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Chapter 4The market forces of supply and demandSolutions to text problemsQZ What is a market? What does it mean for a market to be competitive? (page 60)A market is a group of buyers (who determine demand) and a group of sellers (who determine supply) of a particular good or service. A competitive market is one in which there are many buyers and many sellers so that each has a negligible impact on the market price.QZ List the determinants of the demand for pizza. Give an example of a demand schedule for pizza, and graph the implied demand curve. Give an example of something that would shift this demand curve. Would a change in the price of pizza shift this demand curve? (page 66)The determinants of the quantity of pizza demanded should include price, income, prices of related goods, tastes, expectations and the number of buyers.Here is an example of a demand schedule for pizza:Price of pizza slice Number of pizza slices demanded$0.00 100.25 90.50 80.75 71.00 61.25 51.50 41.75 32.00 22.25 12.50 0The demand curve is graphed in Figure 4.1.Figure 4.1Chapter 4: The market forces of supply and demand 31Examples of things that would shift the demand curve include changes in income, prices of related goods like soft drink or hot dogs, tastes, and expectations about future income or prices.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this demand curve; it would only move from one point to another along the curve.QZ List the determinants of the supply of pizza. Give an example of a supply schedule for pizza, and graph the implied supply curve. Give an example of something that would shift this supply curve. Would a change in the price of pizza shift this supply curve? (page 71)The determinants of the quantity of pizza supplied include the price of pizza, the prices of inputs into pizza production, the technology for producing pizza, expectations about things like the future price of pizza and the number of suppliers of pizza.Here is an example of a supply schedule for pizza:Price of pizza slice Number of pizza slices supplied$0.00 00.25 1000.50 2000.75 3001.00 4001.25 5001.50 6001.75 7002.00 8002.25 9002.50 1000The supply curve is graphed in Figure 4.2.Figure 4.232 Principles of Economics, Third edition, Instructor’s ManualExamples of things that would shift the supply curve include changes in prices of inputs like tomato sauce and cheese, changes in technology like more efficient pizza ovens or automatic dough makers, and changes in expectations about the future price of pizza.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this supply curve; it would only move from one point to another along the curve.QZ Analyse what happens to the market for pizza if the price of tomatoes rises. Analyse what happens to the market for pizza if the price of hamburgers falls. (page 75)If the price of tomatoes rises, the supply curve for pizza shifts to the left because of the increased price of an input into pizza production, however there is no effect on demand. The shift to the left of the supply curve causes the equilibrium price to rise and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 4.3 shows.Figure 4.3Chapter 4: The market forces of supply and demand 33 If the price of hamburgers falls, the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left because the lower price of hamburgers will lead consumers to buy more hamburgers and less pizza, but there is no effect on supply. The shift to the left of the demand curve causes the equilibrium price to fall and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 4.4 shows.Figure 4.434 Principles of Economics, Third edition, Instructor’s ManualQuestions for review (page 79)1 A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers so that each has anegligible impact on the market price.2The quantity of a good that buyers demand is determined by the price of the good, income, the prices of related goods, tastes, expectations and the number of buyers.3The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded. The demand curve is the downward-sloping line relating price and quantity demanded. The demand schedule and demand curve are related because the demand curve is simplya graph showing the points in the demand schedule.4The demand curve slopes downward because of the law of demand—other things equal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded of the good falls. People buy less of a good when its price rises, both because they can't afford to buy as much and because they switch to purchasing other goods.5 A change in consumers' tastes leads to a shift of the demand curve. A change in price leads to amovement along the demand curve.6The quantity of a good that sellers supply is determined by the price of the good, input prices, technology, expectations and the number of suppliers.7 A supply schedule is a table showing the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity aproducer is willing and able to supply. The supply curve is the upward-sloping line relating price and quantity supplied. The supply schedule and the supply curve are related because the supply curve is simply a graph showing the points in the supply schedule.8The supply curve slopes upward because when the price is high, suppliers' profits increase, so they supply more output to the market. The result is the law of supply—other things equal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of the good also rises.9 A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in price leads to amovement along the supply curve.10The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the demand and supply curves intersect. At the equilibrium price, the quantity of the good that buyers are willing and able to buy exactly balances the quantity that sellers are willing and able to sell. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices; that continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below theequilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers; that continues until they reach the equilibrium price. 11When the price of beer rises, the demand for pies declines, because beer and pies are complements and people want to buy less beer. When we say the demand for pies declines, we mean that the demand curve for pies shifts to the left as in Figure 4.5 below. The supply curve for pies isn'taffected. With a shift to the left in the demand curve, the equilibrium price and quantity both decline, as the figure shows. Thus the quantity of pies supplied and demanded both fall. In summary, supply is unchanged, demand is decreased, quantity supplied declines, quantity demanded declines, and the price falls.Chapter 4: The market forces of supply and demand 35Figure 4.512 Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. If the priceis different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded aren't equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price until equilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions and allocate scarce resources.Problems and applications (page 80)1 a The cyclone damages the banana harvest, reducing the supply of bananas. This can be seen inFigure 4.6 as a shift to the left in the supply curve for bananas. The new equilibrium price is higher than the old equilibrium price. Figure 4.6P r i c e o f p i e sQuantity of bananasP r i c e o f b a n a n a sQuantity of pies36 Principles of Economics, Third edition, Instructor’s Manualb People often go to the pictures during school holidays so demand for picture tickets is highduring school holidays. When school holidays end, fewer people go to the pictures. The result, as shown in Figure 4.7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price of picture tickets is thus lower when school holidays end, as the figure shows. Figure 4.7c When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Since much oilproduction takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting the supply curve for petrol tothe left, as shown in Figure 4.8. The result is a rise in the equilibrium price of petrol. With a higher price for petrol, the cost of operating a big car, like a Ford Falcon, will increase. As a result, the demand for used Ford Falcons will decline, as people in the market for cars won't find Falcons as attractive. In addition, some people who already own Falcons will try to sell them. The result is that the demand curve for used Falcons shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 4.9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Falcons.Figure 4.8Quantity of theatre tickets P r i c e o f t h e a t r e t i c k e t sP r i c e o f p e t r o l Quantity of petrolChapter 4: The market forces of supply and demand 37Figure 4.92 The statement that ‘an increase in the demand for notebooks raises the quantity of notebooksdemanded, but not the quantity supplied’ is false, in general. As Figure 4.10 shows, the increase in demand for notebooks results in an increased quantity supplied. The only way the statement would be true is if the supply curve were perfectly inelastic, as shown in Figure 4.11. Figure 4.10P r i c e o f u s e d F o r d F a l c o n sQuantity of used Ford Falcons38 Principles of Economics, Third edition, Instructor’s ManualFigure 4.113 a If people decide to have more children (a change in tastes), they'll want larger vehicles forhauling their kids around, so the demand for station wagons will increase. Supply won't be affected. The result is a rise in both price and quantity, as Figure 4.12 shows. Figure 4.12Quantity of Station WagonsP r i c e o f S t a t i o n W a g o n sChapter 4: The market forces of supply and demand 39b If a strike by steelworkers raises steel prices, the costs of producing a station wagon rise (a risein input prices), so the supply of station wagons decreases. Demand won't be affected. The result is a rise in the price of station wagons and a decline in the quantity, as Figure 4.13 shows.Figure 4.13c The development of new automated machinery for the production of station wagons is animprovement in technology. The reduction in firms' costs results in an increase in supply. Demand isn't affected. The result is a decline in the price of station wagons and an increase in the quantity, as Figure 4.14 shows.Figure 4.14d The rise in the price of minivans affects station wagon demand because minivans are substitutesfor station wagons (that is, there's a rise in the price of a related good). The result is an increase in demand for station wagons. Supply isn't affected. In equilibrium, the price and quantity of station wagons both rise, as Figure 4.12 shows.P r i c e o f S t a t i o n W a g o n sQuantity of Station WagonsP r i c e o f S t a t i o n W a g o n sQuantity of Station Wagonse The reduction in peoples' wealth caused by a stock market crash reduces their income, leading toa reduction in the demand for station wagons, since station wagons are a normal good. Supply isn’t affected. As a result, both price and quantity decline, as Figure 4.15 shows. Figure 4.154 Technological advances that reduce the cost of producing computer chips represent a decline in aninput price for producing a computer. The result is a shift to the right in the supply of computers, as shown in Figure 4.16. The equilibrium price falls and the equilibrium quantity rises, as the figure shows. Figure 4.16Quantity of Station WagonsP r i c e o f S t a t i o n W a g o n sSince computer software is a complement to computers, the increased equilibrium quantity of computers increases the demand for software. As Figure 4.17 shows, the result is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of software.Figure 4.17Since typewriters are substitutes for computers, the increased equilibrium quantity of computers reduces the demand for typewriters. As Figure 4.18 shows, the result is a decline in both theequilibrium price and quantity of typewriters.Figure 4.185 a When an outbreak of ‘foot and mouth’ disease hits sheep farms in New Zealand, it raises inputprices for producing woollen jumpers. As a result, the supply of woollen jumpers shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 4.19. The new equilibrium has a higher price and lower quantity of woollen jumpers. Figure 4.19b A decline in the price of leather jackets leads more people to buy leather jackets, reducing thedemand for woollen jumpers. The result, shown in Figure 4.20, is a decline in both theequilibrium price and quantity of woollen jumpers.Figure 4.20Quantity of woollen jumpers P r i c e o f w o o l l e n j u m p e r sQuantity of woollen jumpersP r i c e o f w o o l l e n j u m p e r sc Kylie wearing a woollen jumper raises the demand for woollen jumpers, as shown in Figure4.21. The result is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity of woollen jumpers. Figure 4.21d The invention of new knitting machines increases the supply of woollen jumpers. As Figure 4.22shows, the result is a reduction in the equilibrium price and an increase in the equilibriumquantity of woollen jumpers.Figure 4.22P r i c e o f W o o l l e n J u m p e r sQuantity of Woollen Jumpers Quantity of Woollen JumpersP r i c e o f W o o l l e n J u m p e r s6 A temporarily high birth rate in the year 2005 leads to opposite effects on the price of babysittingservices in the years 2010 and 2020. In the year 2010, there are more 5-year-olds who need sitters, so the demand for babysitting services rises, as shown in Figure 4.23. The result is a higher price for babysitting services in 2010. However, in the year 2020, the increased number of 15-year-olds shifts the supply of babysitting services to the right, as shown in Figure 4.24. The result is a decline in the price of babysitting services.Figure 4.23Figure 4.247Since tomato sauce is a complement for hot dogs, when the price of hot dogs rises, the quantity demanded of hot dogs falls, thus reducing the demand for tomato sauce, causing both price and quantity of tomato sauce to fall. Since the quantity of tomato sauce falls, the demand for tomatoes by tomato sauce producers falls, so both price and quantity of tomatoes fall. When the price of tomatoes falls, producers of tomato juice face lower input prices, so the supply curve for tomato juice shifts down, causing the price of tomato juice to fall and the quantity of tomato juice to rise. The fall in the price of tomato juice causes people to substitute tomato juice for orange juice, so the demand for orange juice declines, causing the price and quantity of orange juice to fall. Now you can see clearly why a rise in the price of hot dogs leads to a fall in price of orange juice!8 a Cigars and chewing tobacco are substitutes for cigarettes, since a higher price for cigaretteswould increase demand for cigars and pipe tobacco.b An increase in the tax on cigarettes leads to increased demand for cigars and pipe tobacco. Theresult, as shown in Figure 4.25 for cigars, is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of cigars and pipe tobacco.Figure 4.25c The results in part (b) showed that a tax on cigarettes leads people to substitute cigars and pipetobacco for cigarettes when the tax on cigarettes rises. To reduce total tobacco usage,policymakers might also want to increase the tax on cigars and pipe tobacco, or pursue sometype of public education program.9Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded at a price of $6 and quantity of 81 pizzas (Figure 4.26).If price were greater than $6, quantity supplied would exceed quantity demanded, so suppliers would reduce their price to gain sales. If price were less than $6, quantity demanded would exceed quantity supplied, so suppliers could raise their price without losing sales. In both cases, the price would continue to adjust until it reached $6, the only price at which there is neither surplus nor shortage. Figure 4.2610 a If the price of flour falls, since flour is an ingredient in bagels, the supply curve for bagels wouldshift to the right. The result, shown in Figure 4.27, would be a fall in the price of bagels and arise in the equilibrium quantity of bagels. Since cream cheese is a complement to bagels, the rise in quantity demanded of bagels increases the demand for cream cheese, as shown in Figure 4.28.The result is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of cream cheese. So, a fall in theprice of flour indeed raises both the equilibrium price of cream cheese and the equilibriumquantity of bagels.Figure 4.27Figure 4.28What happens if the price of milk falls? Since milk is an ingredient in cream cheese, the fall in the price of milk leads to an increase in the supply of cream cheese. This leads to a decrease in the price of cream cheese (Figure 4.29), rather than a rise in the price of cream cheese. So a fall in the price of milk couldn't have been responsible for the pattern observed.Figure 4.29b In part (a), we found that a fall in the price of flour led to a rise in the price of cream cheese anda rise in the equilibrium quantity of bagels. If the price of flour rose, the opposite would be true;it would lead to a fall in the price of cream cheese and a fall in the equilibrium quantity ofbagels. Since the question says the equilibrium price of cream cheese has risen, it couldn't have been caused by a rise in the price of flour.What happens if the price of milk rises? From part (a), we found that a fall in the price of milk caused a decline in the price of cream cheese, so a rise in the price of milk would cause a rise in the price of cream cheese. Since bagels and cream cheese are complements, the rise in the price of cream cheese would reduce the demand for bagels, as Figure 4.30 shows. The result is adecline in the equilibrium quantity of bagels. So a rise in the price of milk does cause both a rise in the price of cream cheese and a decline in the equilibrium quantity of bagels.Figure 4.3011 a As Figure 4.31 shows, the supply curve is vertical. The constant supply makes sense because thepicture theatre has a fixed number of seats no matter what the price.Figure 4.31b Quantity supplied equals quantity demanded at a price of $8. The equilibrium quantity is 800tickets. cPriceQuantity demandedQuantity supplied$4 1400 800 8 1100 800 12 800 800 16 500 800 20 200800The new equilibrium price will be $12, which equates quantity demanded to quantity supplied. The equilibrium quantity is 800 tickets.P r i c e o f p i c t u r e t h e a t r e t i c k e t sQuantity of picture theatre tickets 80012The executives are confusing changes in demand with changes in quantity demanded. Figure 4.32 shows the demand curve prior to the marketing campaign (D1), and after the campaign (D2). The marketing campaign increased the demand for champagne, as shown, leading to a higher equilibrium price and quantity. The influence of the higher price on demand is already reflected in the outcome.It's impossible for the scenario outlined by the executives to occur.Figure 4.3213 At equilibrium Q S=Q D. Therefore here:1400 + 700P = 1600 – 300P1000P = 200P = $0.20The equilibrium price is $0.20 per bar of chocolate. Substitute this into either Q S or Q D to get the equilibrium quantity of 1540 bars of chocolate.。
经济学习笔记第4章供给与需求的市场力量一、重要名词解释市场：由某种物品或服务的买者与卖者组成的一个群体。
竞争市场：有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
（竞争市场一般指完全竞争市场。
完全竞争，又称为纯粹竞争，是指不存在任何阻碍和干扰竞争因素的市场情况，亦即没有任何垄断因素的市场结构。
完全竞争市场需要具备四个条件：市场上有大量的买者和卖者；市场上每一个厂商提供的商品都是同质的；所有的资源具有完全的流动性；信息是完全的。
）需求量：买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物品的数量。
需求定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，对该物品的需求量减少的观点。
需求表：表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的表格。
需求曲线：表示一种物品的价格与需求量之间关系的图形。
正常物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量增加的物品。
低档物品：在其他条件相同时，收入增加引起需求量减少的物品。
替代品：一种物品价格的上升引起另一种物品需求量的增加的两种物品。
互补品：一种物品价格的上升引起另一种物品需求量的减少的两种物品。
供给量：卖者愿意并且能够出售的一种物品的数量。
供给定理：认为在其他条件不变时，一种物品的价格上升，该物品的供给量增加的观点。
供给表：表示一种物品的价格与供给量之间关系的表格。
供给曲线：表示一种物品的价格与供给量之间关系的图形。
均衡：市场价格达到使供给量与需求量相等的水平时的状态。
均衡价格/市场出清价格：使供给与需求平衡的价格。
均衡数量：均衡价格下的供给量与需求量。
过剩：供给量大于需求量的状态，也称为超额供给状态。
短缺：需求量大于供给量的状态，也称为超额需求状态。
供求定理：认为任何一种物品的价格都会自发调整，使该物品的供给与需求达到平衡的观点。
（供求定理是指在其他条件不变的情况下，需求变动分别引起均衡价格和均衡数量的同方向变动；供给变动分别引起均衡价格的反方向变动和均衡数量的同方向变动。
）二、重要摘抄1.供给与需求是使市场经济运行的力量。
51WHAT’S NEW IN THE S EVENTH EDITION:The In the News feature “Price Increases after Disasters” has been updated with a new article.LEARNING OBJECTIVES:By the end of this chapter, students should understand:➢ what a competitive market is.➢ what determines the demand for a good in a competitive market.➢ what determines the supply of a good in a competitive market.➢ how supply and demand together set the price of a good and the quantity sold.➢ the key role of prices in allocating scarce resources in market economies.CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 4 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence that deals with supply and demand and how markets work. Chapter 4 shows how supply and demand for a good determines both the quantity produced and the price at which the good sells. Chapter 5 will add precision to the discussion of supply and demand by addressing the concept of elasticity —the sensitivity of the quantity supplied and quantity demanded to changes in economic variables. Chapter 6 will address the impact of government policies on prices and quantities in markets.The purpose of Chapter 4 is to establish the model of supply and demand. The model of supply and demand is the foundation for the discussion for the remainder of this text. For this reason, time spent studying the concepts in this chapter will return benefits to your students throughout their study of economics. Many instructors would argue that this chapter is the most important chapter in the text.THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND52 ❖Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandKEY POINTS:• Economists use the model of supply and demand to analyze competitive markets. In a competitive market, there are many buyers and sellers, each of whom has little or no influence on the market price.• The demand curve shows how the quantity of a good demanded depends on the price. According to the law of demand, as the price of a good falls, the quantity demanded rises. Therefore, the demand curve slopes downward.• In addition to price, other determinants of how much consumers want to buy include income, the prices of substitutes and complements, tastes, expectations, and the number of buyers. If one of these factors changes, the demand curve shifts.• The supply curve shows how the quantity of a good supplied depends on the price. According to the law of supply, as the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied rises. Therefore, the supply curve slopes upward.• In addition to price, other determinants of how much producers want to sell include input prices, technology, expectations, and the number of sellers. If one of these factors changes, the supply curve shifts.• The intersection of the supply and demand curves determines the market equilibrium. At the equilibrium price, the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.• The behavior of buyers and sellers naturally drives markets toward their equilibrium. When the market price is above the equilibrium price, there is a surplus of the good, which causes the market price to fall. When the market price is below the equilibrium price, there is a shortage, which causes the market price to rise.• To analyze how any event influences a market, we use the supply-and-demand diagram to examine how the event affects equilibrium price and quantity. To do this we follow three steps. First, we decide whether the event shifts the supply curve or the demand curve (or both). Second, we decide which direction the curve shifts. Third, we compare the new equilibrium with the initial equilibrium.• In market economies, prices are the signals that guide economic decisions and thereby allocate scarce resources. For every good in the economy, the price ensures that supply and demand are in balance. The equilibrium price then determines how much of the good buyers choose to consume and how much sellers choose to produce.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 53CHAPTER OUTLINE: I. Markets and CompetitionA. What Is a Market?1. Definition of market: a group of buyers and sellers of a particular good or service.2. Markets can take many forms and may be organized (agricultural commodities) or lessorganized (ice creamB. What Is Competition?1. Definition of competitive market: a market in which there are so many buyers andso many sellers that each has a negligible impact on the market price.2. Each buyer knows that there are several sellers from which to choose. Sellers know that each buyer purchases only a small amount of the total amount sold.C. In this chapter, we will assume that markets are perfectly competitive.1. Characteristics of a perfectly competitive market:a. The goods being offered for sale are exactly the same.b. The buyers and sellers are so numerous that no single buyer or seller has any influence over the market price.2. Because buyers and sellers must accept the market price as given, they are often called "price takers."3. Not all goods are sold in a perfectly competitive market.a. A market with only one seller is called a monopoly market.b. Other markets fall between perfect competition and monopoly.54 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and DemandD. We will start by studying perfect competition.1. Perfectly competitive markets are the easiest to analyze because buyers and sellers take the price as a given.2. Because some degree of competition is present in most markets, many of the lessons that we learn by studying supply and demand under perfect competition apply in morecomplicated markets.II. DemandA. The Demand Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Demanded1. Definition of quantity demanded: the amount of a good that buyers are willing andable to purchase.2. One important determinant of quantity demanded is the price of the product.a. Quantity demanded is negatively related to price. This implies that the demand curve isdownward sloping.b. Definition of law of demand: the claim that, other things being equal, thequantity demanded of a good falls when the price of the good rises .3. Definition of demand schedule: a table that shows the relationship between theprice of a good and the quantity demanded. Price of Ice-Cream ConeQuantity of Cones Demanded$0.0012 $0.5010 $1.008 $1.506 $2.004 $2.502 $3.00Figure 1Make sure that you explain that, when we discuss the relationship between quantity demanded and price, we hold all other variables constant. You will need toemphasize this more than once to ensure that students understand why a change inprice leads to a movement along the demand curve.Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 554. Definition of demand curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.a. Price is generally drawn on the vertical axis.b. Quantity demanded is represented on the horizontal axis. B. Market Demand versus Individual Demand1. The market demand is the sum of all of the individual demands for a particular good orservice.2. The demand curves are summed horizontally —meaning that the quantities demanded are added up for each level of price.3. The market demand curve shows how the total quantity demanded of a good varies with the price of the good, holding constant all other factors that affect how much consumers want to buy.C. Shifts in the Demand Curve1. Because the market demand curve holds other things constant, it need not be stable overtime.56 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand2. If any of these other factors change, the demand curve will shift.a. An increase in demand is represented by a shift of the demand curve to the right.b. A decrease in demand is represented by a shift of the demand curve to the left.3. Incomea. The relationship between income and quantity demanded depends on what type of good the product is.b. Definition of normal good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase in income leads to an increase in demand.c. Definition of inferior good: a good for which, other things equal, an increase inincome leads to a decrease in demand.4. Prices of Related Goodsa. Definition of substitutes: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to an increase in the demand for the other.b. Definition of complements: two goods for which an increase in the price of one good leads to a decrease in the demand for the other.5. Tastes6. Expectationsa. Future incomeb. Future prices7. Number of BuyersChapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖57D. Case Study: Two Ways to Reduce the Quantity of Smoking Demanded1. Public service announcements, mandatory health warnings on cigarette packages, and theprohibition of cigarette advertising on television are policies designed to reduce the demandfor cigarettes (and shift the demand curve to the left).2. Raising the price of cigarettes (through tobacco taxes) lowers the quantity of cigarettesdemanded.a. The demand curve does not shift in this case, however.b. An increase in the price of cigarettes can be shown by a movement along the originaldemand curve.3. Studies have shown that a 10% increase in the price of cigarettes causes a 4% reduction inthe quantity of cigarettes demanded. For teens, a 10% increase in price leads to a 12% dropin quantity demanded.4. Studies have also shown that a decrease in the price of cigarettes is associated with greateruse of marijuana. Thus, it appears that tobacco and marijuana are complements.III. SupplyA. The Supply Curve: The Relationship between Price and Quantity Supplied1. Definition of quantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers are willing andable to sell.a. Quantity supplied is positively related to price. This implies that the supply curve will beupward sloping.b. Definition of law of supply: the claim that, other things equal, the quantitysupplied of a good rises when the price of the good rises.2. Definition of supply schedule: a table that shows the relationship between the priceof a good and the quantity supplied.58 ❖ Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand3. Definition of supply curve: a graph of the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied. Price of Ice-Cream ConeQuantity of Cones Supplied$0.000 $0.50 0 $1.001 $1.502 $2.003 $2.504 $3.005B. Market Supply versus Individual Supply1. The market supply curve can be found by summing individual supply curves.2. Individual supply curves are summed horizontally at every price.3. The market supply curve shows how the total quantity supplied varies as the price of thegood varies.C. Shifts in the Supply Curve1. Because the market supply curve holds other things constant, the supply curve will shift ifany of these factors changes.a. An increase in supply is represented by a shift of the supply curve to the right.b. A decrease in supply is represented by a shift of the supply curve to the left.Figure 5Figure 7Figure 6You will want to take time to emphasize the difference between a “change in supply” and a “change in quantity supplied.”Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ❖ 592. Input Prices3. Technology4. Expectations5. Number of Sellers IV. Supply and Demand TogetherA. Equilibrium1. The point where the supply and demand curves intersect is called the market’s equilibrium.2. Definition of equilibrium: a situation in which the market price has reached thelevel at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.3. Definition of equilibrium price: the price that balances quantity supplied andquantity demanded.4. The equilibrium price is often called the "market-clearing" price because both buyers andsellers are satisfied at this price.Table 2Figure 8 Students will benefit from seeing equilibrium using both a graph and a supply-and-demand schedule. The schedule will also make it easier for students to understand concepts such as shortages and surpluses.60 ❖Chapter 4/The Market Forces of Supply and Demand5. Definition of equilibrium quantity: the quantity supplied and the quantitydemanded at the equilibrium price.6. If the actual market price is higher than the equilibrium price, there will be a surplus of thegood.Figure 9a. Definition of surplus: a situation in which quantity supplied is greater thanquantity demanded.b. To eliminate the surplus, producers will lower the price until the market reachesequilibrium.7. If the actual price is lower than the equilibrium price, there will be a shortage of the good.a. Definition of shortage: a situation in which quantity demanded is greater thanquantity supplied.b. Sellers will respond to the shortage by raising the price of the good until the marketreaches equilibrium.8. Definition of the law of supply and demand: the claim that the price of any goodadjusts to bring the supply and demand for that good into balance.B. Three Steps to Analyzing Changes in Equilibrium 1. Decide whether the event shifts the supply or demand curve (or perhaps both). 2. Determine the direction in which the curve shifts.3. Use the supply-and-demand diagram to see how the shift changes the equilibrium price andquantity. C. Example: A change in market equilibrium due to a shift in demand —the effect of hot weather onthe market for ice cream.D. Shifts in Curves versus Movements along Curves1. A shift in the demand curve is called a "change in demand." A shift in the supply curve iscalled a "change in supply."2. A movement along a fixed demand curve is called a "change in quantity demanded." Amovement along a fixed supply curve is called a "change in quantity supplied." E. Example: A change in market equilibrium due to a shift in supply —the effect of a hurricane thatdestroys part of the sugar-cane crop and drives up the price of sugar.F. Example: Shifts in both supply and demand —the effect of hot weather and a hurricane thatdestroys part of the sugar cane crop. G. Summary1. When an event shifts the supply or demand curve, we can examine the effects on theequilibrium price and quantity.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Go through these examples of events that would shift either the demand or supply of #2 lead pencils:▪ an increase in the income of consumers▪ an increase in the use of standardized exams (using opscan forms) ▪ a decrease in the price of graphite (used in the production of pencils) ▪ a decrease in the price of ink pens ▪ the start of a school year▪ new technology that lowers the cost of producing pencils.2. Table 4 reports the end results of these shifts in supply and demand.H. In the News: Price Increases after Disasters1. When a disaster strikes a region, many good experience an increase in demand or a decreasein supply resulting in upward pressure on prices.2. This article from defends price increases following natural disasters as a naturalresult of market interactions.V. Conclusion: How Prices Allocate ResourcesA. The model of supply and demand is a powerful tool for analyzing markets.B. Supply and demand together determine the prices of the economy’s goods and services.1. These prices serve as signals that guide the allocation of scarce resources in the economy.2. Prices determine who produces each good and how much of each good is produced.SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. A market is a group of buyers (who determine demand) and a group of sellers (whodetermine supply) of a particular good or service. A perfectly competitive market is one inwhich there are many buyers and many sellers of an identical product so that each has anegligible impact on the market price.2. Here is an example of a monthly demand schedule for pizza:Price of Pizza Slice Number of Pizza Slices Demanded$ 0.00 100.25 90.50 80.75 71.00 61.25 51.50 41.75 32.00 22.25 12.50 0The demand curve is graphed in Figure 1.Figure 1Examples of things that would shift the demand curve include changes in income, prices ofrelated goods like soda or hot dogs, tastes, expectations about future income or prices, andthe number of buyers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this demand curve; it would only lead to amovement from one point to another along the same demand curve.3. Here is an example of a monthly supply schedule for pizza:Price of Pizza Slice Number of PizzaSlices Supplied$ 0.00 00.25 1000.50 2000.75 3001.00 4001.25 5001.50 6001.75 7002.00 8002.25 9002.50 1000The supply curve is graphed in Figure 2.Figure 2Figure 3Examples of things that would shift the supply curve include changes in prices of inputs like tomato sauce and cheese, changes in technology like more efficient pizza ovens or automatic dough makers, changes in expectations about the future price of pizza, or a change in the number of sellers.A change in the price of pizza would not shift this supply curve; it would only lead to amovement from one point to another along the same supply curve.4. If the price of tomatoes rises, the supply curve for pizza shifts to the left because there hasbeen an increase in the price of an input into pizza production, but there is no shift indemand. The shift to the left of the supply curve causes the equilibrium price to rise and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 3 shows.If the price of hamburgers falls, the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left because thelower price of hamburgers will lead consumers to buy more hamburgers and fewer pizzas,but there is no shift in supply. The shift to the left of the demand curve causes theequilibrium price to fall and the equilibrium quantity to decline, as Figure 4 shows.Figure 4Questions for Review1. A competitive market is a market in which there are many buyers and many sellers of anidentical product so that each has a negligible impact on the market price. Another type ofmarket is a monopoly, in which there is only one seller. There are also other markets that fallbetween perfect competition and monopoly.2. The demand schedule is a table that shows the relationship between the price of a good andthe quantity demanded. The demand curve is the downward-sloping line relating price andquantity demanded. The demand schedule and demand curve are related because thedemand curve is simply a graph showing the points in the demand schedule.The demand curve slopes downward because of the law of demand—other things beingequal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity demanded of the good falls. People buyless of a good when its price rises, both because they cannot afford to buy as much andbecause they switch to purchasing other goods.3. A change in consumers' tastes leads to a shift of the demand curve. If the change inconsumers' tastes leads to an increase in demand, consumers want to buy more of this goodat every price level. A change in price leads to a movement along the demand curve.Because price is measured on the vertical axis, a change in the price represents a movementalong the demand curve.4. Because Popeye buys more spinach when his income falls, spinach is an inferior good for him.His demand curve for spinach shifts out to the right as a result of the decrease in his income.5. A supply schedule is a table showing the relationship between the price of a good and thequantity a producer is willing and able to supply. The supply curve is the upward-sloping linerelating price and quantity supplied. The supply schedule and the supply curve are related because the supply curve is simply a graph showing the points in the supply schedule.The supply curve slopes upward because when the price is high, suppliers' profits increase, so they supply more output to the market. The result is the law of supply—other things being equal, when the price of a good rises, the quantity supplied of the good also rises.6. A change in producers' technology leads to a shift in the supply curve. A change in priceleads to a movement along the supply curve.7. The equilibrium of a market is the point at which the quantity demanded is equal to quantitysupplied. If the price is above the equilibrium price, sellers want to sell more than buyers want to buy, so there is a surplus. Sellers try to increase their sales by cutting prices. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price. If the price is below the equilibrium price, buyers want to buy more than sellers want to sell, so there is a shortage. Sellers can raise their price without losing customers. That continues until they reach the equilibrium price.8. When the price of beer rises, the demand for pizza declines, because beer and pizza arecomplements and people want to buy less beer. When we say the demand for pizza declines, we mean that the demand curve for pizza shifts to the left as in Figure 5. The supply curve for pizza is not affected. With a shift to the left in the demand curve, the equilibrium price and quantity both decline, as the figure shows. Thus, the quantity of pizza supplied anddemanded both fall. In sum, supply is unchanged, demand is decreased, quantity supplied declines, quantity demanded declines, and the price falls.Figure 59. Prices play a vital role in market economies because they bring markets into equilibrium. Ifthe price is different from its equilibrium level, quantity supplied and quantity demanded are not equal. The resulting surplus or shortage leads suppliers to adjust the price untilequilibrium is restored. Prices thus serve as signals that guide economic decisions andallocate scarce resources.Quick Check Multiple Choice1. b2. b3. d4. b5. a6. cProblems and Applications1. a. Cold weather damages the orange crop, reducing the supply of oranges and raising theprice of oranges. This leads to a decline in the supply of orange juice because orangesare an important input in the production of orange juice. This can be seen in Figure 6 asa shift to the left in the supply curve for orange juice. The new equilibrium price is higherthan the old equilibrium price.Figure 6b. People often travel to the Caribbean from New England to escape cold weather, so thedemand for Caribbean hotel rooms is high in the winter. In the summer, fewer peopletravel to the Caribbean, because northern climates are more pleasant. The result, asshown in Figure 7, is a shift to the left in the demand curve. The equilibrium price ofCaribbean hotel rooms is thus lower in the summer than in the winter, as the figureshows.Figure 7c. When a war breaks out in the Middle East, many markets are affected. Because a largeproportion of oil production takes place there, the war disrupts oil supplies, shifting thesupply curve for gasoline to the left, as shown in Figure 8. The result is a rise in theequilibrium price of gasoline. With a higher price for gasoline, the cost of operating agas-guzzling automobile like a Cadillac will increase. As a result, the demand for usedCadillacs will decline, as people in the market for cars will not find Cadillacs as attractive.In addition, some people who already own Cadillacs will try to sell them. The result isthat the demand curve for used Cadillacs shifts to the left, while the supply curve shifts to the right, as shown in Figure 9. The result is a decline in the equilibrium price of used Cadillacs.Figure 8 Figure 92. The statement is false. As Figure 10 shows, in equilibrium the increase in demand fornotebooks results in an increased quantity demanded and the quantity supplied.Figure 10 Figure 113. a. If people decide to have more children, they will want larger vehicles for hauling theirkids around, so the demand for minivans will increase. Supply will not be affected. The result is a rise in both the price and the quantity sold, as Figure 12 shows.Figure 12 Figure 13b. If a strike by steelworkers raises steel prices, the cost of producing a minivan rises andthe supply of minivans decreases. Demand will not be affected. The result is a rise in the price of minivans and a decline in the quantity sold, as Figure 13 shows.c. The development of new automated machinery for the production of minivans is animprovement in technology. This reduction in firms' costs will result in an increase in supply. Demand is not affected. The result is a decline in the price of minivans and an increase in the quantity sold, as Figure 14 shows.Figure 14d. The rise in the price of sport utility vehicles affects minivan demand because sport utilityvehicles are substitutes for minivans. The result is an increase in demand for minivans.Supply is not affected. The equilibrium price and quantity of minivans both rise, as Figure12 shows.e. The reduction in peoples' wealth caused by a stock-market crash reduces their income,leading to a reduction in the demand for minivans, because minivans are likely a normal good. Supply is not affected. As a result, both the equilibrium price and the equilibrium quantity decline, as Figure 15 shows.Figure 154. a. DVDs and TV screens are likely to be complements because you cannot watch a DVDwithout a television. DVDs and movie tickets are likely to be substitutes because a movie can be watched at a theater or at home. TV screens and movie tickets are likely to besubstitutes for the same reason.b. The technological improvement would reduce the cost of producing a TV screen, shiftingthe supply curve to the right. The demand curve would not be affected. The result is that the equilibrium price will fall, while the equilibrium quantity will rise. This is shown inFigure 16.Figure 16c. The reduction in the price of TV screens would lead to an increase in the demand forDVDs because TV screens and DVDs are complements. The effect of this increase in the demand for DVDs is an increase in both the equilibrium price and quantity, as shown inFigure 17.Figure 17The reduction in the price of TV screens would cause a decline in the demand for movie tickets because TV screens and movie tickets are substitute goods. The decline in thedemand for movie tickets would lead to a decline in the equilibrium price and quantitysold. This is shown in Figure 18.Figure 185. Technological advances that reduce the cost of producing computer chips represent a declinein an input price for producing a computer. The result is a shift to the right in the supply of computers, as shown in Figure 19. The equilibrium price falls and the equilibrium quantity rises, as the figure shows.Figure 19Because computer software is a complement to computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers increases the demand for software. As Figure 20 shows, the result is a rise in both the equilibrium price and quantity of software.Figure 20Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the lower equilibrium price of computers reduces the demand for typewriters. As Figure 21 shows, the result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and quantity of typewriters.Figure 216. a. When a hurricane in South Carolina damages the cotton crop, it raises input prices forproducing sweatshirts. As a result, the supply of sweatshirts shifts to the left, as shownin Figure 22. The new equilibrium price is higher and the new equilibrium quantity ofsweatshirts is lower.。
曼昆经济学原理目录曼昆经济学原理（Principles of Economics）是由美国经济学家尼古拉斯·格里高里·曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）所著的一本经济学教科书，旨在向大学学生介绍经济学基本原理和理论。
该教材分为三个部分，涵盖了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学三个领域。
下面将对每个部分的目录进行详细介绍。
第一部分：微观经济学第一章：经济学原理和经济思维- 经济学的基本原理和概念- 经济学家如何思考和分析经济问题第二章：在十大原则中思考- 十大原则介绍：如人们如何面对稀缺性和权衡取舍- 供求原则和市场机制- 政府干预经济的原则第三章：供需：一种模型的起点- 供给和需求的概念- 市场均衡和市场价格的形成- 自由市场与政府管制的比较第四章：市场效果：量与质的考虑- 市场效率和福利经济学- 市场失灵和外部性- 公共物品和共享资源第五章：务实的消费者和无穷的厂商- 消费者选择行为和效用最大化- 企业产量选择和生产成本- 供给曲线和市场调整第六章：市场均衡和资源配置- 市场均衡的概念和效率性- 供求关系和经济的资源配置- 政府政策和市场效率的影响第二部分：宏观经济学第七章：储蓄、投资和资本市场- 储蓄、投资和财务体系- 成本效益分析和资本市场的理论第八章：经济增长和生产函数- 国民收入和生产函数的概念- 技术进步和经济增长- 资本积累对经济增长的影响第九章：失业和通货膨胀- 失业和就业水平- 失业的成因和传统观点- 通货膨胀和货币政策第十章：货币和银行体系- 货币和货币供给- 银行体系和货币创造- 中央银行政策和货币政策工具第十一章：货币市场和货币政策- 资本市场和货币市场的联系- 货币市场利率和货币政策的影响- 货币供给和货币创造的影响第三部分：国际经济学第十二章：国际贸易的原理和比较优势- 国际贸易的原理和概念- 绝对优势和比较优势- 贸易制度和贸易政策第十三章：国际贸易的应用和政策- 暂定均衡和相对比较优势- 贸易政策和进出口管制- 贸易摩擦和贸易战争第十四章：国际金融与公共金融- 汇率和外汇市场- 货币政策和国际金融体系- 公共债务和国际金融危机曼昆经济学原理目录总共包括了14个章节，它们涵盖了经济学的基本原理和概念，并且深入探讨了微观经济学、宏观经济学和国际经济学的各个领域。
曼昆的《微观经济学基础》课业笔记英文版IntroductionThis document presents my notes on "Microeconomics: Principles and Applications" by N. Gregory Mankiw. These notes summarize key concepts and ideas covered in the book, aiming to provide a helpful overview of microeconomics.Chapter 1: Ten Principles of Economics- People face trade-offs: individuals and societies must make choices due to scarcity.- The cost of something is what you give up to get it: when making decisions, considering both the direct and opportunity costs is crucial.- Rational people think at the margin: making decisions by evaluating incremental benefits and costs.- People respond to incentives: incentives can influence individuals' behavior and decision-making.- Trade can make everyone better off: voluntary exchange benefits all parties involved.- Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity: markets coordinate exchanges efficiently.- A country's standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services: productivity is key.- Prices rise when the government prints too much money: inflation can be caused by excessive money supply growth.- Society faces a short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment: the Phillips curve illustrates this trade-off.Chapter 2: Thinking Like an Economist- Economists use models to simplify reality and understand economic behavior.- Assumptions in economic models help focus on essential elements.- Opportunity cost is the true cost of something and is measured by what we give up to obtain it.Chapter 3: Interdependence and the Gains from Trade- Specialization and international trade result in greater production efficiency and consumption possibilities.- Both parties benefit from trade even if one has an absolute advantage in both goods.- Prices reflect the opportunity cost and guide resources to their most valued uses.Chapter 4: The Market Forces of Supply and Demand- Markets consist of buyers and sellers, and their interactions determine prices and quantities.- Demand curve shows the relationship between price and quantity demanded, while supply curve reflects the relationship between price and quantity supplied.- Market equilibrium occurs when quantity demanded equals quantity supplied.- Changes in demand or supply shift their respective curves, leading to changes in equilibrium price and quantity.ConclusionThese notes provide a brief summary of the key concepts covered in "Microeconomics: Principles and Applications." Studying this bookallows for a deeper understanding of microeconomic principles and their applications in the real world.。
曼昆微观经济学引言微观经济学是经济学的一个重要分支，通过研究个体经济主体的行为，来分析市场经济的运行机制和经济资源的配置问题。
曼昆微观经济学是由经济学家尼尔·格里高利·曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）编写的一本经济学教材，该教材在全球范围内被广泛应用于大学微观经济学课程。
曼昆微观经济学的特点1.系统性与全面性：曼昆微观经济学涵盖了微观经济学的主要内容，系统地介绍了市场经济的基本原理和理论模型，其中包括供求关系、消费者行为、企业生产与成本、市场结构等方面的内容。
2.简洁明了的语言：曼昆微观经济学采用了简洁明了的语言，结合生动的例子和图表，帮助读者更好地理解和掌握经济学概念和分析方法。
这种语言风格极大地降低了对数学知识和经济学背景的要求，使得本教材更加适合广大读者阅读。
3.深度剖析经济现象：在曼昆微观经济学中，作者不仅仅介绍经济学的基本概念和理论，更重要的是深入剖析经济现象背后的原因和机制，通过经济学分析和演绎，揭示了经济活动的本质和规律性。
4.与现实经济联系紧密：曼昆微观经济学将经济学的理论与现实经济紧密联系在一起，通过真实案例和实证研究，解释了经济学理论模型在实际经济中的应用和局限性。
同时，也加入了当前社会经济热点问题的分析和讨论，使得读者可以将经济学知识与现实经济现象相结合，更好地理解并应用经济学的原理和方法。
曼昆微观经济学的主要章节第一章：引言本章主要介绍了微观经济学的研究对象和方法，阐述了经济学的基本原理和假设。
第二章：供求关系本章介绍了市场经济中的供给和需求关系，包括供给曲线和需求曲线的形成和变动，并讨论了市场均衡和价格调整的过程。
第三章：消费者行为本章详细介绍了消费者的效用理论，讨论了消费者的预算约束和消费的最优选择问题，同时还分析了不同市场条件下消费者需求的弹性。
第四章：企业生产与成本本章探讨了企业的生产过程和生产函数，解释了企业的边际成本和平均成本概念，以及企业的最优产量和成本分布问题。
曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第4章课后习题答案P92-P94第一篇：曼昆《经济学原理》第6版微观经济学分册第4章课后习题答案P92-P94曼昆《经济学原理》微观经济学分册第4章课后习题答案P92-P94第二篇市场如何运作第四章供给与需求的市场力量复习题1．什么是竞争市场?简单描述除了完全竞争市场之外的市场类型。
答：竞争市场是有许多买者与卖者，以至于每个人对市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场。
除了完全竞争市场之外，还有垄断市场。
在这个市场上只有一个卖者，他决定价格。
这个卖者被称为垄断者。
还有寡头市场，在这个市场上有几个并不总是主动竞争的卖者，他们提供相似或相同的产品。
通常情况下，寡头们会尽力联合起来，避免激烈的竞争，收取较高的市场价格。
还有垄断竞争市场，这是一个有许多提供相似但不相同产品的企业的市场结构。
由于各自提供的产品不同，每个企业对产品的价格都有一定的影响力。
2．什么是需求表和需求曲线?它们如何相关联?为什么需求曲线向右下方倾斜? 答：需求表是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格，需求曲线是表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的图形。
需求曲线将需求表用图形的形式表现出来，需求表是需求曲线上若干个点的坐标的数字表格排列。
需求曲线向右下方倾斜是因为在其他条件不变的情况下，随着价格上升，需求量会减少。
3．消费者嗜好的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动，还是需求曲线的移动，价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动，还是需求曲线的移动? 答：消费者嗜好的变化引起了需求曲线的移动，价格的变化引起了沿着需求曲线的变动。
4．Popeye的收入减少了，结果他买了更多的菠菜。
菠菜是低档物品，还是正常物品? Popeye菠菜的需求曲线是什么样的? 答：菠菜对波匹来说是低档物品。
因为Popeye的收入减少了，他对菠菜的需求量反而增大。
波匹菠菜的需求曲线是向右下方倾斜的。
5．什么是供给表和供给曲线，它们如何关联?为什么供给曲线向石上方倾斜? 答：供给表是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的表格，供给曲线是表示一种物品价格与供给量之间关系的图形。
第一章经济学十大原理个人做出决策的四个原理：1) 人们面临权衡取舍（做出决策的时候人们不得不在不同的目标之间做出取舍）2) 某种东西的成本是为了得到它而放弃的东西（比如读大学，要考虑到不能工作带来的工资损失）3) 理性人考虑边际量（比如应该读到什么时候才能拿到最好的工资，博士，硕士呵呵）4) 人们会对激励做出反应（比如去超市买东西很便宜，于是我们去买，结果买了很多的不需要的东西，反倒花了更多的钱）经济相互交易的三个原理：5) 贸易能使每个人的状况更好（想想如果没有贸易，我们还处于自然经济的状况，那么我们需要做所有的事情，需要去做冰箱，彩电……不可能吧。
没有贸易就没有竞争了，那么我们就可能在某一领域被人们垄断，想想封闭的中国，我们可能不能得到很多的先进的科技，但是我们现在和很多的国家贸易，这样我们可以享用更多的先进的技术）6) 市场通常是组织经济活动的一种好方法（这个东西从我学过的邓小平理论当中可以反复地看到，无形的手，价格！）7) 政府有的时候可以改善市场结果（我们需要政府来维持这个社会的治安……，抄一句：促进效率和促进公平〈尽管很多的时候他们是一对矛盾，有的时候政府也不一定能做到这一点〉市场失灵）整体经济如何运行的三个原理：8) 一国的生活水平取决于它生产的物品与劳务的能力（就是劳动生产率，你工作一个小时，那么你能够创造出多少的财富。
那么我们要提高生活水平，我们就需要去得到良好教育，现在我就在这么做，呵呵，拥有生产工具——我现在需要一台电脑，速度要快些，屏幕要液晶的更好，以及获取最好技术的机会——这我需要向导师和图书馆，师兄多多请教了，还要自己去争取机会！）9) 当政府发行了过多的货币时，物价上升（这个好理解，不就是通货膨胀么）10)社会面临通货膨胀与失业之间的短期权衡取舍（菲利普斯曲线——增加货币的供应量，可以至少短期的失业率〈其实我还是不懂为什么？〉，但是会造成通货膨胀）第二章象经济学家一样思考第一节作为科学家的经济学家υ 为什么我们会把经济学家作为一个科学家来看待呢？经济学家同样的需要去观察世界，冷静地建立并且检验有关世界如何运行的各种理论。
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第8版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解目录第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理1.1 复习笔记1.2 课后习题详解1.3 名校考研真题详解第2章像经济学家一样思考2.1 复习笔记2.2 课后习题详解2.3 名校考研真题详解第3章相互依存性与贸易的好处3.1 复习笔记3.2 课后习题详解3.3 名校考研真题详解第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记4.2 课后习题详解4.3 名校考研真题详解第5章弹性及其应用5.1 复习笔记5.2 课后习题详解5.3 名校考研真题详解第6章供给、需求与政府政策6.1 复习笔记6.2 课后习题详解6.3 名校考研真题详解第3篇市场和福利第7章消费者、生产者与市场效率7.1 复习笔记7.2 课后习题详解7.3 名校考研真题详解第8章应用：税收的代价8.1 复习笔记8.2 课后习题详解8.3 名校考研真题详解第9章应用：国际贸易9.1 复习笔记9.2 课后习题详解9.3 名校考研真题详解第4篇公共部门经济学第10章外部性10.1 复习笔记10.2 课后习题详解10.3 名校考研真题详解第11章公共物品和公共资源11.1 复习笔记11.2 课后习题详解11.3 名校考研真题详解第12章税制的设计12.1 复习笔记12.2 课后习题详解12.3 名校考研真题详解第5篇企业行为与产业组织第13章生产成本13.1 复习笔记13.2 课后习题详解13.3 名校考研真题详解第14章竞争市场上的企业14.1 复习笔记14.2 课后习题详解14.3 名校考研真题详解第15章垄断15.1 复习笔记15.2 课后习题详解15.3 名校考研真题详解第16章垄断竞争16.1 复习笔记16.2 课后习题详解16.3 名校考研真题详解第17章寡头17.1 复习笔记17.2 课后习题详解17.3 名校考研真题详解第6篇劳动市场经济学第18章生产要素市场18.1 复习笔记18.2 课后习题详解18.3 名校考研真题详解第19章收入与歧视19.1 复习笔记19.2 课后习题详解19.3 名校考研真题详解第20章收入不平等与贫困20.1 复习笔记20.2 课后习题详解20.3 名校考研真题详解第7篇深入研究的论题第21章消费者选择理论21.1 复习笔记21.2 课后习题详解21.3 名校考研真题详解第22章微观经济学前沿22.1 复习笔记22.2 课后习题详解22.3 名校考研真题详解内容简介本书遵循曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第8版）教材的章目编排，共分7篇22章，每章由三部分组成：第一部分为复习笔记，总结本章的重难点内容；第二部分是课（章）后习题详解，对第8版的所有习题都进行了详解的分析和解答；第三部分为名校考研真题详解，精选近年考研真题，并提供了详细的解答。
微观经济学Chapter4The Market Forces of SupplyAnd Demand完全竞争市场被定义有两个基本特点：1）提供的物品全部相同2）买者与卖者众多，因此没有单一买家或卖家可以影响市场价格。
由于买卖双方都必须接受这一价格，我们称他们为价格接受者。
有些市场我们是可以考虑为完全竞争的。
谷物市场，比如说，有成千的销售者和上万的买家，没有人可以撼动市场价格，我们说它是完全竞争的。
不是每个市场都是完全竞争的，有一种情况称为垄断，在垄断的情况下，价格由唯一的卖价设定。
一些市场介于完全竞争与垄断之间，称为寡头垄断：由一定数量的卖家，但并不激烈地竞争。
航空公司是一个范例，如果一条航线只由两到三个载运承担，则这些承运者可以躲避竞争，从而使机票价格保持在高位。
另一种竞争是垄断竞争。
市场中有很多买家，但他们的商品不尽相同，因此他们有权为自己定价。
举例：杂志。
杂志竞争中，市场里随时都能闯入新人，并开创新的杂志。
尽管今天市场种产品多样，我们仍要从完全竞争学起。
完全竞争市场在这当中最容易分析。
需求Figure 3(需求增长,曲线右移,需求下降,曲线左移)指出，有很多变数可以影响需求曲线，以下是一些主要的：收入（Income ）低收入意味着你的支出将减少，低而降低了，我们就说这种商品为normal good .不是所有商品都为一般商品，如果收入下降而需求升高，则我们称该商品为替代商品（Inferior good ）。
就像，收入降低时，我们不会去买车或打出租车，而改坐公交。
1234567相关产品价格(Price of Related Goods)假如,冻酸奶的价格下降,则需求定理告诉我们，我们可能去购买冻得更好的酸奶。
同时，你会减少冰淇淋的购买量。
因为冰淇淋和冻酸奶都是冷的、甜的、奶油制甜品，他们满足人本呈负相关。
技术（Technology）技术有利于降低商品成本，解放人力，降低成本后，先进的技术增加了供给量。
微观经济学原理英文授课英中字幕MicroeconomicsPrinciples Coursera ...Microeconomics Principles微观经济学原理9.7 (95人评价）知识量：9.7教师参与：9。
8趣味性：9.8课程设计:9.8难度：简单关注学过去上课简介点评95笔记156讨论127 开始时间：2014—12-22持续时间:8。
0周/每周4。
0-12。
0小时语言：英文授课英中字幕分类：经济管理平台:Coursera证书：签名认证课程简介介绍在比较大的经济体系中,单一决策者（包括消费者和生产者）的职能。
重点关注产品市场的性质和功能，多种竞争和垄断条件下的企业理论与政府在刺激效率方面的作用.大多数人有个错误观念,即经济学就只研究钱。
我这门课的主要目的就是消除这种错误观念。
实际上，在过去50年中，经济学家们已经解决了一些人类最有趣也最重要的问题.例如，下面仅仅列举了其中很小一部分:关于爱情和婚姻为什么离婚率居高不下，而我们又该如何降低离婚率？关于环境为何污染问题如此严重？濒临灭绝的物种价值几何？关于犯罪大麻合法化会降低犯罪率吗？关于劳动力市场提高联邦最低工资标准会提高失业率吗?为何在过去40年中那么多女性进入劳动力市场？关于令你担心的事情为何高等教育是一项睿智的投资？或者不是吗？为何总统候选人不了解上大学的费用？关于其他学券制会改善公共教育吗?为何征兵只会毁了军队？如何在棒球场上公平竞争?还有，为何COURSERA提供免费课程？我们将考虑的附加问题:经济学家们干什么和他们有什么奇怪的思维方式？(基本概念，模型和交易)在市场经济中什么决定了价格和质量？(供给和需求）自由市场经济体和社会福利有什么关系?（市场效率和政府干预)什么是税收的分配效应?(弹性和税收)企业的生产和成本有什么关系？（生产和成本）竞争企业如何选择它们的有效产出水平？（竞争性产出）有一定市场支配力的企业有哪些定价策略？（具有市场力量企业)多少污染是过度污染？（公共物品，公有资源和外部性）我们会在课程中讨论很多（还有更多）此类问题。
