operation of the relevant transformations.13) deep structure 深层结构the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.14) surface structure 表层结构the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.15) transitivity传递性the representation of outer experiences and inner experiences.II.Essay questions.1) What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?Sapir-whorf Hypothesis is a belief that our languages help mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On one hand, language determine our way of thinking, on the other hand, similarity between languages are relative, the greater their structural difference is, the more diverse their conception of world will be. As the hypothesis was put forward by Sapir and whorf, so, it is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Arguments against S-w Hypothesis: the arguments are directed at strong version of s-w hypothesis, language determinism. It concerns excessively with surface structures of individual languages. In fact all languages are fundamental of the same universal human character. The flaws of that hypothesis can be revealed through the following analysis. One, Different grammatical structures do not mean that speakers of different languages differ in thinking logic. Two, Equivalent translation is always possible in spite of the fact that in practice there are hardly any people in perfect control of two different languages. Three, People who have good command of 2 genetic-unrelated languages do not have “double minds”.2) How would you summarize the concept of situation as proposed by Firth?A: Firth was strongly influenced by the Anthropological view of language and he was fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, so he tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and its co-occurent factors. In the end, he developed his theory of “context of situation” which can be summarized as follows:1, The relevant features of the participants, person, personalities. 2, the relevant objects. 3, The effects of the verbal action.3) Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?A: Woman register means that the language used by woman shares some characters which distinguish it from the language used by man. Woman register is a kind of speech variety, because of having a number of distinctive words or by using the words in a unique way or special grammatical structures, but linguistic sexism, is the discrimination against woman. Actually, all the woman register is the weaker-register, the difference between woman and man are governed by society. So, if we want to change the linguistic sexism we need to change the society.4) How would you describe and evaluated the theory of illocutionary acts?1 locutionary act: The performance of an utterance. The term equally refers to the surface meaning of an utterance. (We move our vocal organs and produce sounds, organized in a certain way and with certain meaning.)2 illocutionary act: The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning. (The intention and function of an utterance) To say sth is to do sth and act performed is known as an illocutionary act.3 perlocutionary act: Its actual, consequential effect, whether intended or not (its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something).5) How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principleand illustrate with your own example the violation of the maxim?A: CP is proposed by English philosopher Grice, its purpose is to explain the course of natural conversation, the participants must first be willing to cooperate, It goes as follows:1, Maxims of quantity, 2, Maxims of quality, 3, Maxims of relation, 4, Maxims of manner. Violations: boys are boys; wars are wars - Maxims of quantity.He is made of iron----Maxims of quality (at a party)A: “Mr.C is an old dog.” B: “It is a fine day.” - Maxims of relationA: “Let’s get kids something.” B: “Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M” - Maxims of manner6) How is poetry analyzed at the phonological level?First step: to find where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns.Second step: to analyze the form of sound patterning, there are 7 types of sound patterning: rhyme, alliteration, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme and repetition.Third step: to analyze the stress and metrical pattering to work out the number of syllables in each line and to fell the stressed or unstressed syllables, when stress is organized to form a regular rhythm, it is called meter, the unit of meter is called feet. So we analyze both the number and the type of feet, there are 6 types of feet, iamb, trochee, the melody, meter, rhythm.7) How would you illustrate the differences between different methods of speech presentation?The speech presentation continuum may have the following possibilities:Direct speech: a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” she asked.Free direct speech: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”Indirect speech: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause:She asked whether she was too late.Free indirect speech: closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA): a summery of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.8) How would the innateness hypothesis influence your understanding of child first language acquisition?According to Chomsky, language is innate and children are born with Language Acquisition Device. Innateness Hypothesis is based on 3 facts.First: children learn their first language very fast with little effort.Second: although children learn their first language in quite different environments, the results are the same.Third: children learn the total grammar of the language during a very limited time, from limited exposure to speech. So although children are not born with a language, they are born with a language, they are born with the device to acquire a language. Chomsky argues that LAD consists of 3 elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure. Children is the hypothesis maker, they look for regularizes in speech and make hypothesis about how to use the language and children must be equipped with an evaluation procedure, which allow them to choose a number of possible grammars.9) How would you describe the distinction between deep structures and surface structures in TG grammar?Every sentence exists on two levels: Surface structures are sentences or phrases which are pronounced or written and Deep structure the structures contain all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Examples: Boy loves Girl (deep structure). The boy kissed the girl (surface structure). The boy was kissing the girl. The girl was kissed by the boy. (Surface and deep structure)]. The deep structure shows the semantic components but the surface structure shows the proper phonological information in order to。

Chapter1 Introduction1. What do we mean by stylistics?Stylistics is the study of that variation in language (style) which is dependent on the situation in which the language is used and also on the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or learner. Stylistics is concerned with the choices that are available to a writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. In addition, we can separate “Stylistic” into two pieces: “style”, is a component relating stylistics to literary criticism: “istics”, is component relation stylistics to linguistic. Frankly speaking, stylistics has close relationship with linguistic, language, literary criticism and literature.2. What does style refer to in the study of stylistics?Style is the variation in a person’s speech or writing. Style usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed the location, the topic discussed. Style has both general sense and specific sense. Its general sense is also called “the present day sense”, is the variety of language. Its specific sense is referred to the literary style.3. How did the study of stylistics come into being?Stylistics developed on the basis of traditional rhetoric. In ancient Greece, rhetoric came into being. Later on the skills for speech and writing were developed into the figures of speech. Examples werecollected from the different writers’ works. In the early 20th century, some linguists studied the different types of writings according to the linguistic theories. Thus, stylistics first appeared on horizon. It has 3 revolutions, first, modernist movement in art and literature, lasting from 1890 to the beginning of WWII. Second, literary criticism having profound and radical influence on stylistic. The last one initiated by the works of Noam Chomsky and Michal Halliady.4. What’s the importance of learning stylistics?Learning stylistics can help us to use the right English in a right situation; help us to learn about the linguistic feature of each style; help us to know more about different elements of a language; help us with literary criticism; help us to translate better.Chapter2 Stylistic Function of Phonology1.What is the phonetic function to stylistics?The stylistic function of phonetics lies in is assistance to us in our adjustment and employment of different phonetic means to exploit the musical aestheticism of language in order to improve linguistic artistic charm.2.What aspects of phonetics influence stylistics?Phonetics involves several elements: stress, length and intonation. In English, there are word stress and sentence stress, which are used to express a special connection. Stress can be used for emphasis or fordistinction of parts of speech and senses. The length of sound in the connected speech is relative. And the lengthening of a sound may have rhetoric effect. However, the pitch has a very specific feature in stylistics.(1) The semantic function of intonation. By the semantic function of intonation, we mean that intonation may differentiate the meaning of an utterance. (2) The attitude to other people. The tone we use can tell people about our feelings, circumstance or surroundings. (3) Grammatical function of intonation. Intonation is closely related to grammar or, we might say, a part of grammar in much the same way, as punctuation is in the written language. (4) The accentual function of intonation. The intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed. (5) The discourse functions of intonation. One role of intonation is to help lubricate and regulate this interaction by signaling certain feature of discourse.3.How do you understand the humorous function of puns?Pun is the humorous use of a word that has two meanings or different words that sound the same. They tried to reach the humorous effect by using polysemy and homonymy. Such as, “DARWIN IS RIGHT-INSIDE”. Darwin can refer to the English naturalist or to the shop owner, while right can mean correct or directly. So when one pauses before the dash, the sign means Darwin (the naturalist) is correct; when you read the whole sign in a breath, it means the shopowner is directly inside. It indicates that pun play with the form and meaning of words and thus give us a way of thinking and imagining.4.How important is pause in speech? Give an example.Pause has both specific sense and general sense. The general sense is lengthening or shortening the voiced or unvoiced sound, while the specific sense is the interruption of flow of speech sound. Silent pause has both grammar function and stylistic feature. V oiced pause has only stylistic feature, but no grammatical function. For example, the boy repairs the bicycle in the house. If we pause before “in the house”, it means the location is in the house. If we pause after “repairs”, it denotes the bicycle’s location is in the house.Chapter3 Stylistic Feature of Lexicon1.What function does diction serve in stylistics?We are told by teachers to be cautious in using: non-standard, colloquial, literacy, formal, slang, archaism. We now advocate that the properties lie in the harmonies of speaker, subject, audience and purpose. Just as Jonathan Swift once said, people should use the right word in a right pace. So dictions of a style show the character of it and are closely related to each other.2.How does semantics influence style?Semantics is the study of word meaning. Considering how the meanings of words in a language relate to each other. It is the system ofmeanings into which words fit and by taking their place in the system, acquire their meanings. Here are some examples, pool, pond, lake, sea and ocean; village, town, city, and metropolis. These words referred to similar things, but different in styles. That is to say, they appear on different situations.3.What style of language does slang represent?Slang is ranked as non-standard English. However, it is very popular in English speaking countries, not only in daily life, but also in many popular literatures. The average American grasps about 2,000 words. Slang’s stylistic function is very important for it occupies for 10%.。