新托福TPO22阅读原文及译文(三)

2019年TPO22托福口语Task3原文及参考答案TPO22口语Task3题目：University Announces Change in Campus Tour GuidesTraditionally, staff members from the admissions office have led the campus tours for secondary-school students who are considering attending the university. Beginningnext semester, however, current students will lead these guided walks around the campus instead. “The staff of the admissions office no longer have time to lead the campus tours. We need to focus our resources on our other responsibilities,” explain Christine Tanner, the director of admissions.“Furthermore, we feel that current students will offer unique and valuable insight to our visitors during these campus tours.”ConversationNow listen to two students discussing the article.Man： So, what do you think of this?Woman：Well, I think it’s a good idea, necessary, too.Man： Why is that?Woman：Well, you know, I’ve actually been up to the admissions office a couple of times, like, to pick up some information for a friend, you know, and every time I’ve ever been there, wow, you can tell they’re really busy.Man： Oh, really.Woman： Yeah, those staff members are running around like crazy, on the phone, doing interviews, dealing with tons of paper work, so I can totally believe what they are saying about the time factor, seems like having one less thing to worry about will be a good thing.Man： Sounds like it.Woman： Yep, oh, and about the other point,Man： The, uh, the different perspective thing?Woman： Uh hum, I think people like us will be really good at this. Unlike, you know, I remember when I was first shown around the campus, the guide leading was, well, he was super nice, but there were some questions that he couldn’t really answer from experience.Man： Like what?Woman： Well, practical things, which are the noisier dorms? Or which ones are quietest? Which student cafeteria would he recommend? Stuff he didn't have first-hand knowledge about, I mean, how could he?Man： I see. Our point of view might be more helpful.QuestionThe woman expresses her opinion about the university’s plan. Briefly summarize the plan.Then state her opinion about the plan and explain the reasons she gives for holding that opinion.Key Points1. too busyTPO22口语Task3参考答案(范文模板)：The woman endorses the school’s plan to have the students conduct the student tours instead of the schoo l’s staff members. According to the school, the staff members don’t have time to lead the tours for students anymore and need to worry about other things instead, and the woman reckons it’s true saying that every time she goes to their offices, they’re alw ays running around and doing a bunch of other things so she thinks having one less thing to worry about will be good for them. The school also notes that students will have a better insight about life on campus that they can portray to visitors on the tour and the woman adds that when she took the campus tour, the man running the tour couldn’t answer a lot of her questions about life on campus cos he wasn’t a student.。

tpo22阅读部分答案全解析spartina1. except题，排除法。

a的salt marshes做关键词定位至第二句，原文说dominant type，而a说rarely flowers，所以a说反，选；b的intertidal zone做关键词同样定位至第二句，正确，不选；c的cordgrass做关键词定位至首句，说spartina也叫cordgrass，正确，不选；d的一系列专有名词做关键词定位至首句，正确，不选。

此题pps的答案是错的，正确答案是a2. 以salt marshes are so productive做关键词定位至第二句，说nutrient-rich富营养的水被潮水带到marsh，导致生产率很高，所以正确答案是c。

其他答案都没说3. 原文的结构是insects和一大堆乱七八糟的动物都吃cordgrass，所以正确答案是d。

a的only dead cordgrass与原文相反；b的habitat和c的a place to live都没说4. 问整段的结构，先看开头，再看第二句和最后一句。

第一句说s是一个非常强的competitive 植物，第二句说这种植物怎么生长的，最后一句说另外一个adaptive的优势是能够利用二氧化碳，整个都在说spartina到底是怎么长的，从来没说过反对，所以a的objection，c的against 和d的dispute都不对，正确答案是b5. exceedingly非常，所以正确答案是highly。

从单词本身看，ex表示外，ceed走，所以exceed 表示超出之意，所以dangerously和surprisingly 明显不对。

原文说spartina是个什么样的竞争植物，后文一直都在说spartina非常具有竞争性，应该是个中偏正向的词，而unusually 是个中偏负向的词，所以不选6. 以marsh environments做关键词定位至倒数第二句，说spartina能够吸收sulfide并将其转化为sulfate，这一能力使spartina能够占领marsh environments，所以正确答案是b，a的改变substrate，c的floating on the surface和d的produce carbon dioxide都没讲到7. 以established stand做关键词定位至第三句，说一旦establish之后，spartina会做blabla 事情，stand变成high marsh system，spartina会被替代，所以正确答案是a的no longer survive。

新托福TPO20阅读原文(三)：Fossil PreservationTPO20-3：Fossil PreservationWhen one considers the many ways by which organisms are completely destroyed after death, it is remarkable that fossils are as common as they are. Attack by scavengers and bacteria, chemical decay, and destruction by erosion and other geologic agencies make the odds against preservation very high. However, the chances of escaping complete destruction are vastly improved if the organism happens to have a mineralized skeleton and dies in a place where it can be quickly buried by sediment. Both of these conditions are often found on the ocean floors, where shelled invertebrates (organisms without spines) flourish and are covered by the continuous rain of sedimentary particles. Although most fossils are found in marine sedimentary rocks, they also are found in terrestrial deposits left by streams and lakes. On occasion, animals and plants have been preserved after becoming immersed in tar or quicksand, trapped in ice or lava flows, or engulfed by rapid falls of volcanic ash.The term "fossil" often implies petrifaction, literally a transformation into stone. After the death of an organism, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. Indeed, unaltered shells of marine invertebrates are known from deposits over 100 million years old. In many marine creatures, however, the skeleton is composed of a mineral variety of calcium carbonate called aragonite. Although aragonite has the same composition as the more familiar mineral known as calcite, it has a different crystal form, is relatively unstable, and in time changes to the more stable calcite.Many other processes may alter the shell of a clam or snail and enhance its chances for preservation. Water containing dissolved silica, calcium carbonate, or iron may circulate through the enclosing sediment and be deposited in cavities such as marrow cavities and canals in bone once occupied by blood vessels and nerves. Insuch cases, the original composition of the bone or shell remains, but the fossil is made harder and more durable. This addition of a chemically precipitated substance into pore spaces is termed "permineralization."Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed " replacement" because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in bone are accurately preserved.Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.Although it is certainly true that the possession of hard parts enhances the prospect of preservation, organisms having soft tissues and organs are also occasionally preserved. Insects and even small invertebrates have been found preserved in the hardened resins of conifers and certain other trees. X-ray examination of thin slabs of rock sometimes reveals the ghostly outlines of tentacles, digestive tracts, and visual organs of a variety of marine creatures. Soft parts, including skin, hair, and viscera of ice age mammoths, have been preserved in frozen soil or in the oozing tar of oil seeps.The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago) of Germany accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outercoverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue.TPO20-3译文：化石保存如果想想生物在死之后被完全摧毁的种种方式，能够这样频繁出现化石是一件很令人惊讶的事。

TPO22 READING参考译文米草属植物互花米草，俗称网茅，是一种冬季枯萎的多年生开花植物，原产自大西洋沿岸和美国的墨西哥湾。

它是这些海岸地区低海拔盐碱地的优势本地种，生长于潮汐带（有时淹没在水中，有时暴露在空气中的区域）。

这些天然的盐碱地位于海洋环境下最肥沃的生境中。

涨潮时会给沼泽带来营养丰富的海水，使得食物有可能获得高产。

随着海草和沼泽禾草叶子的死亡，细菌将植物体分解，昆虫、小型虾状浮游生物、招潮蟹和沼泽蜗牛吃掉了腐烂的植物组织，消化后排出富含营养的排泄物。

沼泽里生活着无数的昆虫，它们以活着或死去的网茅组织为食，红翼歌鸫、麻雀、啮齿动物、兔子以及鹿都直接食用网茅。

每一个潮汐周期都会将植物带到近海海水中，它们可以被潮水下的生物所利用。

米草属植物是极具竞争力的植物。

它主要通过地下茎向四周扩展，当根系或整株植物漂到一个区域并扎下根来，或者当种子漂到一个适合的地方并发芽，就会形成新的群落。

从泥沙地到卵砾石地，米草属植物都能生长，其耐盐度从接近淡水（0.05%）到盐水（3.5%）。

由于沼泽沉积物里缺乏氧气，因而含有很多的硫化物，对多数植物而言是有毒的。

米草属植物具有能够吸收硫化物并将其转换成为硫酸盐——一种植物可以利用的硫形式的能力。

这种能力使得米草属植物能够在沼泽环境中生存。

另一个适应性优势就是米草属植物比其它植物能更为有效的利用二氧化碳的能力。

这些特征使得在河口处自然生长出的米草属植物成为了该地重要的组成部分。

植物起到了稳定器和沉积物收集器的作用，而且还充当了河口鱼类和贝类的哺育场所。

一旦落地生根，一片米草属植物就开始截留沉积物，改变基质的海拔高度，最终这片米草属植物会逐渐被更高海拔的微咸淡水植物所取代，发展成了一个高海拔的沼泽系统。

1894年，为了将牡蛎从东海岸转移到华盛顿州，米草属植物被打包运往华盛顿州。

由于缺少捕食性昆虫，网茅沿着西海岸华盛顿州的潮汐河口缓慢而稳定地传播开来，排挤本地植物，并通过截留沉积物极大地改变了当地的景观。

【托福写作备考】TPO22综合写作文本及解析TPO 22先来看看阅读材料：Ethanol fuel, made from plants such as corn and sugar cane, has beenadvocated by some people as an alternative to gasoline in the United States.However, many critics argue that ethanol is not a good replacement for gasolinefor several reasons.译文：乙醇燃料是从玉米以下是或者甘蔗之类的植物中提取的。

在美国，一些人提倡使用乙醇燃料来代替汽油。

然而，很多评论家认为一些原因使得乙醇燃料不是良好的汽油替代品。

First, the increased use of ethanol fuel would not help to solve one of thebiggest environmental problems caused by gasoline use: global warming. Likegasoline, ethanol releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when it is burnedfor fuel, and carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas: it helps trap heat in theatmosphere. Thus, ethanol offers no environmental advantage over gasoline.译文：首先，使用汽油带来的最大的问题之一是全球变暖，而对于乙醇燃料使用的增加并不能解决这个问题。

同汽油一样，乙醇燃烧后向大气释放二氧化碳，而二氧化碳是温室气体。

托福TPO22综合写作阅读+听力原文+满分范文【雷哥托福整理】考过的同学会发现托福综合作文分数不高，很大程度上是受我们听力实力的影响，我们很多托福考生的听力分数只有16分上下的时候，对于托福综合作文的听力妥妥的是束手无策，而且很多托福考生还感觉自己都听懂了，那也只能说明你听懂了大意，但是听力里面要的是每一个细节！请注意，是每一个细节！雷哥托福小托君给大家分享TPO1-30综合作文部分的阅读和听力文本全集与综合作文的满分作文，以及满分作文的解析。

如果自己的托福综合作文分数如果可以很给力的话，就已经搞定了15分的分数，可以极大地缓解托福独立作文的压力。

TPO22 综合写作听力+阅读原文ReadingEthanol fuel, made from plants such as corn and sugar cane, has been advocated by some people as an alternative to gasoline in the United States. However, many critics argue that ethanol is not a good replacement for gasoline for several reasons.First, the increased use of ethanol fuel would not help to solve one of the biggest environmental problems caused by gasoline use: global warming. Like gasoline, ethanol releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when it is burned for fuel and carbon dioxide is greenhouse gas: it helps trap heat in the atmosphere. Thus, ethanol offers no environmental advantage over gasoline.Second, the production of significant amounts of ethanol would dramatically reduce the amount of plants available for uses other fuel. For example, much of the corn now grown in the United States is used to feed farm animals such as cows and chickens. It is estimated that if ethanol were used to satisfy just 10 percent of the fuel needs in theUnited States, more than 60 percent of the corn currently grown in the united stated would have to be used to produce ethanol. If most of the corn were used to produce ethanol, a substantial source of food for animals would disappear.Third, ethanol fuel will never be able to compete with gasoline on price. Although the prices of ethanol and gasoline for the consumer are currently about the same, this is only because of the help in the form of tax subsidies given to ethanol producers by the United States government. These tax subsidies have cost the United States government over $11 billion in the past 30 years. If the United States government were to stop helping producers in this way, the price of ethanol would increase greatly.ListeningEthanol actually is a good alternative to gasoline, although you just read three reasons why it’s not a good alternative, not one of these three reasons is convincing.First, the increased use of Ethanol fuel will not add to global warming. It’s true that, when Ethanol is burned, it releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, but as you read, Ethanol is often made from plants such as corn. Well, the process of growing the plants counteracts this release of carbon dioxide. Let me explain. Every growing plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the air as part of its nutrition. So growing plants for Ethanol production actually removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.Second, large scale production of Ethanol doesn’t have to reduce the sources of food for animals. That’s because we can produce Ethanol using cellulose, cellulose is the main component of plants’ cell walls, and you’ll find most cellulose in those parts of plants that are not eaten by animals. So, since we can produce Ethanol from the plant parts that aren’t eaten, the amount of animal feed that is available will not be reduced.Third, in the future, Ethanol will be able to compete with gasoline in terms of price.It’s true that government subsidies make Ethanol cheaper than it would normally be, but this sup port won’t always be needed. Once enough people start buying Ethanol, Ethanol producers will increase their production of Ethanol. Generally, increased production of products leads to a drop in its price. So the price of Ethanol will go down as more of it becomes available. Studies show that, if Ethanol production could be three times greater than it is now, the cost of producing a unit of Ethanol will drop by forty percent.Finally, while a four-day workweek offers employees more free time to invest in their personal lives, it also presents some risks that could end up reducing their quality of life. Working a shorter week can decrease employees' job stability and harm their chances for advancing their careers. Four-day employees are likely to be the first to lose their jobs during an economic downturn. They may also be passed over for promotions because companies might prefer to have five-day employees in management positions to ensure continuous coverage and consistent supervision for the entire workweek.由于篇幅有限，托福综合写作满分范文，在雷哥托福微信公众号获取。

托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO22(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Spartina托福阅读原文【1】Spartina alterniflora, known as cordgrass, is a deciduous, perennial flowering plant native to the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is the dominant native species of the lower salt marshes along these coasts, where it grows in the intertidal zone (the area covered by water some parts of the day and exposed others).【2】These natural salt marshes are among the most productive habitats in the marine environment. Nutrient-rich water is brought to the wetlands during each high tide, making a high rate of food production possible. As the seaweed and marsh grass leaves die, bacteria break down the plant material, and insects, small shrimplike organisms, fiddler crabs, and marsh snails eat the decaying plant tissue, digest it, and excrete wastes high in nutrients. Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on living or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly on the cordgrass. Each tidal cycle carries plant material into the offshore water to be used by the subtidal organisms.【3】Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system orwhole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Sparti na’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants.【4】These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites.【5】Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materialsfor oysters transplanted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreading slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plants and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning them into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is already hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for land reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudflats with marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and animals that use the marsh.【6】Efforts to control Spartina outside its natural environment have included burning, flooding, shading plants with black canvas or plastic, smothering the plants with dredged materials or clay, applying herbicide, and mowing repeatedly. Little success has been reported in New Zealand and England; Washington State’s management program has tried many of these methods and is presently using the herbicide glyphosphate to control its spread. Work has begun to determine the feasibility of using insects as biological controls, but effective biological controls are considered years away. Even with a massive effort, it is doubtful thatcomplete eradication of Spartina from nonnative habitats is possible, for it has become an integral part of these shorelines and estuaries during the last 100 to 200 years.托福阅读试题1.According to paragraph 1, each of the following is true of Spartina alrerniflora EXCEPT:A.It rarely flowers in salt marshes.B.It grows well in intertidal zones.C.It is commonly referred to as cordgrass.D.It occurs naturally along the Gulf Coast and the Atlantic coast of the United States.2.According to paragraph 2, a major reason why natural salt marshes are so productive is that they areA.inhabited by long-lived seaweed and marsh grasses that reproduce gradually.B.kept clear of excess plant material by the tides.C.regularly supplied with high levels of nutrients.D.home to a wide variety of different species of grasses.3.Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Insects feed only on dead cordgrass, while most other marsh inhabitants feed on live cordgrass.B.The marsh is a good habitat for insects, but a relatively poor one for birds and animals.C.Although cordgrass provides food for birds and animals, it gives insects both food and a place to live.D.Cordgrass provides food for numerous insects, birds, and other animals.4.What is the organizational structure of paragraph 3?A.It makes a general claim about Spartina and then provides specific evidence to defend that claim against objections to the claim.B.It presents a general characterization of Spartina and then describes particular features on which this characterization is based.C.It reports a widely held view about Spartina and then considers evidence both for and against that view.D.It presents a general hypothesis about Spartina and then lists specific evidence that disputes that hypothesis.5.The word "exceedingly" in paragraph 3 is closest in meaning toA.unusually.B.dangerously.C.surprisingly.D.highly.6.According to paragraph 3, one reason that Spartina is able to compete in marsh environments so successfully is its ability toA.alter the substrate in which it grows.B.convert sulfides into a usable form of sulfur.C.grow and produce seeds while floating on the surface of the water.D.produce carbon dioxide with great efficiency.7.Paragraph 4 suggests that where Spartina occurs naturally, an established stand of it will eventuallyA.create conditions in which it can no longer survive.B.get washed away by water flowing through the deep channels that form around it.C.become adapted to brackish water.D.take over other grass species growing in the area.8.According to paragraph 4, in its natural habitats, Spartina helps estuaries byA.controlling marshland decline.B.decreasing the substrate elevation.C.reducing the brackishness of the water.D.increasing the flow of water into the estuary.9.According to paragraph 5, Spartina negatively affects wildlife in estuaries byA.trapping fish and waterfowl in sediment.B.preventing oysters from transplanting successfully.C.turning mudflats into high marshes and salt meadows.D.expanding the marshy fringes of salt meadows.10.The word "modifies" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning toA.creates.B.changes.C.grows on.D.breaks down.11.According to paragraph 6, each of the following methods has been used in attempts to control Spartina EXCEPTA.flooding plants.B.cutting plants down repeatedly.C.applying herbicides.D.introducing predatory insects.12.The word "Efforts" in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning tows.B.suggestions.C.attempts.D.failures.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the followingsentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Spartina is particularly able to tolerate high salinities because salt glands on the surface of the leaves remove the salt from the plant sap. Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. ■【A】It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. ■【B】Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). ■【C】Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. ■【D】Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Spartina alrerniflora, or cordgrass,is the dominant native species in saltmarshes along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States.A.Spartina is very well adapted to conditions in salt marshes, where it plays a valuable role in stabilizing them and making them highly productive marine habitats.B.Spartina expands by growing root systems that float on the water’s surface and descend underground, where it finds the nutrients that it needs to germinate.C.As a result of its spread in Washington State over the past hundred years,Spartina has now become a threat to native oysters by releasing sediments that contain sulfides into the waters.D.The dead leaves of Spartina become food for a wide variety of marine organisms.E.Outside its native regions, Spartina can pose serious problems by turning mudflats into high marshes that are inhospitable to many native fish and birds.F.Spartina has physiological adaptations that allow it to grow in environments where other plants cannot, making it a very strong competitor that is difficult to control once it is established.托福阅读答案1.EXCEPT题，排除法。

新托福TPO3阅读原文(三):The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems TPO-3-3：The Long-Term Stability of EcosystemsPlant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession”to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests.The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability”means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity,by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes n ot from diversity but from the “patchiness”of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.译文：TPO-3-3 生态系统的长期稳定植物群体可以自由地聚集，它们特殊的结构取决于聚集区域的具体历史。

Spartina (TPO22-1)Spartina alterniflora, known as cordgrass, is a deciduous, perennial flowering plant native to the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is the dominant native species of the lower salt marshes along these coasts, where it grows in the intertidal zone (the area covered by water some parts of the day and exposed others).These natural salt marshes are among the most productive habitats in the marine environment. Nutrient-rich water is brought to the wetlands during each high tide, making a high rate of food production possible. As the seaweed and marsh grass leaves die, bacteria break down the plant material, and insects, small shrimplike organisms, fiddler crabs, and marsh snails eat the decaying plant tissue, digest it, and excrete wastes high in nutrients. Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on living or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly on the cordgrass. Each tidal cycle carries plant material into the offshore water to be used by the subtidal organisms.Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or whenseeds float into a suitable area and germinate. Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants.These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites.Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materials for oysters transplanted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreading slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plants and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning them into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is already hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for land reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudflatswith marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and animals that use the marsh.Efforts to control Spartina outside its natural environment have included burning, flooding, shading plants with black canvas or plastic, smothering the plants with dredged materials or clay, applying herbicide, and mowing repeatedly. Little success has been reported in New Zealand and England; Washington State’s management program has tried many of these methods and is presently using the herbicide glyphosphate to control its spread. Work has begun to determine the feasibility of using insects as biological controls, but effective biological controls are considered years away. Even with a massive effort, it is doubtful that complete eradication of Spartina from nonnative habitats is possible, for it has become an integral part of these shorelines and estuaries during the last 100 to 200 years.Paragraph 1: Spartina alterniflora, known as cordgrass, is a deciduous, perennial flowering plant nat ive to the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is the dominant native species of the lower salt marshes along these coasts, where it grows in the intertidal zone (the area covered by water some parts of the day and exposed others).1. According to paragraph 1, each of the following is true of Spartina alrerniflora EXCEPT:O It rarely flowers in salt marshes.O It grows well in intertidal zones.O It is commonly referred to as cordgrass.O It occurs naturally along the Gulf Coast and the Atlantic coast of the United States.Paragraph 2: These natural salt marshes are among the most productive habitats in the marine env ironment. Nutrient-rich water is brought to the wetlands during each high tide, making a high rate of fo od production possible. As the seaweed and marsh grass leaves die, bacteria break down the plant mat erial, and insects, small shrimplike organisms, fiddler crabs, and marsh snails eat the decaying plant tiss ue, digest it, and excrete wastes high in nutrients. Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on livin g or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly o n the cordgrass. Each tidal cycle carries plant material into the offshore water to be used by the subtidal organisms.2. According to paragraph 2, a major reason why natural salt marshes are so productive is that they areO inhabited by long-lived seaweed and marsh grasses that reproduce graduallyO kept clear of excess plant material by the tidesO regularly supplied with high levels of nutrientsO home to a wide variety of different species of grasses3. Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential informat ion.O Insects feed only on dead cordgrass, while most other marsh inhabitants feed on live cordgrass.O The marsh is a good habitat for insects, but a relatively poor one for birds and animals.O Although cordgrass provides food for birds and animals, it gives insects both food and a place to l ive.O Cordgrass provides food for numerous insects, birds, and other animals.Paragraph 3: Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. It spreads primarily by underground ste ms; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or wh en seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sul fides that are toxic to most plants. Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfat e, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh envi ronments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than m ost other plants.4. What is the organizational structure of paragraph 3?O It makes a general claim about Spartina and then provides specific evidence to defend that claim against objections to the claim.O It presents a general characterization of Spartina and then describes particular features on which this characterization is based.O It reports a widely held view about Spartina and then considers evidence both for and against th at view.O It presents a general hypothesis about Spartina and then lists specific evidence that disputes that hypothesis.5. The word "exceedingly" in the passage is closest in meaning toO unusuallyO dangerouslyO surprisinglyO highly6. According to paragraph 3, one reason that Spanina is able to compete in marsh environments so successfully is its ability toO alter the substrate in which it growsO convert sulfides into a usable form of sulfurO grow and produce seeds while floating on the surface of the waterO produce carbon dioxide with great efficiencyParagraph 4: These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it o ccurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuari ne fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substr ate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually dis placed by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of wa ter form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to pre vent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creatio n of new wetland sites.7. Paragraph 4 suggests that where Spanina occurs naturally, an established stand of it will eventua llyO create conditions in which it can no longer surviveO get washed away by water flowing through the deep channels that form around itO become adapted to brackish waterO take over other grass species growing in the area8. According to paragraph 4, in its natural habitats, Spanina helps estuaries byO controlling marshland declineO decreasing the substrate elevationO reducing the brackishness of the waterO increasing the flow of water into the estuaryParagraph 5: Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materials for oysters transpl anted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreadin g slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plant s and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning t hem into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is al ready hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreatio nal use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for l and reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudf lats with marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and ani mals that use the marsh.9. The word "modifies" in the passage is closest in meaning toO createsO changesO grows onO breaks downParagraph 6: Efforts to control Spartina outside its natural environment have included burning, floo ding, shading plants with black canvas or plastic, smothering the plants with dredged materials or clay, applying herbicide, and mowing repeatedly. Little success has been reported in New Zealand and Englan d; Washington State’s management program has tried many of these methods and is presently using th e herbicide glyphosphate to control its spread. Work has begun to determine the feasibility of using inse cts as biological controls, but effective biological controls are considered years away. Even with a massiv e effort, it is doubtful that complete eradication of Spartina from nonnative habitats is possible, for it ha s become an integral part of these shorelines and estuaries during the last 100 to 200 years.10. The word "Efforts" in the passage is closest in meaning toO LawsO SuggestionsO AttemptsO Failures11. According to paragraph 5, Spanina negatively affects wildlife in estuaries byO trapping fish and waterfowl in sedimentO preventing oysters from transplanting successfullyO turning mudflats into high marshes and salt meadowsO expanding the marshy fringes of salt meadows12. According to paragraph 6, each of the following methods has been used in attempts to control Spanina EXCEPTO flooding plantsO cutting plants down repeatedlyO applying herbicidesO introducing predatory insects13. Look at the four squares [Ⓐ] [Ⓑ] [Ⓒ] and [Ⓓ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Spartina is particularly able to tolerate high salinities because salt glands on the surface of the leav es remove the salt from the plant sap.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Co mplete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in th e passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not pres ented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Spanina alrerniflora, or cordgrass, is the dominant native species in salt marshes along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States.Click on 3 answers.O Spartina is very well adapted to conditions in salt marshes, where it plays a valuable role in stabili zing them and making them highly productive marine habitats.O Spartina expands by growing root systems that float on the water’s surface and descend undergr ound, where it finds the nutrients that it needs to germinate.O As a result of its spread in Washington State over the past hundred years. Spartina has now beco me a threat to native oysters by releasing sediments that contain sulfides into the waters.O The dead leaves of Spartina become food for a wide variety of marine organisms.O Outside its native regions, Spartina can pose serious problems by turning mudflats into high mars hes that are inhospitable to many native fish and birds.O Spartina has physiological adaptations that allow it to grow in environments where other plants c annot, making it a very strong competitor that is difficult to control once it is established.参考答案：1. A2. C3. D4. B5. D6. B7. A8. A9. B10. C11. C12. D13. C14. Spartina is very well ...Outside its native regions ...Spartina has physiological ...参考译文：米草属植物互花米草，俗称网茅，是一种冬季枯萎的多年生开花植物，原产自大西洋沿岸和美国的墨西哥湾。

The professor in the lecture demonstrates opinions contradicted to the ones showed in the reading parts about the issue whether the ethanol fuel is a good replacement for gasoline or not.First, the use of ethanol of would not result in adding to the global warming as the reading. Despite the truth that the burning of ethanol releases carbon dioxide, the ethanol is made of plants and the growing of plants will absorb carbon dioxide as nutrients and remove it from atmosphere. Therefore, the potential bad effect will be counteracted.Second, the production of tremendous ethanol would not reduce the food for animals. We just need to use the part of plants, cellu l ose（纤维素）, which animals don't eat, to produce the ethanol. Therefore, the statement presented in the reading part that the use of ethanol would have a negative influence on the food available for animals is not convincing.Third, ethanlo will have the ability to compete with gasoline in future. The dependence on national tax subsidies is not a long-lasting thing. With the increasing use of ethanol, the price will be lowered. THE study shows that the use of ethanol will increase by 3 times and the price will drop by 40%, which proves the inaccuracy of the view talked in the reading.。

托福阅读笔记之TPO22 SpartinaTPO22 Spartina文章题材：植物学——米草属植物常见词汇：silt [silt] n. 淤泥v. (使)淤塞evidence ['evidəns] n. 根据，证据v. 证实，证明trap [træp] n. 圈套，陷阱，困境，双轮轻便马车efficiently [i'fiʃəntli] adv. 有效地adapt [ə'dæpt] vt. 使适应，改编vi. 适应，适合convert ['kɔnvə:t,kən'və:t] v. 变换，(使)转变，使... 改变信仰，倒置competitive [kəm'petitiv] adj. 竞争的，比赛的plastic ['plæstik, plɑ:stik] adj. 塑料的，可塑的，造型的，整形的，易受影响的established [is'tæbliʃt] adj. 已被确认的，确定的，建立的，制定的动词estbacteria [bæk'tiəriə] n. (复数)细菌易错题解析：Paragraph 4: These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites.8.According to paragraph 4, in its natural habitats, Spartina helps estuaries by (1)O controlling marshland declineO decreasing the substrate elevationO reducing the brackishness of the waterO increasing the flow of water into the estuary题型：事实信息题。

¡¡¡¡ÎªÁË°ïÖú´ó¼Ò¸ßЧ±¸¿¼Íи££¬Îª´ó¼Ò´øÀ´Íи£TPO22ÔĶÁPassage3Ô-ÎÄÎı¾+ÌâÄ¿+´ð°¸½âÎö£¬Ï£Íû¶Ô´ó¼Ò±¸¿¼ÓÐËù°ïÖú¡£¡¡¡¡¨ Íи£TPO22ÔĶÁPassage3Ô-ÎÄÎı¾£º¡¡¡¡The Allende Meteorite¡¡¡¡Sometime after midnight on February 8,1969,a large,bright meteor entered Earth's atmosphere and broke into thousands of pieces,plummeted to the ground,and scattered over an area 50 miles long and 10 miles wide in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico.The first meteorite from this fall was found in the village of Pueblito de Allende.Altogether,roughly two tons of meteorite fragments were recovered,all of which bear the name Allende for the location of the first discovery.¡¡¡¡Individual specimens of Allende are covered with a black,glassy crust that formed when their exteriors melted as they were slowed by Earth's atmosphere.When broken open,Allende stones are revealed to contain an assortment of small,distinctive objects,spherical or irregular in shape and embedded in a dark gray matrix(binding material),which were once constituents of the solar nebula¡ªthe interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which our solar system was formed.¡¡¡¡The Allende meteorite is classified as a chondrite.Chondrites take their name from the Greek word chondros¡ªmeaning"seed"¡ªan allusion to their appearance as rocks containing tiny seeds.These seeds are actually chondrules:millimeter-sized melted droplets of silicate material that were cooled into spheres of glass and crystal.A few chondrules contain grains that survived the melting event,so these enigmatic chondrules must have formed when compact masses of nebular dust were fused at high temperatures¡ªapproaching 1,700 degrees Celsius¡ªand then cooled before these surviving grains could melt.Study of the textures of chondrules confirms that they cooled rather quickly,in times measured in minutes or hours,so the heating events that formed them must have been localized.It seems very unlikely that large portions of the nebula were heated to such extreme temperatures,and huge nebula areas could not possibly have lost heat so fast.Chondrules must have been melted in small pockets of the nebula that were able to lose heat rapidly.The origin of these peculiar glassy spheres remains an enigma.¡¡¡¡Equally perplexing constituents of Allende are the refractory inclusions:irregular white masses that tend to be larger than chondrules.They are composed of minerals uncommon on Earth,all rich in calcium,aluminum,and titanium,the most refractory(resistant to melting)of the major elements in the nebula.The same minerals that occur in refractory inclusions are believed to be the earliest-formed substances to have condensed out of the solar nebula.However,studies of the textures of inclusions reveal that the order in which the minerals appeared in the inclusions varies from inclusion to inclusion,and often does not match the theoreticalcondensation sequence for those metals.¡¡¡¡Chondrules and inclusions in Allende are held together by the chondrite matrix,a mixture of fine-grained,mostly silicate minerals that also includes grains of iron metal and iron sulfide.At one time it was thought that these matrix grains might be pristine nebular dust,the sort of stuff from which chondrules and inclusions were made.However,detailed studies of the chondrite matrix suggest that much of it,too,has been formed by condensation or melting in the nebula,although minute amounts of surviving interstellar dust are mixed with the processed materials.¡¡¡¡All these diverse constituents are aggregated together to form chondritic meteorites,like Allende,that have chemical compositions much like that of the Sun.To compare the compositions of a meteorite and the Sun,it is necessary that we use ratios of elements rather than simply the abundances of atoms.After all,the Sun has many more atoms of any element,say iron,than does a meteorite specimen,but the ratios of iron to silicon in the two kinds of matter might be comparable.The compositional similarity is striking.The major difference is that Allende is depleted in the most volatile elements,like hydrogen,carbon,oxygen,nitrogen,and the noble gases,relative to the Sun.These are the elements that tend to form gases even at very low temperatures.We might think of chondrites as samples of distilled Sun,a sort of solar sludge from which only gases have been removed.Since practically all the solar system's mass resides in the Sun,this similarity in chemistry means that chondrites have average solar system composition,except for the most volatile elements;they are truly lumps of nebular matter,probably similar in composition to the matter from which planets were assembled.¡¡¡¡Paragraph 1:Sometime after midnight on February 8,1969,a large,bright meteor entered Earth's atmosphere and broke into thousands of pieces,plummeted to the ground,and scattered over an area 50 miles long and 10 miles wide in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico.The first meteorite from this fall was found in the village of Pueblito de Allende.Altogether,roughly two tons of meteorite fragments were recovered,all of which bear the name Allende for the location of the first discovery.¡¡¡¡¨ Íи£TPO22ÔĶÁPassage3ÌâÄ¿£º¡¡¡¡1.The word"location'in the passage is closest in meaning to¡¡¡¡O sight¡¡¡¡O sake¡¡¡¡O success¡¡¡¡O place。

Q1答案：D解析：location“位置”，所以正确答案是D的place。

这题比较简单，不能选sake，location完全没有sake“目的，理由”的意思。

Q2答案：C解析：以时间做关键词定位至第一句，提到一个meteor碎成了很多碎片落在了一个区域内。

A错，不是meteor ten miles wide，是那个区域；B的biggest原文没提到也没有相关信息可以推断，并且太绝对；C正确，原文第二句说收集了大致两吨的碎片，那meteor自然不止两吨；D的more pieces原文没有信息可以推断，不选。

Q3答案：B解析：这个句子打大致内容就是Allende meteorites包含各种各样的objects，后面的内容都是修饰objects的，所以正确答案是B。

A选项的Allende meteorites were formed原文未提及，而且cloud of gas and dust got trapped原文也未提及；C 和D的主干完全错误。

Q4答案：D解析：allusion“暗指，暗示”，所以正确答案是D的reference。

A添加，B修改，C相似，在这里意思都不正确。

Q5答案：B解析：enigmatic“神秘的，成谜的”，来自enigma谜，所以正确答案是B的mysterious。

A危险的，C有趣的和D令人惊讶的，在这里意思表达都不正确。

Q6答案：B解析：以presence of grains inside some of the chondrules做关键词定位至第四句，说C包含了melting之后剩下的颗粒，这些神奇的颗粒一定是在高温下nebular dust were fused的时候形成的，然后快速冷却，所以正确答案是B。

A表达是正确的，但问题问的是grains indicate什么，A答非所问，不选；C完全没提到；D 的after错误，不选，原文说的是when。

Q7答案：D解析：此题可以采用排除法，A的most resistant to melting做关键词和C的least commonly found都定位至第二句，正确，都不选；B的first elements做关键词定位至第三句，earliest- formed与first同义替换，正确，不选；D的order做关键词定位至最后一句，最后一句说order varies from inclusion to inclusion，所以scientist不能预测，D与原文相反，可选。

1. Talk about one way your personality has changed since you werea child. Use examples and details to explain your answer.On way my personality has changed since I was a child is that I became honest. When I was a little kid, I always lied to my parents because I didn’t want them to know that I stole money from them, didn’t do homework well and played video games outside. Once I stole five yuan from my mom and used the money to play video games. Also, I was late for school. On that day, I lied to my teacher and my parents. Even if I wasn’t caught by anyone, I still felt guilty of lying. I found that one lie makes many and that once people realized that I had lied to them, they started not to believe me. I felt sad about myself at that time. Gradually, I started to hold the belief that honesty is the best policy.2. Do you agree or disagree with the following statement. Children should be required to learn practical skills in school, such as cooking or personal finance, in addition to academic subjects.I totally agree with the statement. School isn’t just a place for kids to learn math, physics or chemistry. Children need tolearn some practical and useful skills. Like, if children can learn cooking at school, they not only learn the basic survival skill but also a skill that can help them become more sociable. In a party, children can cook for friends. At home, children can cook for parents and relatives. Also, if children can learn personal finance at school, they’ll learn how to budget their allowance and develop a good habit of spending money. Therefore, I think children should be required to learn practical skills.3. The woman expresses her opinion about the university’s plan. Briefly summarize the plan. Then state her opinion about the plan the explain the reasons she gives for holding that opinion.The university decides to let current students lead the campus tours for second-school students because the staff of the admissions office have not enough time and the current students can offer an unique and valuable insight to the visitors. The woman in the conversation thinks it’s a good idea. Firstly, she went to admission office several times. Every time she went there, the staff were very busy, running around like crazy, handling tons of paperwork, doing interviews and receiving phone calls.Secondly, she thinks current students will be really good at this. Unlike the staff, current students can answer questions concerning practical things such as which dorm is nosier, which dorm is the quietest and which cafeteria is recommendable. Their point of view will be very helpful.4. Explain how the example from the professor’s lecture illustrate irrational commitment.The irrational commitment is a tendency to continue a project even if the project is more likely to fail than succeed. This tendency can be especially strong when people feel that others are judging the success or failure of their projects. In the professor’s personal example, he wanted to buy an old house. But his wife said it was in no good condition and didn’t want to buy it. He convinced his wife to buy the house and decided to fix the house before they live in. However, house turned out to have many problems, the professor had to spend huge amount of money to fix the damaged roof and electrical problems. Then his wife reminded him of her earlier doubts. But he became more determined than ever. Even if the problem of the house got worse and took more money to fix,he just kept going, because he didn’t want his wife to think he was wrong for not following her advice. In other words, he didn’t want his wife to judge his success or failure.5. Briefly summarize the problem the speakers are discussing. Then state which solution you would recommend. Explain the reasons for your recommendation.The woman spilt some soup on the research paper she is going to hand in in the class. There are two possible solutions discussed. The first one is to hand in the paper like this and explain to the professor what happened, since the paper can still read and will dry out. But the professor is strict about the looking of paper. The second solution is to go to computer lab to print a new copy. But she will have to wait in a line and so she will probably be late for the class. And the professor is strict about lateness too. I would recommend the girl to choose the second solution because she can have a new copy of the paper and even if she will be late for the class, she shows the professor that she cares about the looking of the paper and that because of the accident, the lateness is somehow inevitable.6. Using the example of the mole, explain two different types of underground adaptation.The professor talks about two physical adaptations of mole for living underground. One adaptation is used to deal with the challenge to move underground. Moles have wide super strong front feet with big claws that allow moles to dig through the dirt and so to move through thick, dense soil efficiently. Using the shovel-like front feet, the mole loosens up the soil and throw the dirt behind as it moves forward. Another adaptation is used to protect their sensitive parts of body. Moles have developed the hairy membrane on their tiny eyes. The hairy membrane can prevent particles from going into moles’ eyes, the most sensitive parts. And So when mole is digging through the dirt, dirt particles will just slide by its eyes.。

5月22日托福阅读答案解析5月22日托福阅读真题Passage 1 Insect Wings文章解析给了一幅翅膀图，各种专业名词，顿时懵圈。

第一段：引入话题，翅膀化石fossil，引发很多猜测speculation。

第二段：讲了原始翅膀protowings，提出了一个theory，讲了翅膀的作用。

第三段：说第一个理论存在问题，protowing需要和身体以某种方式连接hinged，而且需要有肌肉控制翅膀的拍动，所以提出了另外一个理论解释翅膀的起源。

其中很多专业名词，但是题目特别简单(问什么导致了insect最终能飞行，定位在最后一句话finally，larger muscler让昆虫飞起来。

)第四段：支持第二个理论，反对第一种理论的证据是化学传感器chemical-sensing organs不在背上，在legs上。

[第二三段中有EXCEPT题，问第一个理论的problems 是什么，两段的开头句逐个对应即可。

]第五段：提出第三个理论，protowings来自于水中的一种昆虫insect的腮gill。

问句：翅膀是怎么从水中到飞行的?答案是通过翅膀产生推动力浮在水面上，当muscle越来越强大，滑的越来越快，最后一飞冲天[有事实信息题]。

第六段：讲飞行的作用：虽然上面的理论还有争议，但是wing的作用是传播dispersal或avoid predator，尤其考虑到predators的数量，躲避predator才是最重要的目的[有句子简化题，注意转折关系]。

躲避predator的机制是一种预警机制warning system，通过sense wind or vibration[有事实信息题，定位后能看懂wind 即可选出。

]解析：第一篇文章有关动物的描写是三篇中最难的，难点在于：1. 很多专业术语和专有名词，处理时采用首字母缩写，化零为整的方法，关注句子整体意思和句间关系;2. 长难句遍布，很多倒装句和修饰成分，处理时找句子的主干，课下多做长难句的分析练习。