下载文档原格式
外文文献翻译格式范例本科毕业设计（外文翻译）外文参考文献译文及原文学院信息工程学院专业信息工程（电子信息工程方向）年级班别 2006级（4）班学号 3206003186学生姓名柯思怡指导教师 ______ 田妮莉 _ __2010年6月目录熟悉微软SQL Server (1)1Section A 引言 (1)2Section B 再谈数据库可伸缩性 (4)3Section C 数据库开发的特点 (7)Get Your Arms around Microsoft SQL Server (9)1Section A Introduction to SQL Server 2005 (9)2Section B Database Scalability Revisited (13)3Section C Features for Database Development (17)熟悉微软SQL Server1 Section A 引言SQL Server 2005 是微软SQL生产线上最值得期待的产品。
在经过了上百万个邮件，成百上千的规范说明，以及数十次修订后。
微软承诺SQL Server 2005 是最新的基于Windows数据库应用的数据库开发平台。
这节的内容将指出SQL Server 2005产品的一些的重要特征。
SQL Server 2005几乎覆盖OLTP及OLAP技术的所又内容。
微软公司的这个旗舰数据库产品几乎能覆盖所有的东西。
这个软件在经过五年多的制作后，成为一个与它任何一个前辈产品都完全不同的产品。
本节将介绍整个产品的大部分功能。
当人们去寻求其想要的一些功能和技术时，可以从中提取出重要的和最感新区的内容，包括SQL Server Engine 的一些蜕变的历史，以及各种各样的SQL Server 2005的版本，可伸缩性，有效性，大型数据库的维护以及商业智能等如下：●数据库引擎增强技术。
SQL Server 2005 对数据库引擎进行了许多改进，并引入了新的功能。
毕业论文文献翻译分析解析学号：上海海事大学本科生毕业设计（论文）文献翻译学院：海洋科学与工程学院专业：港口航道与海岸工程班级：姓名：指导教师：完成日期：Study on Structure of Arched Longitudinal Beams ofDeep-Water WharfZHAI Qiu , LU Zi-ai and ZHANG Shu-huaABSTRACTHigh-pile and beam-slab quays have been widely used after several years development. They are mature enough to be one of the most important structural types of wharves in China coastal areas. In order to accommodate large tonnage vessels, wharves should be constructed in deep water gradually .However , conventional high-pile and beam-slab structures are hard to meet the requirements of large deep-water wharf .According to arch' s stress characteristics, a new type of wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams is presented in this paper .The new wharf structure can make full use of arch' s overhead crossing and reinforced concrete compression resistance , improve the interval between transverse bents greatly, and decrease underwater construction quantity .Thus, the construction cost cab be reduced. T ake the third phase project of the YangshanDeep-water Port for example , comparative analysis on catenary arched longitudinal beams and conventional longitudinal beams has been made .The result shows that with the same wharf length and width, the same loads and same longitudinal beam moment , catenary arch structure can improve the interval between bents up to 28 m , decrease the number of piles and underwater construction quantity .Key words: wharf ; structural type ; catenary arch ; internal force ; cost1. IntroductionIn recent years , a trend of large tonnage vessels is increasing in port engineering .The international routes are now sailing the fifth and sixth generation container ships and over 300 , 000 tons for bulk vessels and oil tankers(Leifer and Wilson , 2007).In China , at present , the number of berths which can handle vessels over 50 , 000 tons is about 260 , but in fact , most of them can not meet the requirements of large-tonnage vessels , and construction of deep water wharves is in urgent need (Zhang , 2006).The deep-water wharf works under adverse conditions and is hard to be constructed , so design of deep-water wharf is an important research topic in port engineering(Zhai and Lu , 2006). The high-pileand beam-slab quay is mainly applied to river port and sea port with kinds of complicated loads .It consists of slabs , longitudinal beams , transversal beams , pile caps , piles and berthing members. The superstructure of beam-slab quay is usually prefabricated ;components such as longitudinal beams and slabs are fabricated by prestressed reinforced concrete .The prestressing method improves the cracking and bending resistance capacity , increases the strength of structuralmembers , and reduces the quantity of steel bar .The increase of interval between transverse bents leads to the full use of pile bearing capacity and reduces usage of materials , and the construction speed is accelerated . As a result of its structural rationality , high-pile and beam-slab quay was rapidly developed andmature enough to be one of the most important structural types of wharves in China coastal areas in the early 1970s .In 1980s , with the continuously rapid development of wharf grade and progress of construction technique , size of piles increased as well as bearing capacity .After the successful development of large diameter prestressed concrete tubular pile and steel pipe pile in China , single pile capacity had reached more than 10000 kN , and it created conditions in construction of large wharf in deep water .In order to make full use of pile bearing capacity , interval between transversal bents should be improved . It is proved that design of larger span and fewer piles can reduce the cost of the project .However , stress of conventional longitudinal beams will be increased largely if the span is over certainn range (about 10 ~12 m).The usage of materials and project cost will correspondingly increase .In deep-water open sea , wharf piles have to be large enough to satisfy the stability requirements due to the complicated processes of hydrodynamics such as waves , currents and their interactions (Yan et al , 2000 ; Zheng et al, 2002 , 2008 ; Zheng , 2007).Interval between transversal bents of 10 m cannot make full use of pile bearing capacity .Increasing the interval between transversal bents will lead to more fabrication cost of superstructure .Wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams presented in this paper is expected to have some theoretical and practical significance in optimization design of high-pile wharf .2. Catenary Arched Longitudinal Beam StructureIn consideration of the arch' s good overhead crossing and reinforced concrete compression resistance and in reference of spandrel-braced arch bridge , a new type of wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams (Fig .1)is put forward in this paper .The catenary arched longitudinal beams of prefabricated reinforced concrete consist of archbeams , top chords , web members , and tie-rod .The longitudinal beam is laid on the pile cap .The prefabricated crosswise horizontal braces which are laid on longitudinal beam' s brackets are set among longitudinal beams .They form beam grillages with longitudinal beams .The laminated slabs are laid on crosswise horizontal braces .Rectanglar transversal beams are cast-in-situ and they are contour arranged with longitudinal beams .The longitudinal beams , transversal beams and laminated slabs are integrally jointed , and the longitudinal beams are also integrally jointed with piles , forming the superstructure of good integrity and rigidity .Tie-rod is set at the bottom of arch beam to bear arch' s thrust force .3. Superstructure of the Arched Longitudinal Beam Structure3.1 Selection of Rise-Span RatioRise-span ratio (Kim, 2003)depends on concrete usage , beam moment , arch thrust force , etc . The increase of rise-span ratio will lead to more concrete being used ; and the decrease of rise-span ratio will lead to the increase of mid-span moment and arch thrust force .In comprehensive consideration of the above factors , rise-span ratio of catenary arched longitudinal beams may be best chosen from 1/12 to 1/6 .Fig.1.Sketch map of wharf with catenary arched longitudinalbeams.3.2 Selection of Arch AxisAccording to the load conditions in the third phase project of the YangshanDeep-water Port , a comparison was made with the structural mechanic method .A catenary is used as rational arch axis of longitudinal beams to derive the arch axis equation(Gu and Shi , 1996)(1)1f y chK m ζ=--, (1)where, f is arch height; m is arch axis coefficient; K is a parameter related to m,ln(K m =; ζ is abscissa parameter, ζ=2x/L; chKζ is hyperbolic cosine,chKζ=()K K e e ζζ-+; L is height of arch. The ordinate of arch axis should be decided on arch axis coefficient m if rise-span ratio is confirmed.4. Analysis on the ProjectThe Yangshan Deep-water Port(Li et al ., 2006)is located on Shengsi Islands outside the Hangzhou Bay and the Yangtze Estuary .It consists of several dozen islands such as the Big Yangshan Islands and the Small Yangshan Islands .The northwest is 27 .5 km away from the Luchao Harbour of Shanghai , the south is 90 km away f rom the Beilun Harbour of Zhejiang Province , and the east is 104 km away from the international shipping route .It is the nearest deep-water harbour around Shanghai . The basin bottom of the Yangshan Deep-water Port is stable and sediments are not easily to silt up , with a natural water depth over 15m .It is suitable for building a large deep-water wharf .Theport has deep-water shorelines of about 13 km with excellent natural refuge conditions and 315 operating days per year on the average .The third phase project of the Yangshan Deep-water Port (Zhu , 2005)lies in the east of the harbour district between the Huogaitang Island and the Xiaoyanjiao Island .There are seven deep water berths for container ships of 70 ～150 thousand DWT .The design container ship is 150 thousand tons with the mooring wind speed of 22 .6m/s , the design flow speed of 1 .80 m/s , the maximum mooring force of 2000 kN and impact force of 2574 kN .The design annual throughput is 5 million TEU .The coastal line is 2600 m , high water level is 4 .51 m, low water level is 0 .53 m , the top of the pier height is 8 .10m , and the design water depth in front of wharf is 18 .0 m.There are 25 shore container cranes with track gauge of 35 m , lifting capacity of 65 tons and out-reach of 67 m .4.1 Load ConditionIn the third phase project of the Yangshan Deep-water Port , the main design loads include structure weight , cargo load (30 kPa)and container cranes loads .The basic parameters of container cranes loads are as follows :track gauge of 35 m, base length of 14 m , 10 wheels per leg , spread of wheel 1 .20 m, the minimum distance among centers when two cranes are working is 27 m .When the cranes work , the maximum sea-side wheel-load is 1070 kN per wheel , and the maximum land-side wheel-load is 940 kN per wheel .The top of the pier height is designed in the condition that superstructure cannot afford wave force , thus , wave loads are not considered in the arched longitudinal beam structure except three types of loads above .4.2 Sectional Structure of the WharfIn the original design , high-pile and beam-slab quay is used .The width of the wharf is 42 .5m ; the interval between transversal bents is 12 m .Steel pipe piles with diameter of 1 .5 m are used as piles .Each transversal bent has 10 steel pipe piles and four pile cap joints ;three steel pipe piles are set under pile cap of every crane beam , and two steel pipe piles are set under the pile caps of other beams .In the superstructure , transversal beams , crane beams , longitudinal beams and laminated slabs are precast with prestressed concrete .Longitudinal and transversal beams are contour arranged and transversal beams next to pile caps are cast-in-situ .In the new type of wharf , the interval between bents is 28 m, catenary arch height is 3 .5 m , rise-span ratio is 1/8 , and arch axis coefficient m is 2 .566 .The steel pipe piles with diameter 1 .5 m are used as piles .Each transversal bent has 12 steel pipe piles and five pile cap joints ;three steel pipe piles are set under pile cap of every crane beam, and two steel pipe piles are set under the pile caps of other beams.In the superstructure , concrete transversal beams are cast-in-situ , the catenary arched longitudinal beam of reinforced concrete and laminated slabs are prefabricated .The transversal beam section is 5 .0m ×1 .0 m, top chord 1 .5m ×0 .8m , arch beam 1 .5m ×0 .8m , crosswise horizontal brace 0 .6 m×0 .8 m , and web member 0 .6 m ×0 .8 m.The interval of two arch beams is 8 .75 m ;the crosswise horizontal braces are set between arch beams , with the interval of 3 .5 m;the prefabricated slab is 4 m in length , 3 .2m in width , 0 .4m in thickness with the wearing carpet being 0 .05 m .I-bar is used as tie-rod in the bottom of arch beam .Its elastic modulus E =2 .1 ×105 N/mm2 , height h =400 mm , flange widthb =146mm , web plate thickness tw =14 .5 mm, cross-section area A =10200 mm2 .Since the tie-rod is too long , the hanger rods are set to decrease tie-rod deflection . Thus, the tie-rod and the arch longitudinal beam form an integral structure .The hot-rolled seamless steel tubes are used as hanger rods .The outer diameter of the pipe d =146 mm , thickness t =10 mm , and cross-section area A =4273 mm2 .4.3 Internal Force AnalysisTake a bent for example , when analyzing the internal force , the section of transversal beams and their loads change very little , therefore , only analysis on longitudinal beam and its loads is done .As to the load-combination , it considers the bearing capacity endurance state under limit condition .When loads are applied on catenary arched longitudinal beam , moment (M) variation of catenary arched longitudinal beam (Fig .2)is obtained with structural mechanical theory and finite element method (Bijaya et al, 2007; Ju , 2003).It shows that the positive moment of longitudinal beam increases obviously from arch springing to mid-span , and the maximum moment 16500 kN·m is at midspan . In t he third phase project of the Yangshan Deep-water Port under the original design loads , track beams are calculated according to simply supported beam in the construction period and elastically supported continuous beam in the service period , and the maximum moment at mid-span is 20747 kN·m . It is concluded that when the interval between bents increases to 28m , the maximum moment of arched longitudinal beam is still smaller than that of the original design longitudinal beam .This new type of wharf makes full use of arch compression resistance and overhead crossing .Table 1 Comparison between the two structures on theirmain parametersFig.2 .Moment diagram of catenary arched longitudinal beam (kN·m).5. ConclusionsThe underwater construction of open sea deep-water wharf is difficult and definitely needs high cost .Without increasing the section size and steel bars of longitudinal beams , catenary arched longitudinal beam can greatly enlarge the interval between bents , which leads to the decrease of piles and underwater construction work .Constructional members are prefabricated and floated to working site so that the construction speed is accelerated and fabrication cost can be reduced .Actually , high-piled wharf project costs great deal , however , wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams needs fewer piles and thus reduces the manufacture cost largely .Wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams has good stress states and large interval between transverse bents ;the superstructure has large space stiffness and needs a small number of construction components ;catenary arch is prefabricated with reinforced concrete and convenient to set mould and cast concrete .Large space under catenary arch and the good ventilation can improve the durability of constructional members .Generally speaking , wharf with catenary arched longitudinal beams is a new type of good mechanical property and economic benefit .It will adapt to the request of large span new harbor constructions in the future .深水码头拱形纵梁结构研究翟秋，鲁子爱和张淑华摘要高桩梁板式码头经过了几年的发展应用，已经足够成熟作为中国沿海地区码头最重要的结构类型。
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部城建学部专业土木工程年级 2011级班级名称 11土木工程9班学号 23031109000学生姓名刘林指导教师卢集富2015 年5 月目录一、项目成本管理与控制 0二、Project Budget Monitor and Control (1)三、施工阶段承包商在控制施工成本方面所扮演的作用 (2)四、The Contractor’s Role in Building Cost Reduction After Design (4)一、外文文献译文（1）项目成本管理与控制随着市场竞争的激烈性越来越大,在每一个项目中，进行成本控制越发重要。
本文论述了在施工阶段,项目经理如何成功地控制项目预算成本。
本文讨论了很多方法。
它表明，要取得成功，项目经理必须关注这些成功的方法.1。
简介调查显示,大多数项目会碰到超出预算的问……功控制预算成本.2.项目控制和监测的概念和目的Erel and Raz (2000）指出项目控制周期包括测量成……原因以及决定纠偏措施并采取行动。
监控的目的就是纠偏措施的。
.。
标范围内。
3.建立一个有效的控制体系为了实现预算成本的目标，项目管理者需要建立一……被监测和控制是非常有帮助的。
项目成功与良好的沟通密。
决（ Diallo and Thuillier， 2005）.4.成本费用的检测和控制4.1对检测的优先顺序进行排序在施工阶段，很多施工活动是基于原来的计……用完了。
第四,项目管理者应该检测高风险活动，高风险活动最有。
..重要（Cotterell and Hughes, 1995)。
4.2成本控制的方法一个项目的主要费用包括员工成本、材料成本以及工期延误的成本。
为了控制这些成本费用，项目管理者首先应该建立一个成本控制系统：a)为财务数据的管理和分析工作落实责任人员b)确保按照项目的结构来合理分配所有的……它的变化-—在成本控制线上准确地记录所有恰..。
译文学院：船舶与海洋工程学院专业：船舶与海洋工程学号：姓名：指导教师：江苏科技大学2011 年4 月 8 日基于船舶稳定性的随机动力系统方法的研究Ludwig Arnold1, Igor Chueshov2, and Gunter Ochs11大学3部，动力系统研究所信箱33 04 40,28334不来梅，德国邮箱arnold@math.uni-bremen.de2 哈尔科夫大学，力学与数学系4 Svobody Sq., 310077哈尔科夫，乌克兰摘要：本文首先解释如何由基本原理推出船舶随机横摇运动的原型方程式。
然后，运用随机动力系统理论的概念，对两个简单横摇运动的非线性模型进行分析数值研究。
与此对应的，对船舶进行噪声的周期性作用，结果表明，导致船舶倾覆（即随机吸引子的消失）的作用，并非优于一些分叉的作用，而是毫无征兆的突然发生。
关键词：随机海浪，随机场，船舶稳定性，船舶倾覆，横摇运动，随机动力系统，随机稳定性，随机分支，随机吸引子，随机不变集，Conley指数MSC2000：34F05, 37H15, 37H20, 93E15为主；60H10, 70L05为辅1 引文现有的保障船舶稳定性和防止船舶倾覆的章则和标准（详见国际海事组织（IMO）准则）都是经验性的，并以船舶自我复原性能为基础，而且仅仅考虑到静水力的作用。
详情请见Kreuzer and Wendt [9, p. 1836]。
这些静态的标准都忽略了船舶运动、海浪和风的作用，显然不能保证船舶的整体稳定。
由最近伦敦保险人协会给出的损失数据和它们发生的原因对比表明：按照这些标准，每年至少有30艘排水量超过500GT的船舶由于不能抵御严酷的天气而有所损失。
因此，研究人员一致认为，应该采用船舶海洋系统的静水力模型，把海洋看作一个随机场，把船舶看作一个有六个自由度的刚体，运用非线性动力学的方法和随机动力系统的理论，对这些标准进行修改。
现有的船舶动力的（确定性的和随机的）研究现状已经很好地记录在《船舶非线性动力学》（Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London（系列A），Spyrou and Thompson主编）【19】的主要章节中。
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部经济学部专业经济学年级 2007级班级名称 07经济学6班学号 16020706001学生姓名张瑜琴指导教师陈锶2011 年05月目录1挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺 (1)2什么商业银行带给小额贷款和什么把他们留在外 (2)3 商业银行的四个模型进入小额贷款之内 (4)3.1内在的单位 (4)3.2财务子公司 (5)3.3策略的同盟 (5)3.4服务公司模型 (6)4 合法的形式和操作的结构比较 (8)5 服务的个案研究公司模型：厄瓜多尔和Haiti5 (9)1 挑战：小额贷款中的进入和商业银行的长期承诺商业银行已经是逐渐重要的运动员在拉丁美洲中的小额贷款服务的发展2到小额贷款市场是小额贷款的好消息客户因为银行能提供他们一完整类型的财务的服务，包括信用，储蓄和以费用为基础的服务。
整体而言，它也对小额贷款重要，因为与他们广泛的身体、财务的和人类。
如果商业银行变成重的运动员在小额贷款，他们能提供非常强烈的竞争到传统的小额贷款机构。
资源，银行能廉宜地发射而且扩张小额贷款服务rela tively。
如果商业广告银行在小额贷款中成为严重的运动员，他们能提出非常强烈的竞争给传统的小额贷款机构。
然而，小额贷款社区里面有知觉哪一商业银行进入进入小额贷款将会是短命或浅的。
举例来说，有知觉哪一商业银行首先可能不搬进小额贷款因为时候建立小额贷款操作到一个有利润的水平超过银行的标准投资时间地平线。
或，在进入小额贷款，银行之后可能移动在－上面藉由增加贷款数量销售取利润最大值－或者更坏的事，退出如果他们是不满意与小额贷款的收益性的水平。
这些知觉已经被特性加燃料商业银行的情形进入小额贷款和后来的出口之内。
在最极端的，一些开业者已经甚至宣布，”降低尺度死！”而且抛弃了与主意合作的商业银行。
在最 signific 看得到的地方，蚂蚁利益商业银行可能带给小额贷款，国际的ACCION 发展发射而且扩张的和一些商业银行的关系小额贷款操作。
毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARM 文献、资料来源：网络文献、资料发表(出版）日期：2012，2院（部)：信息与电气工程学院专业：电气工程与自动化班级：电气084姓名：邓红坤学号: 2008121017指导教师：王克河翻译日期：2012、2、29外文文献：INTELLIGENT BUILDING ALARMBACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONThis invention relates to an intelligent alarm system for 5 detecting hazardous situations ina building informing building occupants of optimal escape routes or survival strategies and assisting emergency personnel in rescuing people inside the building。
Building hazards, including fire，earthquakes，intruders，etc., have the potential for large numbers of casualties. Effective building alarm systems must have the capability to process a plurality of input types to determine the nature of the situation involving danger to persons in thebuilding. The building alarm system must also have more than simple audio/visual outputs for helping people in the building find safe escape routes.Use of the term building in this invention refers to any structure including，but not limited to, office buildings, commercial buildings，factory/warehouses, residential homes, etc. Aspectsof building alarm systems are described 20 in, U.S。
2016届本科毕业设计（论文）文献翻译题目宋体三号字，加粗学院宋体四号字专业宋体四号字班级宋体四号字学号宋体四号字姓名宋体四号字指导教师宋体四号字开题日期宋体四号字文献一：（宋体五号）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译一：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）文献二：（宋体五号，另起一页）英文题目(居中，Times New Roman字体，三号加粗)正文（英文不少于10000印刷符号，Times New Roman字体，五号，首行缩进2.5字符，单倍行距，两边对齐）翻译二：（宋体五号，另起一页）中文题目(居中，黑体，三号加粗)正文（中文不少于2000字，宋体，五号，单倍行距，首行缩进2字符）（请参照下面模板）文献一：Research on Spillover Effect of Foreign Direct Investment1. IntroductionIn recent decades, economists have begun to identify technical progress, or more generally, knowledge creation, as the major determinant of economic growth. Until the 1970s, the analysis of economic growth was typically based on neoclassical models that explain growth with the accumulation of labor, capital, and other production factors with diminishing returns to scale. In these models, the economy converges to steady state equilibrium where the level of per capita income is determined by savings and investment, depreciation, and population growth, but where there is no permanent income growth. Any observed income growth per capita occurs because the economy is still converging towards its steady state, or because it is in transition from one steady state to another.The policies needed to achieve growth and development in the framework of these models is therefore straightforward: increases in savings and investments and reductions in the population growth rate, shift the economy to a higher steady state income level. From the view of developing countries, however, these policies are difficult to implement. Low income and development levels are not only consequences, but also causes of low savings and high population growth rates. The importance of technical progress was also recognized in the neoclassical growth models, but the determinants of the level of technology were not discussed in detail; instead, technology was seen as an exogenous factor. Yet, it was clear that convergence in income percapita levels could not occur unless technologies converged as well.From the 1980s and onwards, growth research has therefore increasingly focused on understanding and ontogenetic technical progress. Modern growth theory is largely built on models with constant or increasing returns to reproducible factors as a result of the accumulation of knowledge. Knowledge is, to some extent, a public good, and R&D, education, training, and other investments in knowledge creation may generate externalities that prevent diminishing returns to scale for labor and physical capital. Taking this into account, the economy may experience positive long-run growth instead of the neoclassical steady state where per capita incomes remain unchanged. Depending on the economic starting point, technical progress and growth can be based on creation of entirely new knowledge, or adaptation and transfer of existing foreign technology.Along with international trade, the most important vehicle for international technology transfer is foreign direct investment (FDI). It is well known that multinational corporations (MNCs) undertake a major part of the world’s private R&D efforts and production, own and control most of the world’s advanced technology. When a MNC sets up a forei gn affiliate, the affiliate receives some amount of the proprietary technology that constitutes the parent’s firm specific advantage and allows it to compete successfully with local firms that have superior knowledge of local markets, consumer preferences, and business practices. This leads to a geographical diffusion of technology, but not necessarily to any formal transfer of technology beyond the boundaries of the MNCs; the establishment of a foreign affiliate is, almost per definition, a decision to internalize the use of core technology.However, MNC technology may still leak to the surrounding economy through external effects or spillovers that raise the level of human capital in the host country and createproductivity increases in local firms. In many cases, the effects operate through forward and backward linkages, as MNCs provide training and technical assistance to their local suppliers, subcontractors, and customers. The labor market is another important channel for spillovers, as almost all MNCs train operatives and managers who may subsequently take employment in local firms or establish entirely new companies.It is therefore not surprising that attitudes towards inward FDI have changed considerably over the last couple of decades, as most countries have liberalized their policies to attract all kinds of foreign investment. Numerous governments have even introduced various forms of investment incentives to encourage foreign MNCs to invest in their jurisdiction. However, productivity and technology spillovers are not automatic consequences of FDI. Instead, FDI and human capital interact in a complex manner, where FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits.2. Foreign Direct Investment and SpilloversThe earliest discussions of spillovers in the literature on foreign direct investment date back to the 1960s. The first author who systematically introduced spillovers (or external effects) among the possible consequences of FDI was MacDougall (1960), who analyzed the general welfare effects of foreign investment. The common aim of the studies was to identify the various costs and benefits of FDI.Productivity externalities were discussed together with several other indirect effects that influence the welfare assessment, such as those arising from the impact of FDI on government revenue, tax policies, terms of trade, and the balance of payments. The fact that spillovers included in the discussion was generally motivated by empirical evidence from case studies rather than by comprehensive theoretical arguments.Yet, the early analyses made clear that multinationals may improve locatives efficiency by entering into industries with high entry barriers and reducing monopolistic distortions, and induce higher technical efficiency if the increased competitive pressure or some demonstration effect spurs local firms to more efficient use of existing resources. They also proposed that the presence may lead to increases in the rate of technology transfer and diffusion. More specifically, case studies showed that foreign MNCs may:(1) Contribute to efficiency by breaking supply bottlenecks (but that the effect may become less important as the technology of the host country advances);(2) Introduce new know-how by demonstrating new technologies and training workers who later take employment in local firms;(3) Either break down monopolies and stimulate competition and efficiency or create a more monopolistic industry structure, depending on the strength and responses of the local firms;(4) Transfer techniques for inventory and quality control and standardization to their local suppliers and distribution channels;Although this diverse list gives some clues about the broad range of various spillover effects, it says little about how common or how important they are in general. Similar complaints can be made about the evidence on spillovers gauged from the numerous case studies discussing various aspects of FDI in different countries and industries. These studies often contain valuable circumstantial evidence of spillovers, but often fail to show how significant the spillover effectsare and whether the results can be generalized.For instance, many analyses of the linkages between MNCs and their local suppliers and subcontractors have documented learning and technology transfers that may make up a basis for productivity spillovers or market access spillovers. However, these studies seldom reveal whether the MNCs are able to extract all the benefits that the new technologies or information generate among their supplier firms. Hence, there is no clear proof of spillovers, but it is reasonable to assume that spillovers are positively related to the extent of linkages.Similarly, there are many works on the relation between MNCs entry and presence and market structure in host countries, and this is closely related to the possible effects of FDI on competition in the local markets. There are also case studies of demonstration effects, technology diffusion, and labor training in foreign MNCs. However, although these studies provide much detailed information about the various channels for spillovers, they say little about the overall significance of such spillovers.The statistical studies of spillovers, by contrast, may reveal the overall impact of foreign presence on the productivity of local firms, but they are generally not able to say much about how the effects come about. These studies typically estimate production functions for locally owned firms, and include the foreign share of the industry as one of the explanatory variables. They then test whether foreign presence has a significant positive impact on local productivity once other firm and industry characteristics have been accounted.Research conclude that domestic firms exhibited higher productivity in sectors with a larger foreign share, but argue that it may be wrong to conclude that spillovers have taken place if MNC affiliates systematically locate in the more productive sectors. In addition, they are also able to perform some more detailed tests of regional differences in spillovers. Examining the geographical dispersion of foreign investment, they suggest that the positive impact of FDI accrue mainly to the domestic firms located close to the MNC affiliates. However, effects seem to vary between industries.The results on the presence of spillovers seem to be mixed; recent studies suggest that there should be a systematic pattern where various host industry and host country characteristics influence the incidence of spillovers. For instance, the foreign affiliate’s levels of tech nology or technology imports seem to influence the amount of spillovers to local firms. The technology imports of MNC affiliates, in turn, have been shown to vary systematically with host country characteristics. These imports seem larger in countries and industries where the educational level of the local labor force is higher, where local competition is tougher, and where the host country imposes fewer formal requirements on the affiliates’ operations.Some recent studies have also addressed the apparent contradictions between the earlier statistical spillover studies, with the hypothesis that the host country’s level of technical development or human capital may matter as a starting point.In fact, in some cases, large foreign presence may even be a sign of a weak local industry, where local firms have not been able to absorb any productivity spillovers at all and have therefore been forced to yield market shares to the foreign MNCs.3. FDI Spillover and Human Capital DevelopmentThe transfer of technology from MNC parents to its affiliates and other host country firms is not only mbodied in machinery, equipment, patent rights, and expatriate managers and technicians,but is also realized rough the training of local employees. This training affects most levels of employees, from simple manufacturing operatives through supervisors to technically advanced professionals and top-level managers. While most recipients of training are employed in the MNCs own affiliates, the beneficiaries also include employees among the MNCs suppliers, subcontractors, and customers.Types of training ranged from on-the-job training to seminars and more formal schooling to overseas education, perhaps at the parent company, depending on the skills needed. The various skills gained through the elation with the foreign MNCs may spill over directly when the MNCs do not charge the full value of the training provided to local firms or over time, as the employees move to other firms or set up their own businesses.While the role of MNCs in primary and secondary education is marginal, there is increasingly clear evidence hat FDI may have a noticeable impact on tertiary education in their host countries. The most important effect is perhaps on the demand side. MNCs provide attractive employment opportunities to highly skilled graduates in natural sciences, engineering, and business sciences, which may be an incentive for gifted students to complete tertiary training, and MNCs demand skilled labor, which may encourage governments to invest in higher education.Many studies undertaken in developing countries have emphasized the spillovers of management skills. There is evidence of training and capacity development in technical areas, although the number of detailed studies appears smaller.While training activities in manufacturing often aim to facilitate the introduction of new technologies that are embodied in machinery and equipments, the training in service sectors is more directly focused on strengthening skills and know-how embodied in employees. This means that training and human capital development are often more important in service industries. Furthermore, many services are not tradable across international borders, which mean that service MNCs to a great extent are forced to reproduce home country technologies in their foreign affiliates. As a consequence, service companies are often forced to invest more in training, and the gap between affiliate and parent company wages tends, therefore, to be smaller than that in manufacturing.4. ConclusionThis paper has noted that the interaction of FDI and spillovers is complex and highly non-linear, and that several different outcomes are possible. FDI inflows create a potential for spillovers of knowledge to the local labor force, at the same time as the host country’s level of human capital determines how much FDI it can attract and whether local firms are able to absorb the potential spillover benefits. Hence, it is possible that host economies with relatively high levels of human capital may be able to attract large amounts of technology intensive foreign MNCs that contribute significantly to the further development of labor skills. At the same time, economies with weaker initial conditions are likely to experience smaller inflows of FDI, and those foreign firms that enter are likely to use simpler technologies that contribute only marginally to local learning and skill development.翻译一：外商直接投资溢出效应研究1.引言在最近几十年中，经济学家们已开始确定技术进步，或更普遍认为知识创造，作为经济增长原动力的一个重要决定因素，直到20世纪70年代，分析经济增长运用典型的新古典主义模型来解释经济增长的积累，劳动力、资本等生产要素与收益递减的规模。
本科生毕业论文(设计)外文参考文献译文本译文题目出处：作者单位作者姓名专业班级作者学号指导教师（职称）年月译文要求一、译文内容须与课题（或专业内容）联系，并需在封面注明详细出处。
二、出处格式为图书：作者.书名.版本（第×版）.译者.出版地：出版者，出版年.起页～止页期刊：作者.文章名称.期刊名称，年号，卷号（期号）：起页～止页三、译文不少于2000汉字。
四、翻译内容用小四号宋体字编辑，采用A4号纸双面打印，封面与封底采用浅蓝色封面纸（卡纸）打印。
要求内容明确，语句通顺。
五、译文及其相应参考文献一起装订，顺序依次为封面、译文、文献。
六、翻译应在第七学期完成。
译文评阅导师评语应根据学校“译文要求”，对学生译文翻译的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等做具体的评价后，再评分。
评分：___________________（百分制）指导教师（签名）：___________________年月日题 目（黑体3号, 字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman5号加粗，居中，段前3行，段后2行）1.前言（黑体小3号, 字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 小3号加粗）×××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××× （宋体小4号，行间距固定1.5倍行距，字符间距为标准）2. ×××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××，其×××××可表示如下：)2sin(101111path t f A E ϕϕπ++= (2-1） )2sin(202222path t f A E ϕϕπ++= (2-2）×××××××××××××××××××××××××××× (如表2-1所示)表2-1□××××××××××××××× ××× ××× ××× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ×××××××××××（表标题：位于表格上方，宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号，表内容：宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号）××××××××××××××××××××××××××× (如图2-1所示)图2-1□××××××××××（图标题：位于图下方，宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号）............................陕西师范大学本科生毕业论文(设计)外文参考文献译文本参考文献原文(纸质版可打印附后，电子版可截图附后)。
A study of the role played by renewable energies inChina’s sustainable energy supplyAbstract:This paper first provides an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation. Further, it summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role it plays in the national energy supply. Next it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a long term scenario of the role of renewable energies in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in China’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.Keywords: Renewable energy,Energy supply,Market development,Public policy,China1.IntroductionChina is the largest developing country as well as the second largest energy consumer and carbon dioxide emitter in the world .China’s energy issue has recently become a focus of many talks regarding global energy, environment, and security. Domestically, it is the first time that the Chinese Central Government set a target for improving energy efficiency of the economy together with the economic growth target in its social and economic development plan during the 11th Five-Year-Plan period 1, which was endorsed by the Congress in March 2006. The features of China’s energy system evolution in the future will have significant implications on global energy investment, energy market restructuring, and environmental protection. Increasing the share of renewable energies could be an important dimension of China’s energy system transition.China’s Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Law recognizes the strategic role of renewable energies in optimizing China’s energy supply mix, mitigating environmental pollution,improving energy supply security, and promoting rural social development. It also directly relates renewable energy development and utilization to China’s energy system transition. More importantly, the Law largely shapes an integrated renewable energy policy framework by providing a set of directives encouraging renewable energies, including national renewable energy targets, a feed-in tariff, a special fiscal fund, tax relief, and public R&D support as well as education and training.It is accepted beyond doubt that an enabling environment for renewable energy development and utilization is emerging in China. While recognizing the new opportunities that the Law brings for China’s renewable energy development and utilization, it must also be noted that the main technological, financial, and institutional risks associated with China’s renewable energy developmen t and utilization still remain. The context of the country’s renewable energy development and utilization has never been this complex .To what extent will renewable energies contribute to China’s sustainable energy system transition? What are the characteristics of the main risks for China’s renewable energy development and utilization? What policies and strategies should be in place to manage the risks? Although these questions have been addressed to some extent by a number of studies in the past , yet those studies were not able to take the context of China’s new complex renewable energy development into account. As a consequence, it is of significance and required to carry out a new study to gain answers to these questions, which would largely contribute to formulating China’s new strategy for renewable energy development and utilization.The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 gives an overview of the context of renewable energy development in China, including the country’s recent renewable energy legislation.Section 3 summarizes the current status of renewable energy development and the role that it plays in national energy supply.Next, it introduces the national indicative targets for renewable energies in 2010 and 2020, and conducts a study of the long term scenario of the role that renewable energies play in China’s energy system transition till 2050. It discusses the main risks involved in the country’s renewable energy development, and proposes some policy measures for risk management.2.Context of renewable energy development2.1. Renewable energy resourcesChina has abundant renewable energy resources. The country’s annual solar energy ranges from 3360 to 8400 MJ/m2, and two thirds of her area’s solar radiation is more than 5020 MJ/m2. China’s wind energy resource is pretty rich, too. The development potential of the on-shore wind resource is as much as 253 GW at a 10 m height with an annual electricity generation of more than 50 billion kWh. China’s hydro power potential amounts to 400 GW; 128 GW of which is for small hydro power plants with an installed capacity below 50MW. The country produces 700 million tons of agricultural residues each year, and approximately 350 million tons of them could be used for energy purposes, equivalent to 170 million tons of coal equivalent (tce). The firewood production amounts to 220 million tons each year, equivalent to 130 million tce . Further, solid wastes and wastewater discharged from livestock and poultry farms and light industry could be used to produce 31 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 26 million tce. The volume of discharge of combustible municipal waste, a renewable source for power generation, has been growing in most Chinese cities. Taking the ase of Beijing for example, it discharged 4.5 million tons of combustible municipal wastes in 2004, and the volume will be growing at 4–5% per year.2.2. Energy supply securityIn general terms, energy security means that a nation’s energy demands could be met at a reasonable price. The new target for China’s economic development set by the country’s government is to quadruple the gross domestic product (GDP) accounted for in 2000 by 2020, ensuring China’s attainment of a well-off society overall. To achieve this target, the total primary energy consumption will reach approximately 3 billions tce, once the substantial energy conservation and economic restructuring efforts are taken into consideration [1]. Under this scenario, the total demand for oil will be 0.45 billion tons with more than 0.2 billion tons relying on imports. Natural gas demand will reach 160 billionm3 with a domestic supply deficiency of 50–60 billion m3. Therefore, there would be a large gap between China’s energy demand and supply capacity to achieve the country’s new social and economic de velopment target, raising significant energy security concerns. In addition to strengthening the country’s energy conservation efforts, development and utilization of renewable energies seem to be an inevitable choice to diversify energy supply and ensure China’s long term energy security [2].From an even far-sighted perspective, China’s demand for energy would reach 5.4 billion tce in 2050 to maintain her sustainable economic growth and social development. But the domesticsupply capacity of coal, oil, and natural gas would be 2.5–2.7 billion tons, 100–200 million tons, and 120–140 billion m3, respectively [3]. The risks involved in China’s energy supply would be even higher without the increasing energy supply from renewable energies.2.3. Environmental managementChina’s total primary energy consumption was approximately 2032 million tce in 2004, of which coal, oil, and natural gas account for 68%, 22.33%, and 2.60%, respectively [4]. The consumption of a huge amount of fossil fuels has caused severe local, regional, and global environmental pollution. Now, one-third of the whole country area is suffering from acid rain, and the combustion of fossil fuels contributes 90% of the sulfur dioxide emissions causing this problem. The economic damage from air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels was estimated at 2–3% of GDP [5]. China is currently the second largest CO2 emitter in the world, just after the United States. However, there is a possibility that by 2025, China’s CO2 emission would exceed that of the United States, and become the largest CO2 emitting country of the world [6]. China has been under increasing pressure from the world to reduce her CO2 emissions. Increasing the share of renewable energies in China’s energy supply mix is one of the most important measures to control the country’s local, regional, and global environmental pollution.2.4. Rural, social, and economic developmentApproximately 27 million people living in remote and mountainous areas of China did not have access to electricity by the end of 2004, and most of them are among the lowest income earners. Electricity supply plays a very important role in promoting social and economic development in remote and mountainous areas, and renewable energy power generating options, such as small hydro system, small-sized wind generating systems, and solar photovoltaic systems are often more cost-effective than the extension of conventional power grids.Some renewable energy technologies can also increase the productivity of agriculture. Human wasteand animal dung after anaerobic fermentation in biogas digesters are quality organicfertilizers. Both the output and the quality of vegetables and fruits can be increased markedly by using such fertilizers. Moreover, the use of these fertilizers can also lead to a decrease in the use of pesticides. As a result, biogas digesters cannot only produce the gas to be used for cooking and lighting in rural households, but also help farmers earn more money from agriculture. Geothermal technology can be applied to increase the output and quality of fisheries as well. Solar greenhouses are a common productivity raising technology in the plantation of vegetables, fruits, and flowers.2.5. The renewable energy lawRecognizing the strategic significance of renewable energy development in China, China Renewable Energy Law was passed by the Congress on February 28, 2005, and took effect on January 1, 2006. The Renewable Energy Law has put forward a comprehensive renewable energypolicy framework, and institutionalized a number of policies and instruments for China’s renewable energydevelopment and utilization. Among others, the major policies and/or institutions covered by the Law include●Directives on setting indicative renewable energy targets;●Directives on renewable energy planning;●Directives on functions and responsibilities of the relevant government agencies in renewableenergy management;●Directives on removal of barriers of renewable energy products to entry energy market;●Directives on grid connection of renewable power generation project;●Directives on feed-in tariff of renewable power generation;●Directives on taxation measures;●Directives on special fiscal fund of renewable energy development; and●Directives on renewable energy technology standards and certification.3. Current status of renewable energy development3.1. Small hydroIn 2005, the installed capacity of small hydro power plants was 38 GW, about 30% of the estimated 128 GW small hydro potential. Small-scale hydro technologies and turbines are improving. Moreover, the performance of the automated control systems has improved, too. Over 30 research institutes are involved in R&D and 160 small-scale hydro equipment manufacturers exist at present. This market grew by 12–15% in 2004, and 10% annual growth in 2005. Domestic industry can meet current development needs.Small hydro technologies have been primarily used for rural electrification, often in small county-size grids. However, in recent years, the development has become more multi-dimensional, with small hydro technologies serving centralized grids, the smaller county grids becoming interconnected, and also replacing or reducing the growth of other small-scale power plants, like small coal plants. In the future, the electrification supply in rural areas will still be the major aim for small hydro development, including the estimated 7 million rural households that still function without access to electricity.There are a number of factors which could accelerate and improve market development and power plant performance in the future, including market aggregation, better operation and management, improved technology, and standardized tariffs and power delivery.3.2. Wind farmThe rate of growth of wind turbine installations in China is impressive, and this growth could likely continue indefinitely. The installed capacity rose from 550MW in 2003, to 760MW in 2004, and then ultimately to 1250MW in 2005. The growth rate in 2004 was 65%, on top of a 40% growth in 2003. Only one domestic manufacture dominates the domestic market, constituting 20% of the market share. Imported turbines constitute 75% of the market share.China’s wind technology level has fallen behind Europe, as most of 1–2MW scale turbines have to be imported from Europe. Key R&D priorities for wind are large-capacity turbines, variable speed technologies, variable screw distance, and off-shore turbines and wind farm designs. The production costs have been decreasing, in line with the international costs, over the past decade, and these cost declines need to continue among Chinese manufacturers.3.3. Solar photo voltaic (PV)A total of 65MW solar PV was installed as of 2004, about 50% of this in rural (off-grid) areas. Communications and industry account for most of the other 50%, with consumer products constituting a small share. The grid-connected PV is still marginal, falling on the order of a few MW. The domestic market is growing fast, with 20MW added during 2004. The solar PV installation in China amounted to 70MW.Ch ina’s PV industry is growing faster than perhaps any other country in the world, but from a small initial base. As of 2004, China had a module production capacity of 100MW of PV, compared to the total world production capacity of 1200MW. Chinese production capacity doubled during 2004, from 50MW in 2003, and most production is exported. Cell production capacity was 65MW in 2004, and wafer production capacity was 15MW.As production increases rapidly in the coming years, a rapid declining share of production will go to domestic installation, as the domestic market does not keep pace with the production. This is because the grid-connected applications, which are now the predominant market globally, are still in infancy in China, and the price differential between solar PV and conventional power is still very large, on the order of 3 yuan/kW h.The key research areas are quality and cost improvements in materials and components, advanced solar light–heat transforming material, heat collector structure components, new pattern solar cell material and groupware technology, grid-connected and roof solar photovoltaic power system and integrated solararchitecture.3.4. Solar hot waterSolar hot water sales continue to boom. The estimation of the total sales volume in 2004 is 13.5 million m2 with the same growth rate of 19% as in 2003, and about 70% were below 1500 yuan/m2. The solar water heater installation was 80 million m2 as of 2005. The glass vacuum tube solar water heater was the most common type in the Chinese market. Ten brands of solar water heaters had annual sale volumes of over 100 million yuan. But the market is still highly diverse, as those top 10 brands had a combined market share of only 20%. There are more than 1000 manufacturers throughout the country, and an estimated 250,000 people work in the Chinese solar hot water industry. Some famous household appliance enterprises from outside the sector have also recently entered the solar hot water market, including Haier, Ocma, and Huati.Smaller towns and villages, with a large rooftop area per capita, are likely to continue to be the primary market, although multifamily apartment buildings can effectively use solar hotwater if not too tall.Future priorities include test and certification systems, better quality control, better integration into architectural practice and the construction industry, standardization of products, consumer education and awareness, new financing mechanisms, and favorabletax and tariff policies.3.5. Biomass power generationFor heating and power generation, biomass-fueled combustion technology is mature in China, and there are many biomass boiler manufacturers. Most biomass boilers have small or medium capacity, because their feed stocks are not abundant which are collected from nearby area not from distant area. The advanced biomass power generation efficiency has reached 40%. Biomass gasification has developedstrongly in China, with gasifiers up to 6MW in capacity, and system efficiencies reaching 28%.Biomass power generation capacity was about 2000MW in 2005. Current biomass power generation is dominated by bagasse fueled power plants. In 2005, the capacity of bagasse fueled power plants was about 1700MW or 85% of the total biomass power generation capacity. Power generation capacity from agricultural and forestry wastes, biogas, municipal waste incineration, and land fills was 60MW, 20MW, 200MW, and 20MW, respectively.The uncertainty involved in the biomass-fueled power generation development is still quite high in China. Presumably, with the renewable energy law taking effect, and favorable tariffs for biomass, increases will be seen in power generation. But the use of biomass at the local level is likely to be constrained by resource availability, including competing uses, plus collection, and transport infrastructure and businesses.3.6. BiogasChina leads the world in terms of household biogas technology development and diffusion. Approximately 14 million small-sized biogas digesters were built by 2004 with an annual biogas production of 3.5 billionm3, equivalent to 2.5 Mtce. In addition to providing gas for cooking and lighting purposes in rural households, household biogas technology is an important measure to help farms increase their income. The Chinese government attaches great importance to household biogas technology, and gives special fiscal support for the development and deployment of thetechnology.A remarkable progress has also been achieved in the development of large- and medium-sized biogas plants in China. Fifteen hundred large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in operation in livestock breeding farms as of 2004, producing 100 million m3 of biogas, equivalent to 70 thousand tce. Also approximately, 700 large- and medium-sized biogas plants were in use in the food, alcohol, and paper-making industries, producing 1.4 billion m3 of biogas, equivalent to 1 million tce. In addition to producing biogas, these plants serve as the major facility for treating wastes from livestock farms and effluents from alcohol and paper-making companies. Hence, the biogas technology is not only an energy technology but also environmental technology. As of 2005, the total production of biogas from householdsystems and large- and medium-size biogas plants reached 8 billionm3, equivalent to 4 Mtce.3.7. BiofuelsChina’s ethanol production was 1.02 million tons in 2005. As of late 2004, five provinces Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Henan, and Anhui required ethanol to be mixed with gasoline in a 10% ratio (E10). Four other provinces Hebei, Hubei, Shandong, and Jiangsu were added by late 2005.Ethanol distilleries have already been established in China with a production capacity of 1 million tons, to use ‘‘deteriorative’’ grains as feed stocks. Most fuel ethanol production in Chin a currently comes from the ‘‘deteriorative’’ grain. In 2005, China produced 50 thousand tons of biodiesel. Most biodiesel production currently comes from waste oil.Sorgo plantations have been set up in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang Uygar A.R., Liaoning, and Shandong. Sorgo appears to be a promising crop in China for biofuels, as it grows in colder northern climates and is better able to endure drought.Research is continuing on biofuels crops and distillation/production processes. Research is progressing in southern provinces on bio-oils, including colza oil, cottonseed oil, wood oil, Chinese tallow oil, and tea oil.3.8. SummaryIf all renewable energies were taken into account, China’s total primary energy supplywas 2337 Mtce in 2005. Renewable energies contributed approximately 17.8% of primary energy supply, of which traditional biomass3 10.7%, and all new renewable energies4 together 7.1% (Fig. 1). Electricity dominated the energy supply from renewable energies (Fig. 2). In 2005, the total installed capacity of renewable energy power systems was 119.7 GW, accounting approximately for 23.4% of total installed power capacity of China, of which large and small hydro power was 78 GW and 38 GW, respectively (Fig. 3).Renewable energy technologies can be categorized by four phases: R&D, pilot and demonstration, early commercialized5, and commercialized. Table 1 relates China’s major renewable energy technologies to the four phases. As shown in Table 1, only a small number of the technologies listed are commercialized. They are small hydropower plants/turbines, solar water heater, solar stove, geothermal space heating, and biomass stoves.4. A long term scenario of China’s renewable energy supplyThe scenario assumes that the implementation of the Renewable Energy Law and China’s Medium and Long Term Planning for Renewable Energy Development6 will create an enabling environment for the development of renewable energies in China. The scenario largely represents the economic potential of renewable energy development which is larger than the market potential but smaller than the technological potential.The trajectory of renewable energy supply evolution in China’s primary energy supply mix under the scenario is indicated in Table 5 and Fig. 4. Renewable energies will contribute approximately 21% of China’s total primary energy supply by 2050. Please note that the contribution from traditional biomass will decline from 10.7% in 2005 to 6.8% in 2010, 4.0% in 2020, and 2.3% in 2030. By 2050, traditional biomass will be completely replaced by modernbiomass. The contribution from new renewable energies, however, will grow from 7.1% in 2005 to 12.1% in 2020, 17.3% in 2030, and 21% in 2050, respectively.Most of the renewable energy supply is in the form of electricity.Table 6 and Fig. 5 show the picture of China’s power generation capacity installations till 2050 under the reference scenario. The installed capacity of renewable based power generation systems will reach 141 GW in 2010, 362 GW in 2020, 733 GW in 2030, and 1130 GW in 2050, respectively. The share of renewable based generation capacity will increase from 23.4% in 2005 to 30.8% in 2020, 40.8% in 2030 and 43.1% in 2050, respectively. Renewable energies will play a very important role in diversifying C hina’s power generation sources.5. Risks and uncertainties5.1. Financial risksAs shown in Table 1, most renewable energy technologies fall either in the R&D stage, in the pilot and demonstration stage, or in the early commercialization stage, and a few of them have also been fully commercialized. Often the substantive input of the financial resource is needed before a renewable energy technology is able to compete with conventional fossil energy technologies. Private companies are often reluctant to invest in the demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage due to low economic return. Further private companies often have difficulties borrowing money from banks and other financial institutions due to the high risks involved in these stages. Due to the free-rider issue private companies are also not willing to invest in the R&D stage. As a result, financial resources are often under-provided during the R&D, demonstration, and preliminary commercialization stage. Financial risks are important barriers that impede China’s renewable energy development in the future.5.2. Market entry risksConventional energy enterprises dominate China’s current energy industry. They stay in an advantageous position in competition with renewable energy companies in terms of both company scale and market penetration. The power grid is often not willing to accept electricity generated from renewable energy sources, such as wind, biomass, solar PV, and small hydro mainly because of higher cost and smaller scale of renewable electricity compared with the coal-fired electricity.On the other hand, China’s oil market is monopolized by three large groups: China National Petroleum Corp (CNPC), China Petrochemical Corp (Sinopec Group), and China National Offshore Oil Corp (CNOOC). To safeguard a market share of liquid fuels from renewable energies, such as biodiesel, substantive investment is needed to build or restructure the current production and sale infrastructure. Thecooperation from the three companies is of critical importance in this regard.5.3. Technological risksChina holds a leading position in terms of development and deployment of household biogas technology and small hydro technology. However, there is a large technological gap that China has to bridge in the future for most other renewable energy technologies. Although the size of mainstream wind turbines in the European market is as large as 1–1.5MWper unit, China does not yet have the capacity to manufacture wind turbines of more than 1MW. The country does not yet have the property rights of the core technologies for manufacturing solar PV cells. So far China has heavily depended on importing technologies and systems to develop her biomass-fuel power generation industry. In context of the large scale biogas plants, the technological gap between China and the world advanced level is still big in some aspects. More importantly, there is a lack of qualified researchers and engineers to conduct renewable technology R&D, design, and manufacture in China.AcknowledgementThis study is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (grant no. 90410016). References[1] Zhou DD, editor. China sustainable energy scenarios for 2020. Beijing: China Environment Science Press; 2003.[2] Shi LS. China’s energy is sues and renewable energy planning. Energy Policy Research 2004;(No.4)::17–21.[3] Available from: </nynx/nyhg/2005-06/09/ 153.html>.[4] China energy statistical yearbook. Beijing: China Statistics Press; 2006.[5] Wang YQ. ‘China’s energy consumption and environment protection’. China Development Forum, November 2003. Beijing: 2003.[6] ERI (Energy Research Institute), editor. Climate change mitigation. Beijing: Meteorological Press; 2004.[7] Sijim JPM. The performance of feed-in tariffs to promote renewable electricity in European Countries. The Netherlands: Working Paper, ECN-C-083; 2002.[8] Bechberger M, Reiche D. Renewable energy policy in Germany: pioneering and exemplary regulations. Energy for Sustainable Development 2004;8:47–57.[9] Langni? O. ‘International best practice for renewable energy legislations’ Senior Forum of Renewable Energy Legislation Issue, May 15–16, 2004. Beijing: 2004一项关于再生能源在中国可持续能源供应中地位的研究摘要本文首先提供了中国范围内可再生能源的发展，包括该国最近的可再生能源法的概况。
广东工业大学华立学院本科毕业设计（论文）外文参考文献译文及原文系部会计学系专业会计学年级 2007级班级名称 2007级会计（5）班学号 14010705000学生姓名某某某指导教师胡顺华2012年 4 月目录1.固定资产及其解读1.1企业会计准则 (1)1.2固定资产成本 (1)1.3固定资产的修理费 (1)1.4弃置费 (2)1.5在计算折旧费的因素 (3)1.6折旧方法的比较 (3)1.7持有待售固定资产 (4)2.附件（外文参考文献扫描件） (5)1固定资产及其解读1.1企业会计准则按照企业会计准则规定，对更新改造的固定资产符合资本化条件的，在更新改造过程中发生的各项支出应该资本化，计人固定资产的账面价值。
为了避免重复记账，同时被替换部分的账面价值扣除，并直接计人营业外支出。
笔者认为将替换部分的固定资产的账面价值直接转入营业外支出，不便于资产管理，容易造成同定资产流失。
因为，被替换部分的固定资产账面价值将从账上完全注销，直接转入营业外支出，确认为一笔损失，这意味着该项资产不再给企业带来任何经济利益。
但事实上，它可能还可以出售，或做它用。
如果企业将这部分注销的固定资产再转让或出售，按规定应计入营业外收入，但由于账上已注销该项资产，在转让时有可能不入账，或转入“小金库”，或装入个人私囊，这就会造成资产流失，也不利于对资产的管理。
因此，笔者认为将这部分替换的固定资产先计入“固定资产清理”账户，待该项资产经领导批准允许转让或报废后再将“固定资产清理”账户余额转入营业外支出。
这样做符合同定资产处置的一般做法，比较合理。
同时，又便于对替换部分资产的管理，避免了资产流失现象的发生。
1.2固定资产的成本购建固定资产的成本包括花在到位资产并投入使用的款项。
例如，运费和安装设备的费用列入作为资产的一部分，总成本。
图表3总结了取得的固定资产的共同部分费用。
这些费用应由相关记录增加固定资产帐户，如土地，建筑物，土地改良和机械设备。
