Natural Rights and Distributive Justice Nozick and the Classical Contractarians

draft 法案,草案Government bill 政府议案to pass a bill, to carry a bill 通过议案to enact a law, to promulgate a law 公布法律ratification, confirmation 批准law enforcement 法律的实施to come into force 生效decree 法令clause 条款minutes 备忘录report 判例汇编codification 法律汇编legislation 立法legislator 立法者jurist 法学家jurisprudence 法学legitimation 合法化legality, lawfulness 法制,合法legal, lawful 合法的,依法的to con trave ne a law, to infringe a law, to break a law违法outlaw, outside the law 超出法律范围的offender 罪犯to abolish 废止,取消rescission, annulment 废除,取消repeal, revocation, annulment 废除（法律） cancellation, annulment, invalidation 废除（合同） cancellation （支票）作废annulment 撤消（遗嘱） repeal rescission 撤消（判决） revocation 撤消immunity 豁免,豁免权disability, legal incapacity 无资格nonretroactive character 不溯既往性prescription 剥夺公权attainder 公民权利的剥夺和财产的没收constitutional law 宪法canon law 教会法规common law 习惯法criminal law 刑法administrative law 行政法civil law 民法commercial law, mercantile law 商法law of nations 万国公法,国际法international law 国际法natural law 自然法labour laws 劳工法fiscal law财政法Civil Suit Law, Code of civil law 民事诉讼法Criminal Law 刑事诉讼法Military Law 军法Con script Law 兵役法Copyright Law著作权法penal code 刑法典code of merca ntile law 商法典civil rights民事权利，公民权利right of asylum 避难权huma n rights, rights of man 人权(customs) duties 关税death duty, death tax 遗产税royalties 版税法律英语词汇2021-12-20 20:59:34|分类：专业英语词汇阅读8评论0 字号：大中小订阅管辖：jurisdiction级别管辖：jurisdiction by level地域管辖：territorial jurisdict ion移送管辖：referral jurisdicti on指定管辖：desig nati on jurisdicti on审判组织:trial organization回避withdrawal诉讼参加人participants in court诉讼当事人parties in court诉讼代理人agents ad litem期间：time periods送达service调解conciliation财产保全property preservation先予执行preliminary execution阻碍民事诉讼的强制措施：compulsory measures aga inst impairme nt of civil actions诉讼费：litigation costs第一审普通程序ordinary procedure of first in sta nee第二审程序procedure of sec ond in sta nee起诉bring a lawsuit受理accept a case开庭审理trial in court诉讼中止suspension of a lawsuit诉讼终止conclusion of a lawsuit判决judgment裁定order简易程序summary procedure特别程序special procedure选民资格案件cases concerning certificates of voters宣告失踪proclamation of a person as missing宣告死亡proclamation of a person as dead无民事行为能力incompetent for civil conduct限制行为能力limited capacity for civil conduct无主财产property of ownerless执行申请application for execution执行移转referral of execution仲裁arbitration司法协助judicial assistanceAabsolute proof 绝对证明absolute property 绝对财产〔权〕abstract of title 产权书摘要acceleration clause 提前〔归还〕条款acceptance 承诺accident report 事故报告accident insurance 意外保险accusation 指控；控告accusatorial procedure 控告程序accusatorial process of proof 控告证明过程〔程序〕accusatorial system 控告或诉讼程序accused 被指控者accuser 控告人acknowledgement 认知（书）acquittal 无罪判决act 条例；作为Act for the prevention of Frauds and Perjuries ?预防诈欺和伪证条例action 诉讼；作为actual losses 实际损失adjudication 裁决；裁定administrative law 行政法administrative law judge 行政法法官administrative procedure 行政程序administrator 管理人；监管人admissible 可采的admissibility 可采性admit 采用；允许adoption 收养adulterous conduct 通奸行为ad valorem property tax 从价财产税adversarial hearing 对抗式听证会adversarial process 对抗式程序adversary 对手adversary trial system 对抗式〔或抗辩〕审判制度advocacy 出庭辩护；诉讼代理advocate 辩护人；诉讼代理人affidavit 正式书面陈述affirm 维持〔原判〕affirmation 保证书；证词affirmative 确保的agency 〔行政〕机关agency action 机关〔行政〕机关agreed upon remedies^ 卜救协议agreement 协议agreement-as-written 书面协议agreement -in-fact 事实协议alibi 阿里白〔不在犯罪场的证明〕alienation of affection 离间夫妻关系allegation 声称；指控allege 诉称；指控alleged offense 所控罪行alternate juror 替卜陪审员amendment 修正案American Bar Association 美国律师协会American Law Institute 美国法学会analogy 类推Anglo-American Legal System 英美法系anonymous accusation 匿名控告appeal 上诉appear 出庭appellant 上诉人appellate action 上诉行为appellate court 上诉法院appellee 被上诉人appealer 上诉人appropriate 拨款appurtenant 附属物arbiter 仲裁人arbitrary 武断的arbitration 仲裁arraig nment 初审array 陪审员名单arrest 逮捕arrest warrant 逮捕令〔证〕arrestee 被捕人article 条款，文章article of authority 授权条款articles of confederation ?联帮条例?articles of incorporation 公司组织章程artificial person 法人Asia n American legal defe nse and education fun（亚裔美国人法律辩护与教育基金会assault 意图或威胁伤害assert 主张，宣称asset 资产assistant attorney 助理法官associate judge 副法官associate justice 副大法官assumption 违约合同，违约赔偿之诉assumption 假定attempt 意图，企图attempted escape 逃脱未遂attestation 证词attorney 代理人，律师attorney at law 律师attorney general 检察长authentication 鉴定authority 权力，法源，权威性依据automobile insurance 机动车保险automobile tort 机动车侵权行为autonomy 自治〔权〕Bban 禁令，制止banishment 流放bankruptcy 破产bankruptcy discharge 破产债务解除bankruptcy judge 破产法官bar 律师职业bar association 律师协会barrister 出庭律师battery 殴打bench trial 法官审beneficiary 受益人benefit 收益，福得bigamy 重婚罪bill of lading 提单bill of right ?人权法案?bind over 具保，具结binder 临时保险单binding 有约束力binding contract 有约束力的合同binding force 约束力binding interpretation 有约束力的解释black-letter law 〔普通承受之根本原那么的〕黑体字法black nation bar association 全美黑人律师协会blue sky law 蓝天法〔关于股票买卖控制的法律〕Board of Governors〔ABA 〕〔美国律师协会的〕董事会body of law 法体bond 债券；保释金bond instrument 债券契据branding 鞭笞breach 违约；破坏bride 贿赂bribery 贿赂〔罪〕bright-line test 明显界限检验标准broker 中间人brokerage fee 佣金；中介费brother-sister corporation 兄弟公司；姊妹公司Bulk Sales Act?大宗销售条例？ burden 责任burden of going forward with the evidence 先行举证责任burden of persuasion 说服责任；证明责任burden of producing evidence 举证责任burden of proof 证明责任burglary 入室盗窃〔罪〕bus in ess corporation实业公司business law 实业法business organization 实业组织buy-out agreemen〔t 股权〕承买协议buy-sell agreemen〔t 股权〕买卖协议bylaws 〔内部〕章程CCalifornia Penal Code?加州刑法典?capital account 资本帐户capital crime 可判死刑罪capital punishment 死刑capital surplus 资本盈余capitatio n tax 人头税career crim inal 职业罪犯career judiciary 职业法官case briefi ng案情摘要case-i n-chief 主诉case law 判例法case method案例教学法case report判决报告case reports判例汇编casualty in sura nee〔意外伤害〕保险catalog商品目录〔单〕certificate 证书certificate of existe nee 实体存在证明〔书〕challenge置疑；挑战challe nge for cause有理回避cha ncery court 衡平法院chargi ng in strume nt 控告文件checks and bala nces制衡〔原那么〕chief judge首席法官chief justice首席大法官child abuse虐待儿童circuit court巡回法院circuit judge巡回法官circumsta ntial evide nee 旁证；情况证据citation 弓I证cite援引；传讯civil court 民事法civil forfeiture 民事罚没civil law 民法Civil Law Legal System 民法体系civil liability 民事责任civil Liberty民事自由civil Litigation 民事诉讼civil procedure 民事诉讼程序civil suit民事诉讼Civil trial民事审判法律英语词汇〔2〕2021-12-20 21:02:17|分类：专业英语词汇阅读10评论0 字号：大中小订阅Civil right 民权Civil right law 民权法Civil War Income Tax Act ? 内战所得税条例?Claim 诉讼请求，索赔Classification of law 法律分类Close corporati on内部持股公司Closely held corporation 内部持股公司Closing 终结，成交，结帐Closing argument 最后论述Clos ing stateme nt成交声明Code 法典Code of Judicial Conduct ?法官行为准那么?Codify 编成法典Co-felon 共同重罪犯Cohabitation 同居Collateral contract 附属合同Collegiate bench 合议席Collegiate panel 合议庭Commercial clause 商务条款，贸易条款Commercial law 商法Commercial paper 商务文件Commission 佣金Commit 交托，犯〔罪〕Commitment 犯罪，许诺，委托Commitment of financing 融资许诺Common law 普通法Common law damages 普通法赔偿金Common law legal system(family) 普通法法系Common law marriage 普通法婚姻Common property 共同财产Common stock 普通股票Community property 共同财产Comparative law 比拟法Comparative negligence 比拟过失Compensation 赔偿〔金〕Compe nsatory damage应予赔偿之损害Competence 管辖权限Competency 有效性Complaint 控告，申诉Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 滥? 用毒品的综合预防与控制条例?Compulsory license 强制性许可Concur附条件地同意Concurring opinion 并存〔判决〕意见Confer 授与Conference 协商会议Confidential information 保密信息Confiscation 没收Conflict law 冲突法Congress 国会Consent 同意，认可Consideration 对价，约因Constitution 宪法Constitutional Convention 制宪会议Constitutional law 宪法Constitutional tort 宪法性侵权Constitutionality 合宪性Construction 〔法律的〕构造，解释Construe 解释，分析Consultation 磋商Con sumer protectio n statute 消费者保护法律Consumption tax 消费税Continental Law Legal System(or Family) 大陆法系Contingent fee 胜诉酬金Continuance 诉讼延期Contract 合同Contract dispute 合同纠纷Contract formation 合同构成Contract interpretation 合同解释Contract law 合同法Contract performance 合同履行contractor 承包商contravence 触犯;违犯contributory negligence 共同过失controlling law 应适应之法律conversion 非法占有convey 转让conveyance 转让convertible bond 可转换债券conviction 有罪判决convincing evidence 使人信服的证据copyright 版权;著作权corporal puni shme nt 肉体刑corporate camsel 公司法律参谋corporate excise tax 公司执照税corporate law 公司法corporation 公司corporation aggregate 合有公司corporation code 公司法典corporation law 公司法corporation sole 独有公司corpus 尸体;本金Council on legal Education Opportunities 法律教育时机委员会counselor （法律）参谋;律师counselor-at-law 律师court 法院;法官court decision 法院判决court fee 诉讼费court of appeals 上诉法院court of chancery 衡平法法院court of claims 索赔法院court of customs and Pate nt Appeals关税及专禾U上诉法院court of domestic relations 家庭关系法院court opinion 法院判决意见courtroom 法庭coverage 保险范围crime 犯罪crime code 刑法典crime homicide 有罪杀人crime justice system 刑事司法系统crime law 刑法crime liability 刑事责任crime procedure 刑事诉讼程序cross-examination 穿插盘问;盘诘cruel and unu sual puni shme nt 残忍和非常的刑罚cumulative evidence 累计证据curative 临时监护的curriculum guide 课程指南custody 监护custom duty 关税customary law 习惯法customary practice 惯例customs court 关税法院Ddamage 损害;损伤damage claim 损害赔偿请求damages 损害赔偿金deadlocked jury 僵局陪审团death penalty 死刑death tax 遗产税debenture 债单（券） debt securities 债权证券decide a case 判案deed 契约deed book 文契汇编defamation 诽谤default 不履行;违约defendant 被告人defence 辩护defence attorney 辩护律师defen se's case-i n-chief 辩护方主讼deficiency judgment 缺乏额判决degrees of murder 恶（意）杀人罪的等级delegation 授权delegated legislation 授权立法deliberate intention 成心deliberation （陪审团）评议demonstrative evidence 示意证据deprivation 剥夺derogatory treatment of the work 对作品的贬毁性处理（或使用） designs 设计detract 毁损;贬低developer （土地）开发商dicta 判决附带意见dignity 尊严direct evidence 直接证据direct examination 直接盘问direct tax 直接税disa bility insurance 残疾保险disabled dependent child 无谋生能力的残疾儿童discharge 辞退;释放discount 贴现;折扣discovery 要求告知discrete risk transfer product 离散性风险转移（保险）产品discretion 自由裁量权discriminatory 歧视性税收dispense 执行;施行dispute 争议;纠纷disposition 处置（权） dissent 异议;反对dissenting opinion 异议;反对意见dissolution 解散distort 歪曲;误解district attorney 地区检查官database right 数据权dividend 股息division of title 产权分割divorce 离婚docket备审案件目录doctrine法那么；原那么doctrine of constitutional supremacy 宪法至上原那么doctri ne of Maranda Warnings 米兰达忠告原那么docume nt文件;文书docume nt of title 产权证书domant Commerce Clause休眠的"贸易条款"domicile住所地double jeopardy 一罪二审draft起草;草拟draftma n起草者drug trade 毒品交易drug trafficking 毒品交易dry run干转;排练due dilige nee适当努力due process正当程序Due Process Clause正当程序条款due process test正当程序检验标准duratio n 期限duress强迫;胁迫duty义务;关税duty of care照看义务法律英语词汇〔3〕2021-12-20 21:03:22|分类：专业英语词汇阅读16评论0 字号：大中小订阅earn est money 定金easyme nt地役权ecclesiastical court 宗教法庭econo mic law 经济法effective date 生效日期effective time 生效时间element of crime 犯罪要素（件） empower 授权en act希9定;公布en banc全体法官出庭审判en croachme nt 侵占en cumbered property 抵押财产enforce实施；执行en forceable可强制执行的en forceability 可执行性enforcement of Law 执法English-American Legal System (or Family) 英吉利法系enjoi n(衡平〕强制令entail 限定继承entity 实体en vir onmen tai impact stateme nt 环境影响报告environmental Law 环境保护法Environmentai protection Agency(EPA) 环境保护局environmentai quaiity 环境质量equai protection ciause 平等保护条款equitabie reiief 衡平救济equity 衡平法equity Law 衡平法equity precedent 衡平法判例equity securities 产权证券；衡平证券error 过错escape 逃走；逃脱escrow 第三者保存合同essentiai justice 实质公正estate 财产；遗产estate tax 遗产税EU Directive欧盟指令evaiuate 评价evict 逐出〔租户〕evidence 证据evidentiary presumption 证据推定evidentiary ruie 证据规那么ex aequo at bono公平且善良examine 检查；盘问examination 检查；盘问exception 例外exception ciause 例外条款excise tax 执照税exciude 排除exciusive iisting 读家上市exciusive right 排他性权利exciusive tax situs 唯一征税地点excusabie homicide 可宽恕之杀人execute 执行；签属execution 执行executive acts 行政条例executive branch 行政部门executive order 行政命令executor (遗嘱〕执行人executor of estate 遗产执行人exemption 免除；豁免exhibit 展示物〔证〕exigent circumstance 紧急情况existing securities 上市证券exparte 单方面的expectation damages 预期赔偿金expert 专家〔证人〕expert testimony 专家证言expert witness 专家证人express contract 明示合同express statutory provision 法律明文规定express warranty 明示保证〔保修〕ex rel 依据揭发face amount 面颊face value 面植facilitate 促使：利于fact 事实fact in issue 争议事实factor 因素；代理商Factors Lien Act ?代理商留置权条例? Fair trial 公平审判false imprisonment 非法拘禁family law 家庭法fault 过错fault principle 过错原那么feasibility study 可行性研究Federal Administrative Procedure Act ?联邦行政程序Federal Antitrust Law ?联邦犯托拉斯法? federal convention 联邦制宪会议federal crime of murder 联邦杀人罪Federal Housing Act ?联邦住房条例?Federal Income Tax Act ?联邦所得税条例? federal judge 联邦法官Federal rules of civil procedure ?联邦民事诉讼规那么? Federal rules of criminal procedure ?联邦刑事诉讼规那么? Federal rules of evidence ?联邦证据规那么?Federal securities act 联? 邦证券条例? federal supremacy 联邦至上〔原那么〕Federal tort claims act ?联邦侵权索赔条例felon 重罪犯felony 重罪felony-murder重罪杀人fiduciary 受托人file 档案；注册file a petition呈交诉状；提出请求fine罚金fingerprint 手印fire in sura nee 火灾保险fire protect ion 消防first degree murder 一级谋杀first in sta nee —审fixture 〔不动产〕附属物flogging 烙印force of law法律效力forcible felony暴力性重罪foreign exchange risk 夕卜汇风险forfeiture没收；罚没form con tract格式合同form of evide nee 证据的形式formal adjudication 正式裁决formal rulemaking正式规那么制定formatio n 构成；鉴定fran chise tax特许经营税fraud诈欺free en terprise system 自由企业制度free moveme nt of goods自由物流，货物的自由流通freedom of choice 选择自由frustrate使受挫折fun dame ntal law 根本法fun dame ntal right 根本权利法律英语词汇〔4〕2021-12-20 21:04:29|分类：专业英语词汇阅读12评论0 字号：大中小订阅general acceptanee standarc科学证据的）公认标准gen eral part nership —般合伙gen eral property 一般财产〔权〕gen eral provisi ons 总那么geron tocratic 老人统治的gift tax赠予税gover nment tort政府侵权〔行为〕grant of power 授权gross n eglige nee 严重过失group in sura nee 团体保险guara ntee 担保guardia n监护人guardianship 监护权guidelines for sentencing 量刑指南guilt 有罪guilty 有罪的guilty 有罪辩论Hhabitual offender 惯犯hail insurance 冰雹保险handcuff 手铐handwriting 笔迹health insurance 安康保险health regulation 卫生法规hearing 听证〔会〕hearing of jury 陪审团听审hearsay 传闻证据heir 继承人hierarchy 等级制度high crime 重罪hold 认定；裁定holding 认定；裁定holding device 拥有手段〔形式〕homicide 杀人〔罪〕homosexuality 同性恋house counsel 〔公司〕专职法律参谋husband-wiferelationship 夫妻关系husband-wife tort 夫妻侵权〔行为〕Id. 同上identification 认定；确认身份；身份证ignore 无视；驳回illegal 非法的；违法的immaterial 无实质性的immigration law 移民法immovable property 不动产immunity 豁免〔权〕impair 损害；削弱impeachment 弹劾；质疑implementation 实施；执行implied contract 默认合同implied warranty 默认保证〔保修〕imprisonment 监禁imputable可归罪于 ... 的imputation 归罪in re 关于；案由in recess 休庭in rem 对物的〔诉讼〕in session 开庭inadmissible evidence 不可采证据incarceration 禁闭；监禁incest 乱伦income tax 所得税Income Tax Act ?所得税条例? income tax on corporations 公司所得税income tax on individuals 个人所得税incompetence 无行为能力；无法律资格incompetent 无行为能力的；无法律资格的incorporation 法人；公司；组成公司incorporator 公司创办人in depe ndent regulatory age ncy 独立规制机构indicative list 指导性名单indictment 起诉书indirect evidence 间接证据indirect tax 间接税individual choice 个人选择〔权〕individual freedom 个人自由individual omni competence 个人全权individual proprietorship 个体业主individual right 个人权利ineffective 失效的inequality 不平等infamous 罪恶的；丑恶的inference 推理;推论infliction 处分informal adjudication 非正式裁决informal rulemaking 非正式规那么制定information 信息; 控告书infomer 耳目;情报员initial ruling 初步裁定injunction 禁令;强制令injunctive relief 强制救济injure 伤害injustice 不公正innocence 无罪innocent 无罪的;无罪者innocent owner defense 无过错所有人辩护inquiry 调查inquisitiorial system 纠问式诉讼制度insane 精神失常insanity defense 精神失常辩护inspection 检查;审查installment land vendor 分期付款的土地出售人installment plan agreement 分期付款购物协议instruction 指示instrument 文件insurable interest 可保利益insurable loss 可保损失insurance agent 保险代理商insurance binder 临时保单insurance broker 保险中间人insurance card 保险卡in sura nee coverage 保险范围insurance law 保险法insurance policy 保险单;险种insurance premium 保险费in sura nee proceeds 保险收益insurance product 保险工程insured 被保险人insurer 保险人intangible 无形的intangible damage 无形损害intangible property 无形财产intangible personal property 无形的人身财产（权） inter alia 除了别的以外interfere 干预;侵犯interlocutory injunction 临时强制令;（诉讼）中间的强制令intermediate appellate court 中级上诉法院intermetional business 调解interrogation 国际商务intentional 成心的intentional tort 成心侵权行为interest 利息;权益;利益interest rate risk 利率风险interview 询问invalid 无效的;不合法的invalidate 使无效invasion of privacy 侵犯隐私权in vestigati on 侦查;调查in vestme nt 投资investment portfolio risk 投资风险组合investment securities 投资证券irreleva ncy无相关性irreleva nt不相关的irreleva nt evide nee无相关性证据irrevocable不可撤销的irrevocable life in sura nee trust不可撤销的人寿保险信托iti nerant judge 巡回法官法律英语词汇〔5〕2021-12-20 21:05:16|分类：专业英语词汇阅读19评论0 字号：大中小订阅Jjoint tenancy共同租借（权）joi nt ven ture合资企业joi nt ven ture corporati on 合资公司joi nt ven ture with Chin ese and foreig n inv estme nt 中外合资企业judge 法官judge-made law 法官立法judge's chamber 法官室judge's charge to jury法官对陪审团的指令judge's in struction to jury 法官对陪审团的指示judgme nt判决，裁定judicial branch 司法部门judicial clerkship 法院书记员职位judicial decision 法官职位judicial district 司法区judicial in terpretati on 司法解释judicial no tice 司法任职judicial opi nio n 法官判决意见judicial review 司法审查judicial scruti ny 司法检查judicial subjectivity 审判主观性judicial system 法院系统judiciary 法官jurisdict ion 司法管辖区jurisprudenee 法理学juror 陪审员jury 陪审团jury charge法官对陪审团的指令jury pool 待选陪审员库jury selection 挑选陪审员jury trial 陪审团制justice 公正，大法官justice of the peace 治安法官justifiable homicide 正当杀人juvenile court 未成年人法庭juvenile delinquency 未成年人违法行为KKey man assurance 关键人保险Key pers on in sura nee关键人保险Kickbacks 回扣Kill 杀人Killer 杀人者Know-how 技术秘密，商业秘密Lland use law 土地使用法last elear ehanee doetrine 最后明显时机法那么law 法，法律law firm 律师事务所law mereha nt商业习惯法law of evide nee 证据法law reform 法律改革lawsuit 诉讼，官司lawyer 律师lawyer in government 政府律师；官方律师lawyer in private praetiee 私人开业律师lawyerette 律师娘lawman 外行人lay witness 普通证人；非专家证人lease 租赁lease agreement 租赁协议legaey 遗产legaey tax 遗产税legal 合法的legal adviee 法律咨询legal eommentary 法律评论legal edueation 法律教育legal effeet 法律教育legal enforeement 法律效力legal English 法律英语legal family 法系legal history 法律史legal instrument 法律文件legal mecha nism 法律机希9 legal memora ndum 法律备忘录legal methodology 法律方法论legal order法律秩序legal problem法律问题legal professi on 法律职业legal protectio n 法律保护legal relati on ship 法律关系legal represe ntative 法律代表legal safeguard法律保障〔措施〕legal system法律体系；法律制度legal theorist法学理论家legal writing法律文书写作legalese法律涩语legality 法制legislatio n 立法legislative branch 立法部门legislative history 立法史legislature立法机关legitimate 合法的levy征收〔税〕liability责任；债务liability in sura nee 责任保险liberty 自由license plate〔车〕执照牌lice nse tax 执照税lien留置〔权〕life estate终生财〔遗〕产life in sura nee 人寿保险limited part nership 有限合伙liquidated damages 预定违约金liquidity risk流动资金风险literary property 著作产权litigant诉讼当事人litigation诉讼；打官司livestock in sura nee 家畜保险loan贷款lord cha ncellor （英国）大法官loss of rights丧失权利Jurisprude nee History of Legal Systems and Con stituti on按照法律规定according to law按照确定的份额分享权力：be en titled to rights in proporti on to his proper share of the credit按照确定的份额分担义务：assume obligati ons in proportio n to his proper share of the debt案例教学法case system案例汇编case book； case report law report柏拉图Plato?保护人权与根本自由公约？〔1950〕Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fun dame ntal Freedoms 1950 〔罗〕被视为be deemed as被宣布为非法be outlawed； be declared illegal比拟法comparative law比拟法学comparative jurisprudence比拟法学派school of comparative jurisprudence比拟法制史comparative legal history比拟分析法method of comparative analysis比拟刑法comparative pen al law比拟刑法学comparative penal jurisprudence必然因果关系positive causal relati on ship边缘法学borderline jurisprudence变通方法adaptation； accommodation补充规定supplementary provision补救方法remedial measures不成文法unwritten law不成文宪法unwritten constitution不动产所在地法律law of the place where the real property is situated lex loci rei immobilisci不可分割的权利impartible right不可抗力force majuere不可侵犯性inviolability不可让与性inalienability不履行法律义务non-performa nee of obligati on不要式行为in formal act不要因的法律行为non-causal juristic act不因实效而丧失的权利imprescriptible right不作为abstain from an act act of omission咅部门法department law咅部门规章regulation参照consult参照具体情况in the light of actual conditions参照原文consult the original查士丁尼法典Code Justinian；Codex Justinianus查士丁尼法规汇编Authe nticum超出法律范围的outside of law超出法律权限的extralegal超过权限exceed authority; beyond jurisdiction成文法written law成文宪法writte n con stituti on冲突法conflict of laws ；rules of conflict冲突规那么conflict rule ；rule of conflict除〔本法〕另有规定夕卜except for otherwise stipulated〔by this law〕除外条款provisory clause除外责任条款exclusion clause触犯公共禾U益encroach on the public interests触犯国际利益go against the state's interests触犯人民禾U益encroach on the interests of the peopl; go against the people's in terests传统法律观念traditional ideas of law纯粹法学pure theory of law次要法规by law次要规那么secondary rule从宽解释原那么doctri ne of liberal con structi on从权利」accessory right至U达法定年龄come of age大法the fun dame ntal law大法官Lord High Cha ncellor大法官法院Court of Chancery大陆法系Continen tal Legal System大律师barrister?大明律？Crimi nal Law of the Mi ng Dy nasty 〔中〕大陪审团grand jury?大清律例?the Crimi nal Laws of the Qing Dy nasty 〔中〕?大宪章？〔 1215〕Great Charte , 1215〔英〕单行法规 specific regulati ons单一法律体系 un itary legal system单一制政府 un itary gover nment但书 proviso当代法学动向 current trend of jurisprudeneen atural in terpretati onparty discipli ne and the law of the country?德国民法典？German Civil code德拉古Draco地方各级人民代表大会 local people's con gresses at differe nt levels地方各级人民法院 local people's courts at different levels地方各级人民检察院 local people's procuratorates at different levels地方各级人民政府 local people's governments at different levels第二读 sec ond read ing第三读 third reading二元论 the dualistic theory二元君主立宪制 dual con stituti onal mon archy system二元论 the dualistic theory二元论者dualist二元制9 bicameral system法的本质 the nature of law当然解释 党纪国法 道德标准 norm of morality道德义务 moral obligati on法的变化changes of law法的定义definition of law法的开展development of law法的分类divisions of law法的概念concepts of law法的标准作用normalized usage of law法的继承succession of law法的精神spirit of law法的可预测性foreseeability of law法的类型types of law法的历史类型的更替the replacement of one historical mode of law by another 法的历史渊源historical origin of law法的连续性con tin uity of law法的内容con texts of law法的社会作用social usage of law法的生效operation of law法的实现realization of law法的特征character of law法的现象legal phenomenon法的消亡withering away of law法的形式渊源formal source of law法的要素elements of law法的渊源source of law法的职能function of law法的作用role of law法典code； statute book法典编纂codification of codes法定成年人的年龄age of majority；legal age法定程序legal procedure法定处分statutory penalty法定代理人：age nt ad litem法定解释statutory interpretation法定量刑情节legally prescribed circumstances of sentencing 法定年龄legal age；lawful age法定年龄限希9 a statutory age limit法定期间prescribed time法定期限legal term法定权禾legal right; right entitled by law法定权限limits of power prescribed by law法定人数quorum法定日appo in ted day法定时间appo in ted time法定时效statutory prescription法定条件legal condition法定限制statutory restrictions法定效力statutory force法定刑legally-prescribed punishment法定形式legal form法定责任statutory duty法定追溯期time of legal memory法定最高刑maximum statutory penalty; maximum statutory sentence 法官judge法官的自由裁量权judge's power of discreti on法官权力范围extent of judge's power法官心证judge's mental impression法官中立原那么Nemo debt esse judex in propria causa法规编纂condification of laws and regulations法规的解释interpretation of statutes法规汇编corpus of the laws and regulations?法国民法典？Code Civile de Francais〔法〕法理jurisprudenee； principle of law法理学家jurisprudent法律保护legal protection法律编纂codification法律标准legal standards法律补救legal redress法律部门legal department法律草案draft regulations法律措施legal measures法律大全Corpus legum法律的外乡化和改写the localizatio n and adaptii on of laws 法律大全Corpus legum法律的本质esse nee of law法律的地位position of law法律的定义definition of law法律的废止abolishment of law法律的公共秩序论public order theory of law法律的标准性normalization of law法律的继承sueeession of law法律的理想ideal of law法律的权威authority of law法律的失效lapse of law法律的实施administration of law ；law enforeement 法律的适用applieation of law法律的统一unifieation of law法律的推定presumption of law法律的推理analogy of law法律的完整性integrity of law法律的效力范围foree's seale of law法律的效力形式foree's form of law法律的修改alteration of law法律的演进evolutin of law法律的原理prineiple of law法律地位平等equal in legal status法律对人的效力person al aet of law编纂法律方法legal methodology法律分类classification of law法律赋予权力authority con ferred by law法律改革law reform法律概念legal concept法律根据legal basis法律工作者legal professional法律关系legal relation法律关系的运行process of legal relati on法律关系客体object of legal relation法律关系主体subject of legal relation法律规定provisions of law法律标准norm of law法律标准的逻辑构造logical structure of legal rule 法律规那么体系system of legal rules法律含义intendment of law法律另有规定：otherwise stipulated by law法律现象legal phenomenon法律研究legal research法律要件legal requirement法律依据legal basis法律意见legal advice法律意见书legal opinion法律意识law-consciousness法律秩序legal order法律主体资格 capacity as a subject of law法律意义 legal sense法律用语 legal language法律与正义先验论 a prior theory of law and justice法律渊源 source of law法律原本注释gloss法律原理 legal doctrines法律原那么 principle of legality法律援助legal aid法律约束 legal binding ； legal restraint法律责任 legal responsibility法律责任的道义根底 moral basic of legal obligatio n法律责任的归结 imputat on of legal resp on sibility法律责任的认定 determ in atio n of legal resp on sibility法律责任的执行 en forceme nt of legal resp on sibility法律责任客体 object of legal responsibility法律责任主体 subject of legal responsibility法律哲学 philosophy of law ； philosophie du droit 〔法〕；法律政策 policy of the law 法律职业道德legal ethics法律指导 legal counsel法律制裁 legal sanction法律制度 regime of law ； legal systemphilosophia juris法律主张propositi on of law法律属地原那么territoriality of laws法律著述legal literature法律专家legal expert法律专业legal profession法律专著和教科书legal treati法律咨询legal advice法律尊严legal sanctity法盲legal illiterates法权right法社会学sociology of law法系legal system法协会law society法学jurisprudenee法学博士doctor of jurisprudenee法学导论leading principles of law法学的范畴体系the system of categories of jurisprude nee法学的范畴意识the con scious ness of category of jurisprude nee 法学的基石范畴fun dame ntal categories of jurisprude nee法学方法method of jurisprudenee法学方法论methodology of jurisprudenee法学会law society法学教科书law textbooks法学理论theory of law ；legal theory法学权威an academic authority in law法学士bachelor of law法学体系system of jurisprudenee法学通论first principles of law法学院faculty of law ；law school法医forensic medicine法医学forensic medicine法院court法院调查judicial investigation法院管辖权compete nee of court法院管辖以外的extrajudicial法院判决court decision法院系统court structure法院组织法judicature act法那么articles法哲学philosophy of law法制legal institution法制传统tradition of law system法制的精神spirit of legality法制的尊严dignity of the legal system法制观念legal concept法制观念淡薄very weak in the understanding of law 法制9 教育legal education； education of legal system 法制史legal history；history of legal system法治rule of law法治的机希9 the mechanism of rule of law法治的要素the element of rule of law非实质的immaterial非营禾的non-profit非约束性条款permissive provision废止法律annulment of law分别管辖权separate jurisdiction分别财产希9 separation of property regime分别规定separate provision分担责任share the responsibility分工负责，互相配合，互相制约divide responsibility for their own work ；coordi nate their efforts and check each other分工负责制division of labor responsibility system分级管理different levels holding different responsibilities分配制度distribution system分析法理学analytical jurisprudence否决权power veto； veto power否认事实denial of facts服从法律amenable to law subject to the law服从判决accept a judgment符合程序be in order符合法律be in conformity with law符合宪法constitutionality。

汉英口译分类词汇--世贸组织词汇(1)（补贴协议）可诉补贴Actionable subsidy（纺织品与服装、农产品）一体化进程Integration process（服务贸易）境外消费Consumption abroad（服务贸易）跨境交付Cross border supply（服务贸易）商业存在Commercial presence（服务贸易）自然人natural person（服务贸易）自然人流动Presence of natural person（解决争端）被诉方Defendant（解决争端）调查结果Findings（解决争端）上诉Appeal（解决争端）申诉方Complaint（利益的）丧失和减损Nullification and impairment（农产品）国内支持Domestic support（农产品）综合支持量AMS （Aggregate Measurement of Support）（农产品国内支持）黄箱措施Amber Box measures（农产品国内支持）蓝箱措施BOP （Balance-of-payments）Provisions（农产品国内支持）绿箱措施Green Box measures （农业）多功能性Multifunctionality（欧盟）共同农业政策Common Agriculture Policy （争端解决）专家组Panel（知识产权）地理标识Geographical indications 《巴黎公约》（关于保护工业知识产权的公约）Paris Convention《巴塞尔公约》（有关危险废弃物的多边环境协定）Basel Convention《北美自由贸易协定》NAFTA （North American Free Trade Agreement）《濒危物种国际贸易公约》Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species《伯尔尼公约》（有关保护文学和艺术作品版权的公约）Berne Convention《多种纤维协定》MFA （Multifibre Agreement）《纺织品与服装协议》A TC （Agreement on Textiles and Clothing）《服务贸易总协定》GA TS （General Agreement on Trade in Services）《关于争端解决规则与程序的谅解》DSU （Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes）《京都议定书》Kyoto Protocol《里斯本条约》（有关地理标识及其国际注册）Lisbon Agreement《蒙特利尔议定书》（有关保护大气臭氧层的多边环境协定）Montreal Protocol《农产品协议》特殊保障SSG （Special Safeguard）《农业协议》中关于反补贴的和平条款Peace clause《生物多样性公约》CBD（Convention on Biological Diversity）《信息技术协议》ITA （Information Technology Agreement）WTO最不发达国家高级别会议HLM （WTO High-level Meeting for LDCs）北美自由贸易区NAFTA （North American Free Trade Area）采取措施后Ex post采取措施前Ex ante产品生命周期分析LCA （Life Cycle Analysis）出口补贴Export subsidy出口实绩Export performance垂直兼并vertical merger当地含量Local content电子商务Electronic Commerce东部和南部非洲共同市场COMESA （Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa）东盟自由贸易区ASEAN Free Trade Area动植物卫生检疫措施SPS （Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standard ）反补贴税Countervailing duty反倾销措施anti-dumping measures against…反向通知Counter-notification非配额产品quota-free products非生产性投资investment in non-productive projects非洲、加勒比和太平洋国家集团（洛美协定）ACP（African, Caribbean and Pacific Group）风险管理/评估risk management/ assessment关贸总协定，世界贸易组织的前身GA TT （General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade）规避Circumvention国际标准化组织ISO （International Organization for Standardization）国际纺织品服装局ITCB （International Textileand Clothing Bureau）国际货币基金组织IMF （International Monetary Fund）国际劳工组织ILO （International Labor Organization）国际贸易中心ITC （International Trade Center）国际贸易组织ITO （International Trade Organization）国际贸易组织临时委员会ICITO （Interim Commission for the International Trade Organization）国际清算international settlement国际收支balance of international payments/ balance of payment国际收支条款BOP（Balance-of-payments）Provisions国际兽疫组织International Office of Epizootics国民待遇National treatment国内补贴Domestic subsidy国内生产Domestic production海关估价Customs valuation海关完税价值Customs value横向兼并horizontal merger环保型技术EST（Environmentally-sound technology）灰色区域措施Grey area measures货币留成制度Currency retention scheme货币贸易理事会CTG（Council for Trade in Goods）基础税率Base tariff level既定日程Built-in agenda交叉报复Cross retaliation进口差价税Import variable duties进口附加税Import surcharge进口环节税import linkage tax进口渗透Import penetration进口替代Import substitution进口许可Import licensing进口押金Import deposits经济合作与发展组织OECD （Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development）垃圾融资junk financing联合国环境署UNEP （United Nations Environment Program）联合国开发计划署UNDP （United Nations Development Program）联合国粮农组织FAO （Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States）联合国贸易与发展会议UNCTAD （United Nations Conference on Trade and Development）粮食安全Food security慢性萧条chronic depression贸易和投资自由化和便利化TILF （Trade and Investment Liberalization and Facilitation）贸易与发展委员会Committee on Trade and Development贸易与环境委员会Committee on Trade and Environment模式Modalities南方共同市场（或称南锥体共同市场）MERCOSUR （Southern Common Market）南亚区域合作联盟SAARC （South Asian Association for Regional cooperation）欧洲自由贸易联盟EFTA （European Free Trade Association）配额调整条款modulation of quota clause瓶颈制约'bottleneck' restrictions全球配额global quota上诉机构Appeal body申报制度reporting system；income declaration system生产补贴Production subsidy实行国民待遇grant the national treatment to实质损害Material injury食品法典委员会CAC（Codex Alimentaries Commission）世界海关组织WCO （World Customs Organization）世界贸易组织WTO （World Trade Organization）世界知识产权组织WIPO （World Intellectual Property Organization）市场准人的行政管理措施AAMA （Administrative Aspects of Market Access）市场准入Market access通知义务Notification obligation同类产品Like product乌拉圭回合Uruguay Round消费膨胀inflated consumption协调制度（商品名称及编码协调制度）HS （Harmonized Commodity and Coding System）新议题New issues许可费License fee有秩序的市场安排Orderly market arrangements约束水平Bound level争端解决机构Dispute Settlement Body政府采购Government procurement知识产权IPRs （Intellectual property rights）直接支付Direct payment诸边协议Plurilateral agreement专门的营销机构Market boards转基因生物GMOs （Genetically Modified Organisms）祖父条款grandfather clause最不发达国家LDCs （Least-developed countries）最初谈判权（初谈权）INRs （Initial Negotiating Rights）最惠国待遇（现通常称'正常贸易关系'）MFN （most-favored-nation）treatment最惠国贸易地位（待遇）MFN （Most-favored-nation）（Treatment）汉英口译分类词汇--经济金融词汇(1)不景气slump （衰退recession）二板市场the second board market中国创业板China Growth Enterprise Market首次上市IPOs （initial public offering）市场资本总额market capitalization法人股institutional shares内部股（非上市招股）private company shares牛市bull market法律风险legal risk风险管理risk management坚持严格的贷款标准maintain strong underwriting standards六大风险risks in 6 key areas （U.S. Federal Reserve criterion）信用风险credit risk供给学派supply-side economist第一产业（农业）agriculture （primary industry）第二产业（工业）manufacturing industry （secondary industry）第三产业（服务业）service industry （tertiary industry）主要经济指标major economic indicators国内生产总值GDP gross domestic product （商品和劳务币值总和，不包括海外收入支出）国民生产总值GNP gross national product（商品和劳务币值总和，包括海外收入支出）人均国内生产总值GDP per capita宏观经济macro economy互助基金mutual fund扩大内需expand domestic demand改善居民心理预期inspire the general public's confidence in the future needs鼓励增加即期消费encourage more immediate consumption长期国债long-term treasury bonds支付国债利息to service treasury bonds财政赤字和债务deficits and the national debt按原口径计算calculate on the base line按不变价格计算calculate at constant price按可比价格计算calculate at comparable price列入财政预算支出listed in the fiscal budget结售汇制度the system of exchange, settlement and sales经常项目顺差favorable balance of current account, surplus of current account开办人民币业务engage in Renminbi （RMB）business出口退税制度the system of refunding taxes on exported goods保证金台帐制度Deposit account system for processing trade分期付款pay by installment保值储蓄inflation-proof bank savings抵押贷款collateralised loans住房抵押贷款residential mortgage loan货币主义者monetarist计划经济planned economy指令性计划mandatory plan技术密集型technology intensive大规模生产mass production经济林cash tree跟踪审计follow-up auditing流动性风险liquidity risk操作风险operational risk内部审计internal audit抛售bear sales配套政策supporting policies中国人民银行（中央银行）The People's Bank of China（central bank）四大国有商业银行 4 major state-owned commercial banks中国银行Bank of china中国工商银行Industrial and Commercial Bank ofChina（）and中国建设银行Construction Bank of China中国农业银行Agricultural Bank of China招商银行China Merchants Bank疲软股票soft stock配股allotment of shares实际增长率growth rate in real terms年均增长率average growth rate per annum投资回报率rate of return on investment外贸进出口总额total foreign trade value实际利用外资incoming overseas capital （investment）in place消费价格指数consumer price index （CPI）零售价格指数retail price index （RPI）生活费用价格总指数total price index of living cost生活费用income available for living expenses扣除物价因素in real terms / on inflation-adjusted basis居民储蓄存款residents' bank savings deposit恩格尔系数（食品开支占总支出的比例）Engel coefficient基尼系数（衡量地区差别）Gini coefficient购买力平价法purchasing power parity （PPP）（衡量使用不同货币的两个国家或地区的经济水平、收入水平的一种计算法，用相等的汇率比较两种货币各自的国内购买力）片面追求发展速度excessive pursuit of growth泡沫经济bubble economy 经济过热overheating of economy通货膨胀inflation实体经济the real economy经济规律laws of economics市场调节market regulation优化资源配置optimize allocation of resources规模经营优势advantage of economies of scale劳动密集型labor intensive市场风险market risk收紧银根tighten up monetary policy适度从紧的财政政策moderately tight fiscal policy信用紧缩credit crunch加强国有商业银行内部资金调度In state commercial banks, internal capital allocation should be improved.合理划分贷款审批权限Limits of authority for examining and approving loans should be rationally defined.保证有市场、有效益、守信用企业的流动资金贷款ensure floating capital loans for well-performing and trustworthy enterprises which turn out the right products for the right markets启动民间投资attract investment from the private sector适销对路的产品the right products / readily marketable products国有企业state-owned enterprises （SOEs）集体企业collectively-owned （partnership）enterprises私营企业private businesses民营企业privately-run businesses中小企业small-and-medium-sized enterprises三资企业（中外合资、中外合作、外商独资）overseas-invested enterprises；foreign-invested enterprises （Chinese-overseas equity joint ventures, Chinese-overseas contractual joint ventures, wholly foreign- owned enterprises）存款保证金guaranty money for deposits货币回笼withdrawal of currency from circulation 吸收游资absorb idle fund经常性贷款commercial lending经常性支出operating expenses再贷款re-lending；subloan支持国有大型企业和高新技术企业上市融资support large state-owned enterprises and high and innovative technology companies in their efforts to seek financing by listing on the stock market 改制上市An enterprise is re-organized according to modern corporate system so that it will get listed on the stock market.进一步规范和发展证券市场further standardize and develop the securities market增加直接融资比重increase the proportion of direct financing完善股票发行上市制度improve the system for IPO and listing on stock markets中国证监会China Securities Regulatory Commission （CSRC）深圳证券交易所市Shenzhen Stock Exchange上海证券交易所Shanghai Stock Exchange综合指数composite index纳斯达克（高技术企业板）NASDAQ （NationalAssociation of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation主板市场the main board通货紧缩deflation中国现代化建设分三步走的战略the three-step development strategy of China's modernization drive 第一步，到1990年国民生产总值比1980年翻一番Step One：GDP of 1990 doubles that of 1980.第二步，到2000年人均国民生产总值比1980年翻两番，人民生活达到小康水平Step Two：GDP of 2000 quadruples that of 1980；people live a fairly comfortable life.第三步，到21世纪中期建国100周年时，达到中等发达国家水平Step Three：By the year 2049, the 100th anniversary of the P.R.C., China's level of development is expected to be on par with the mid-ranking developed countries与世界经济的联系将更加紧密be more closely linked to the world economy中国巨大的市场潜力将逐步转化为现实的购买力The huge market potential that China enjoys will be turned into tangible purchasing power.适应市场经济需要的法律法规体系还不够健全The regulatory and legal system is not well established as to adapt to the demand of market economy.经济管理体制可能会出现一些不适应The economic management system may not be readily adapted to the changes.一些行业和企业可能会受到冲击Some sectors of economy and some businesses may be adversely affected.立足中国国情，发挥自身优势proceed from national conditions in China and bring our advantages into play扬长避短，趋利避害，迎接经济全球化的挑战foster strengths and circumvent weaknesses and rise to the challenge of economic globalization瓶颈制约bottleneck constraints放权让利decentralization and interest concessions （in late 1980s and early 1990s）深化改革intensify reform；deepen one's commitment to reform配套改革supporting （concomitant）reforms配套资金counterpart funds；local funding of提高经济效益improve economic performance；increase economic returns讲求社会效益value contribution to society；pay attention to social effect加速国民经济信息化develop information-based economy accelerate IT application in economy 拉动经济增长fuel economic growth利改税substitution of tax payment for profit delivery费改税transform administrative fees into taxes债转股debt-to-equity swap头寸宽裕（头寸紧缺）in an easy position （tight position）朝阳产业sunrise industry招标投标制the system of public bidding for project充分发挥货币政策的作用give full play to the role of monetary policy实施积极的财政政策follow a pro-active fiscal policy向银行增发国债，扩大投资The government issued additional treasury bonds to banks to increase investment.再注资recapitalization放松银根to ease monetary policy信息经济IT economy外向型经济export-oriented economy信息时代information age全球化globalization （全球性globality）信誉风险reputational risk风险评级risk rating到期不还贷default on a loan资不抵债insolvency；be insolvent亚洲金融危机Asian financial crisis （1997-98）投资（贷款）组合investment （loan）portfolio 外汇储备充足sufficient foreign exchange reserves中国金融业问题problems with financial sector in China储蓄比例过高the excessively large proportion of savings in the money supply国有企业产负债率过高high leverage ratio of the state-owned enterprises,国有独资商业银行不良资产比例过高high ratio of non-performing loans of the state commercial banks少数中小存款金融机构不能支付到期债务insolvency of a handful of small and medium-sized financial institutions不良贷款non-performing loans防范和化解金融风险address financial risks提高企业借贷和行使民事责任的能力improve enterprises' creditworthiness and ability to fulfil their civil liabilities监事会supervisory board实行谨慎会计制度adopt prudential accounting standards五级分类法划分贷款质量the five-category asset classification approach金融资产管理公司financial asset management companies分离和收回不良资产substantially reduce the ratio of non-performing assets分业管理、规模经营business segregation, economy of scale规范金融机构市场退出制度improve the market exit mechanism for financial institutions政策性银行state policy-related bank国家发展银行State Development Bank知识经济knowledge-based economy网络经济Internet-based networked economy指导性计划guidance plan社会主义市场经济（中国）socialist market economy社会市场经济（德国）social market economy 新经济（美国）new economy中国光大银行Everbright Bank of China中国民声银行China Minsheng Banking Corporation Ltd.中信实业银行CITIC Industrial Bank中国进出口银行China EXIM Bank汇丰银行Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation （HKSBC）金融监管financial supervision中国人民银行法Law of the People's Bank of China商业银行法Law of Commercial Banks保险法Law of Insurance证券法Law of Securities巴塞尔原则Basel Core Principles监管对象的行为有问题、管理机制不健全problems of supervised entities' behavior and the unsound internal governance mechanism风险意识consciousness of risk prevention事前监管proactive regulation and supervisionaccount number 帐目编号depositor 存户pay-in slip 存款单a deposit form 存款单a banding machine 自动存取机to deposit 存款deposit receipt 存款收据private deposits 私人存款certificate of deposit 存单deposit book, passbook 存折credit card 信用卡principal 本金overdraft, overdraw 透支to counter sign 双签to endorse 背书endorser 背书人to cash 兑现to honor a check 兑付to dishonor a check 拒付to suspend payment 止付check 支票check book 支票本order check 记名支票bearer check 不记名支票crossed check 横线支票blank check 空白支票rubber check 空头支票check stub, counterfoil 票根cash check 现金支票traveler's check 旅行支票check for transfer 转帐支票outstanding check 未付支票canceled check 已付支票forged check 伪支票Bandar's note 庄票，银票banker 银行家president 行长savings bank 储蓄银行Chase Bank 大通银行National City Bank of New York 花旗银行Hongkong Shanghai Banking Corporation 汇丰银行Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China 麦加利银行Banque de I'Indo Chine 东方汇理银行central bank, national bank, banker's bank 中央银行bank of issue, bank of circulation 发行币银行commercial bank 商业银行，储蓄信贷银行member bank, credit bank 储蓄信贷银行discount bank 贴现银行exchange bank 汇兑银行requesting bank 委托开证银行issuing bank, opening bank 开证银行advising bank, notifying bank 通知银行negotiation bank 议付银行confirming bank 保兑银行paying bank 付款银行associate banker of collection 代收银行consigned banker of collection 委托银行clearing bank 清算银行local bank 本地银行domestic bank 国内银行overseas bank 国外银行unincorporated bank 钱庄branch bank 银行分行trustee savings bank 信托储蓄银行trust company 信托公司financial trust 金融信托公司unit trust 信托投资公司trust institution 银行的信托部credit department 银行的信用部commercial credit company（discount company）商业信贷公司（贴现公司）neighborhood savings bank, bank of deposit 街道储蓄所credit union 合作银行credit bureau 商业兴信所self-service bank 无人银行land bank 土地银行construction bank 建设银行industrial and commercial bank 工商银行bank of communications 交通银行mutual savings bank 互助储蓄银行post office savings bank 邮局储蓄银行mortgage bank, building society 抵押银行industrial bank 实业银行home loan bank 家宅贷款银行reserve bank 准备银行chartered bank 特许银行corresponding bank 往来银行merchant bank, accepting bank 承兑银行investment bank 投资银行import and export bank （EXIMBANK）进出口银行joint venture bank 合资银行money shop, native bank 钱庄credit cooperatives 信用社clearing house 票据交换所public accounting 公共会计business accounting 商业会计cost accounting 成本会计depreciation accounting 折旧会计computerized accounting 电脑化会计general ledger 总帐subsidiary ledger 分户帐cash book 现金出纳帐cash account 现金帐journal, day-book 日记帐，流水帐bad debts 坏帐investment 投资surplus 结余idle capital 游资economic cycle 经济周期economic boom 经济繁荣economic recession 经济衰退economic depression 经济萧条economic crisis 经济危机economic recovery 经济复苏inflation 通货膨胀deflation 通货收缩devaluation 货币贬值revaluation 货币增值international balance of payment 国际收支favorable balance 顺差adverse balance 逆差hard currency 硬通货soft currency 软通货international monetary system 国际货币制度the purchasing power of money 货币购买力money in circulation 货币流通量note issue 纸币发行量national budget 国家预算national gross product 国民生产总值public bond 公债stock, share 股票debenture 债券treasury bill 国库券debt chain 债务链direct exchange 直接（对角）套汇indirect exchange 间接（三角）套汇cross rate, arbitrage rate 套汇汇率foreign currency （exchange）reserve 外汇储备foreign exchange fluctuation 外汇波动foreign exchange crisis 外汇危机discount 贴现discount rate, bank rate 贴现率gold reserve 黄金储备money （financial）market 金融市场stock exchange 股票交易所broker 经纪人commission 佣金bookkeeping 簿记bookkeeper 簿记员an application form 申请单bank statement 对帐单letter of credit 信用证strong room, vault 保险库equitable tax system 等价税则specimen signature 签字式样banking hours, business hours 营业时间share, equity, stock 股票、股权negotiable share 可流通股份treasury /government bond 国库券/政府债券closed-end securities investment fund 封闭式证券投资基金open-end securities investment fund 开放式证券投资基金market capitalization 市值mark-to-market 逐日盯市clearing and settlement 清算/结算put / call option 看跌/看涨期权rights issue/offering 配股ADR（American Depository Receipt）美国存托凭证/存股证GDR（Global Depository Receipt）全球存托凭证/存股证institutional investor 机构投资者proprietary trading 自营market manipulation 市场操纵IPO（Initial Public Offering）新股初始公开发行securities 证券premium 溢价share capital 股本composite index 综合指数capital market 资本市场liquidity 流通性highly-leveraged institutions（HLI）高杠杆交易机构subscribe 申购underwriter承销商road show 路演primary market 一级市场information disclosure 信息披露blue chips 蓝筹股gilt-edged bond 金边债券rating agency 评级机构credit trading 信用交易open/close a position 建/平仓bond, debenture, debts 债券convertible bond 可转换债券corporate bond 企业债券fund manager 基金经理/管理公司fund custodian bank 基金托管银行p/e （price/earning）ratio 市盈率payment versus delivery 银券交付commodity/financial derivatives 商品/金融衍生产品margins, collateral 保证金bonus share 红股dividend 红利/股息retail / private investor 个人投资者/散户broker/dealer 券商insider trading/dealing 内幕交易prospectus招股说明书merger and acquisition收购兼并warrant 认股权证raised capital/proceeds 筹资component index 成份指数turnover rate 换手率monetary market 货币市场hedge fund 对冲基金self-regulatory organization（SRO）自律组织issuer 发行人intermediary 中介机构secondary listing 第二上市secondary market 二级市场controlling shareholder 控股股东red chips红筹股junk bond 立即债券securities loan 融券financing 融资汉英口译分类词汇--外经贸类词汇(1)澳新紧密经济关系协定ANZCERTA：Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement 摆脱亚洲金融危机的影响shake off the impact of the financial crisis帮助人才脱颖而出help excellent talents find way to distinction备件spare parts部长级会议ministerial meeting采取积极财政政策proactive fiscal policy出口创汇型/外向型产业export-oriented industry垂直兼并vertical merger倒爷profiteer抵免offset东盟自由贸易区AFTA：ASEAN Free Trade Area东南亚国家联盟ASEAN：Association of South-East Asian Nations对外项目承包foreign project contracting反倾销措施anti-dumping measures against ……防伪标志anti-fake label放松银根ease monetary policy非配额产品quota-free products非生产性投资investment in non-productive projects风险管理/评估risk management/ assessment风险基金venture capital风险准备金loan loss provision/ provisions of risk 岗位培训on-the-job training港元的联系汇率制the linkage system between the US dollar and the HK dollar搞活国有大中型企业revitalize large and medium-sized state owned enterprises工程项目engineering project工业增加值industrial added value公正合理equitable and rational固定资产投资investment in the fixed assets广开就业门路increase employment opportunities；create jobs in every possible way；open up more channels of employment规模经济scale economy/ economies of scale国合企业（即国有合作社）state-owned cooperatives国际清算international settlement国际收支平衡balance of international payments/ balance of payment国际收支不平衡disequilibrium of balance of payment国家补贴public subsidies国家鼓励项目projects listed as encouraged by the state国家科技创新体系State Scientific and Technological Innovation System国家现汇结存state foreign exchange reserves合理引导消费guide rational consumption横向兼并horizontal merger坏帐、呆帐、死帐bad account/ dead account/ uncollectible account/bad debt/ bad loan货币市场money market机构臃肿overstaffing in （government）organizations机构重叠organizational overlapping技工贸结合的科技型企业scientific and technological enterprises that integrate scientific and technological development with industrial and trade development季节性调价seasonal price adjustments既成事实established/accomplished facts减免债务reduce and cancel debts建材building materials进口环节税import linkage tax经常项目current account经常性的财政收入regular revenues竟价投标competitive bidding就业前培训pre-job training控股公司holding company垃圾融资junk financing劳动密集性企业labor-intensive enterprises劳务合作labor service cooperation累计实现顺差143.4美元accumulatively realizing trade surplus利改税substitution of tax payment for profit delivery流动人口floating population龙头产品lagship product乱集资、乱摊派、乱收费unwarranted pooling of funds, arbitrary requisition of donations and exaction of fees from enterprises/ unauthorized pooling offunds, compulsory donations and random levies on enterprises慢性萧条chronic depression农业技术合作ATC：Agricultural Technical Cooperation盘活存量资产revitalize stock assets配件accessories皮包公司flying-by-night company；bogus company平等互利、讲求实效、形式多样、共同发展的方针pursuing practical results, adopting various waysand seeking common development/ the principle of equality, mutual benefit, efficiency, diversity and mutual development瓶颈制约“bottleneck” restrictions企业的自我约束机制self-regulating mechanism of enterprises企业技术改造technological updating of enterprises企业亏损补贴subsidies to cover enterprise losses 企业所得税corporate income tax千年问题、千年虫millennium bug抢得先机take the preemptive opportunities清理、修订screen and modify求同存异overcome differences and seek common ground商住和公益设施建设commercial, residential and public utility construction申报制度reporting system；income declaration system实行股份制enforce stockholding system实行国民待遇grant the national treatment to, treat foreign investors as quals to the Chinese counterparts 市场准人的行政管理措施AAMA Administrative Aspects of Market Access 适销对路的产品readily marketable products双重轨制two-tier system / double-track system水利water conservation所有制形式forms of ownership贪图安逸crave comfort and pleasure通货紧缩deflation通货膨胀inflation同步增长increase in the same pace外援方式modality of foreign aid无氟冰箱freon-free refrigerator无纸交易paperless transaction现代企业制度modern corporate system消费膨胀inflated consumption协议投标negotiated bidding信息化informationize形成统一、开放和竞争有序的市场establish an unified, open market with orderly competition 亚欧会议ASEM：Asia-Europe Meeting亚太法定计量论坛APLMF：Asia Pacific Legal Metrology Forum亚太工商咨询理事会ABAC：APEC Business Advisory Council亚太计量程序APMP：Asia Pacific Metrology Program亚太经合组织部长级会议AMM：APEC MinisteriaI Meeting亚太经合组织经济领导人会议AELM：APEC Economic Leaders Meeting亚太经济合作组织APEC：Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation亚太能源研究中心APERC：Asia Pacific Energy Research Center亚太商业论坛ABF：APEC Business Forum亚太商业网络APB-Net：Asia-Pacific Business Network亚太实验室认可合作APLAC：Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation亚太通讯与数据系统ACDS：APEC Communications and Database System亚太信息基础设施APII：Asia-Pacific Information Infrastructure亚太中小企业技术交流与培训中心ACTETSME：APEC Center for Technology Exchange and Training for Small and Medium Enterprises 亚洲开发银行ADB：Asian Development Bank 以试点的形式实行外贸权自动登记制度implement an automatic registration system of foreign trading rights on a trial basis营业税turnover tax在巩固公有制主体地位的同时,促进多种所有制经济共同发展alongside fortifying the status of the public ownership as the mainstay, it is also encouraged to witness common development of different systems of ownership债转股debt-to-equity swap中华人民共和国保护台湾同胞投资实施条例Implementation Rules of the P.R.C. on the Protectionof Investments by Compatriots from Taiwan 中介服务组织intermediary service organization注入新的生机与活力bring new vigor and vitality into转化经营机制change the method of operation资本项目capital account自1999年1月1日起实行come into official enforcement as of January 1, 1999自由浮动汇率free floating exchange rate；variable exchange rate自驻经营,自负盈亏responsible for their own management decisions, profits and losses走上良性发展的轨道going on the track of sound progressshipping service company 船务公司generic products非商标（非专利）产品prudent monetary policy稳健的货币政策deficit spending超前消费run on banks（到银行）挤兑domestic support to agriculture 对农业的国内支持special bonds特种债券economy of abundance 富裕经济Animal-based protein动物源性蛋白dual purpose exports军民两用品出口dual-use goods and technology 军民两用产品和技术NAFTA North American Free Trade Area北美自由贸易区global quota全球配额grandfather clause祖父条款Animal-derived food动物源食品EVSL （Early Voluntary Sectoral Liberalization）部门提前自愿自由化TILF （Trade and Investment Liberalization and Facilitation）贸易和投资自由化和便利化汉英口译分类词汇--改革开放词汇(1)保险业The insurance industry保证重点支出Ensure funding for priority areas被兼并或挤掉annexed or forced out of business 补发拖欠的养老金Clear up pension payments in arrears不良贷款Non—performing loan层层转包和违法分保Multi-level contracting and illegal subcontracting产值output value城乡信用社Credit Cooperative in both urban and rural areas城镇居民最低生活保障 A minimum standard of living for city residents城镇职工医疗保险制度The system of medical insurance for urban workers抽样调查data from the sample survey出口信贷Export credit初步建立社会主义计划商品经济新体制。

Chapter1amorphous character无形性abstract concept of property抽象的财产概念real property不动产tort law侵权法the metaphysics of the law法律玄学statutory法定的the statute成文法patented item专利产品process方法combination组合justification正当理由antitrust government regulation反垄断法及政府法规the foundations of patent protection专利保护的基础the Statute of Monopolies《垄断法》，又称《专卖条约》guild行会，互助会exclusive rights独占权，专有权royal privilege皇家特权importation patent引进型专利patentee专利权人royal prerogative王权、君主特权an incentive theory of patents专利的激励理论inventive and importation patents发明专利和引进型专利meritorious有价值的Revolution独立战争Articles of Confederation《联邦条例》（美国1781年至1789年的第一部宪法）Constitutional Convention制宪会议a Constitutional patent power保障专利的宪法性权力more rigid Constitutional constraints更加刚性的宪法性约束the trademark statute商标法pre-empt优先于pre-emption优先适用权has no effect at all无任何效力revisions修订validity of patents专利的合法性the Patent Office has been vested with专利局被授予a patent application satisfies专利申请符合codified成文法典United State Code《美国法典》Design and plant patents外观设计专利及植物专利Application申请Grants授予Use使用Challenge异议a new,useful,and nonobvious process or product一种具有新颖性、实用性以及非显而易见性的方法或产品the patent application专利申请specification说明书claims 权利要求书asserted 主张的prior state of the art现有技术patentable可授予专利的disclosure公开，披露accrue产生issued授予trade secrets商业秘密unfair competition不正当竞争search检索ascertain确定examiner审查员be in agreement达成一致（合意）similar or identical类似的或者相同的interference proceeding抵触审查程序priority优先权the Patent Office Board of Interference Proceedings专利局抵触审查委员会amend修正patent term专利权期限exempted使免除（责任）infringement侵权renew续展expiration期满public domain公有领域make，use，or sell生产、使用、销售exploit利用，实施working实施compulsory licensing强制许可be sold outright卖断non-exclusively非排他性许可on a geographic basis以地域为界implications暗指violation违反authorization授权charge of infringement侵权诉讼unwarranted不当，无正当理由novelty新颖性utility实用性nonobviousness非显而易见性litigated诉争的re-examine复审invalid无效的declaratory judgement确权判决controversy争论pro赞成anti反对the “bargain”or contract theory“交易”或契约论the “natural rights”theory自然权利论bargain theory交易理论premise前提enumerates逐条陈述all title to全部产权obligation义务utility实益a taking剥夺the standard of patentablility专利性标准optimum最好的、最适宜的、最有利的chapter2the subject matter of patents专利的客体ideas v. applications发明构思与专利申请products or processes产品或方法plant patents植物专利design patents外观设计专利patentable可取得专利的，可授予专利的laypersons世（俗）人、外行人the application of an idea构思的应用law of nature自然法则the statutory scheme法律的保护机制manufactures制品a composition of matter物质的组合intangible无形的new and useful improvement新颖、实用的改进naturally-occurring-substance自然产生的物质printed-matter印刷品bars限制business methods商业方法mere chemical formulas 纯粹的化学公式systems of bookkeeping记账系统fundamental truths，original causes，motives，methods of calculation基本事实，起因，动机，计算方法mental step思维步骤the application of an abstract principle抽象原理的应用apportions these interests利益分配products of nature自然产品concentrated or purified products ofnature人工浓缩或提纯的自然产品an ingenious way独创方法chemical process化学方法derivative衍生物mathematical method数学方法abstract principle抽象的原理new life forms新的生命形式new technology新技术eligible符合条件的compositions of matter物质的组合patent申请专利manufacture制品structure，rather than its content，that is inventive是结构具有创造性，而不是其内容inventive characteristics创造性machine机器capture采用mathematical manifestation数学证明mathematical formulas（or “algorithms”）数学公式（或算法）mathematical algorithm数学算法test for patentablility of a process方法的专利性检验标准physical phenomenon物理现象jeopardize危及the program计算机程序Semiconductor Chip Protection Act半导体芯片保护法Orphan drug act罕见病药物法FDA美国食品及药物管理局a working requirement实施发明的要求utility patents实用专利plant patents植物专利design patents外观设计专利utility 实用性distinctiveness独特性nonobviousness非显而易见性asexually reproducing plant无性繁殖植物novelty，ornamentality，and nonobviousness新颖性、装饰性和非显而易见性the “ordinary observer”test“普通观察者”检验方法ordinary designer普通设计人员the ordinary intelligent man具有普通智力的人an exclusively functional designe具有唯一功能的外观设计chapter3statutory bars法定限制anticipation 在先公开a grace period of 12 months 12个月的宽限期application priority申请优先权printed publication，public use，sale印刷出版、公开使用、销售the principle of substantial identity实质等同原则public use公开使用a senior inventor先发明人junior inventor后发明人the availability of a documentary description by prior patent or publication在现有专利或出版物中可查阅到对该专利的文字性描述at issue争议中的publicly disseminated or accessible公开传播或广为知悉interference proceedings抵触审查程序conflicting claims相互抵触的权利要求concealment隐藏diligence勤勉foreign anticipation国外在先公开oral publication口头公开published已公布those knowledgeable in the particular art具备特定行业专业知识人员prior use在先使用a prior invention在先发明judicial construction司法解释active or continuous积极或持续的publicly available公开获得atomic energy information原子能信息references to prior publications现有出版物中的参考文献an“enabling disclosure”可实施的公开性文件enable a person having ordinary skill in the appropriate art to duplicate the invention使所属领域的普通技术人员能够重现发明a specification说明书the total combination of prior art and references现有技术和参考文献的完整结合describe描述，阐明substantial and realized anticipation实质性的和有意识的在先公开substantially identical实质相同rough similarity大致相似that which infringes，if later，anticipates，if earlier在后为侵权在先为在先公开substantiality test of infringement侵权的实质性检验标准unconscious or accidental无意识的或者偶然的a count 事项，特征be so intentional or noticed可意识到的或者被注意到statutory bar法定限制disabling使（在法律上）无资格的，这里指丧失专利性the double patenting bar重复授予专利限制the patent policy favoring speedy disclosure鼓励尽快公布发明的专利政策without divulging the secrets of the invention未透露发明的秘密the policies of statutory bar法定限制的立法目的pirate剽窃file申请专利the patent monopoly专利垄断权application priority申请优先权publicity and limited disclosures公开性和有限公布the effective life of a patent专利的有效期public use公开使用patent prosecution process专利申请程序limited or restricted限于一定范围内或秘密使用be pledged to confidentiality保证保守秘密experimental试验性使用a balancing process衡平方法the experimentation exception实验性例外the principle of substantial identity实质等同原则jeopardy危险Priority depends upon three factors：the time of conception，the time of reduction to practice，and the use of due diligence in pursuing both patent protection and perfection of the discovery。

A按图施工duplicated the plans按照标的物确定联邦法院管辖权federal subject matter jurisdiction暗示性的suggestive暗指implications《安娜法》Statute of AnnaB版权的基本原则copyright basics版权的客体the subject matter of copyright版权手续-----登记和标记copyright formalities---registration and notice版权之保护基础foundations of copyright protection半导体芯片保护法Semiconductor Chip Protection Act半导体芯片保护法Semiconductor Chip Protection Act包括comprising包装trade dress保险表格和契据insurance forms and instruments保障专利的宪法性权力a Constitutional patent power保证保守秘密be pledged to confidentiality备用注册contingent registration被告明知侵权knowing infringement by a defendant被许可人licensees本身per se本质性、关键性、或费用essentialness keyness spentness比后构思者更勤勉即可Only more diligent than one other person who conceives later 标记mark标记象征，表明事实可能存在的情况indicia标准touchstone表演performance表演权performance rights表演者performer剥夺a taking驳回reject驳回rejection驳回专利申请the striking of an application补偿remedies补充证据subsidiary evidence不被允许的欺诈性an impermissible fraudulent quality不当，无正当理由unwarranted不动产real property不可享有版权的作品noncopyrightable works不可争议性incontestability不可争议性抗辩incontestability defenses不良行为undesirable conduct不能续展的non-renewable不确定性uncertainty不使用nonuse不使用non-use不言自明的axiomatic不正当竞争unfair competition不能授予未知适用领域的专利hold otherwise would be to grant a patent on an unknown range of applications不道德的或诽谤性标志、国家象征在世名人的姓名immortal or scandalous marks，national symbols，or names of living figures不容争议性，指商标注册人如果从注册之日起连续5年在商业上使用该商标于其商品或服务上，并在继续使用，他对该商标使用权即属不容争议incontestability部分权利partial rightsC财产利益a property interest财产权a property right采用capture参照其所追求的目标by reference to the purpose sought查看版权作品的机会和实质相似access and substantial similarity产品的通用名称generic产品或方法products or processes产生accrue撤销cancellation撤销条款the cancellation provision陈旧的形象stock figures成文法the statute成文法典codified成文法上的版权statutory copyright惩戒性或惩罚性损害赔偿exemplary ir punitive damages程序代码the code of a program冲动性购买“impulse”buying抽象的财产概念abstract concept of property抽象的原理abstract principle抽象原理的应用the application of an abstract principle出版权publication rights出卖vend出售vending出租、租借、出借rental,lease,or lending初步审查examination初步推定a prima facie presumption初卖原则the “first sale”doctrine初审程序an original proceeding处于同等地位on an equal footing传播组织transmitting organizations串通的或图谋的collusive or contrived创造性inventive characteristics创作作品works of authorship“创造性的灵光一闪”条件“flash of creative genius”requirement纯粹的化学公式mere chemical formulas慈善目的charitable purposes此指商标the device此指专利法the stature次级标准subtests从事商业经营之人commercial parties从整体上进行检验，而不是分割的to be examined in their entirety，and not dissected除非后发明人首先将构思付诸实践，否则不能对先发明人提出异议 A junior inventor can never challenge a senior inventor unless the junior inventor reducesto practice first.D达成一致（合意）be in agreement大概相似approximate similarity大量的、大批的in gross大致相似rough similarity大众传媒mass media单方性质ex parte nature等同equivalent等同替代equivalent substitutions抵触审查程序interference proceeding抵触审查程序interference proceedings地理标志geographic marks地区法院district court地位平等的对造当事人an arm’s length adversary第二含义及描述secondary meaning and descriptiveness典型的侵权行为paradigmatic act of infringement独创方法an ingenious way独创性originality独立创作的作品work of independent creation独立战争Revolution独特的、奇异的arbitrary or fanciful独特性distinctiveness独占权，专有权exclusive rights独占性版权保护monopolistic copyright protection杜撰的或奇异的coined or fanciful多数票决majority vote对已有注册商标的检索a search of existing registration对知识的垄断a “monopoly of knowledge”对权力要求的解释——不同，字面和等同claim interpretation——differentiation，literality，and equivalenceF发明构思与专利申请ideas v. applications发明专利和引进型专利inventive and importation patents发行dissemination法定的statutory法定检验标准the statutory test法定例外statutory exception法定期限the statutory period法定使用费the statutory fee法定限制statutory bar法定限制statutory bars法定限制的立法目的the policies of statutory bar法定许可statutory license法定许可statutory license法官的附带意见dictum法律补救方法relief法律常识hornbook law法律的保护机制the statutory scheme法律玄学the metaphysics of the law法庭forum反淡化anti-dilution反对anti反复试验、试错trail and error反垄断法及政府法规antitrust government regulation反面证明proving a negative反商标淡化anti-dilution反向工程reverse engineer方法process方法的专利性检验标准test for patentablility of a process仿造duplicating放弃abandoned放弃abandonment放弃parts with非法复制或非法盗用illicit copying or unlawful appropriation非排他性许可non-exclusively非显而易见性nonobviousness非显而易见性nonobviousness非显而易见性nonobviousness非主要产品nonstaple非专业的观察者lay observer费用项目items of cost否定发明规则negative rules of invention服务商标service服务商标service marks符合条件的eligible辅簿注册the supplemental register附属于appurtenant复审reexamination复审re-examine复杂性complexity复制品reproduction复制权、演绎作品权、发行权、表演权、展览权the reproduction right,the derivative work right,the distribution right,the performance right,and the display rightG该技术领域内的技术人员those skilled in the art改编adaptations感知已久的long felt根据个案采取补救措施fashion a remedy tailored to the individual case更加刚性的宪法性约束more rigid Constitutional constraints工会labor union公布注册publication公开，披露disclosure公开表演public performance公开传播或广为知悉publicly disseminated or accessible公开获得publicly available公开使用public use公开性和有限公布publicity and limited disclosures公平，正义equity公平原则和法律规律principles of equity as well as of statutory law公认的技术领域a well-established field公有领域public domain功能上的限制the functional bar功能性的functional共同发明joint invention共同控制common control共同努力aggregate effort共同使用concurrent use共同使用concurrent use构思本身ideas per se构思的应用the application of an idea鼓励尽快公布发明的专利政策the patent policy favoring speedy disclosure固定在有形介质上fixation in a tangible medium故意欺骗行为intentionally deceptive conduct雇佣作品work for hire关税及专利权上诉法院the Court of Customs and Patent Appeal管制police归属于vested国外在先公开foreign anticipation过渡transition过失negligence过于宽泛overbreadthH海关服务局customs service罕见病药物法Orphan drug act合法诉因legitimate complaint合法所有者lawful owner of合理的使用费a reasonable royalty for the use合理评论fair comment合理使用fair use合理使用fair users/use合理使用与平行使用fair and collateral use黑市商品“black market”goods横财a windfall衡平法上的禁止翻供或者疏忽懈怠equitable estoppel or laches衡平法上的救济equitable relief衡平法上的救济措施equitable remedies衡平法上有效的equitable衡平方法a balancing process后发明人junior inventor后注册人junior registrant化学方法chemical process换发专利证书与复审reissue and re-examination皇家特权royal privilege灰市商品gray market goods毁谤disparage混合法hybrid混淆，讹误或欺骗confusion，mistake，or deceit混淆confusion混淆的可能性likelihood of confusionJ机构establishments机器machine积极或持续的active or continuous基本事实，起因，动机，计算方法fundamental truths，original causes，motives，methods of calculation集体商标collective marks集体商标collective marks集体贸易（服务）商标和集体成员资格商标collective trade（or service）marks and collective membership marks计算accounting计算机程序、唱片和戏剧人物computer programs,phonorecords,and dramatic personalities计算机程序the program计帐方法accounting system记账系统systems of bookkeeping假冒palming off间接证据secondary evidence间接证据secondary considerations间接证据规则circumstantial evidence rule检索search建筑设计图architectural plans将一项有争议的准许发回remand a dubious交易理论bargain theory“交易”或契约论the “bargain”or contract theory教派、学派sects接触contact仅有单方当事人ex parte尽其所知和所能to the best of his knowledge and belief进行，推行prosecuting禁令救济injunctive relief禁令救济injunctive relief禁令救济injunctive relief禁止“窃取”他人的专利prohibit the “stealing”of another’s patents禁止enjoining禁止反悔file wrapper estoppel禁止滥用权利理论a theory of misappropriation禁止虚伪欺骗的描述“deceptively misdescriptive”bar禁止重复授权the double-patenting禁止对旧事物的新功能授予专利原则the prohibiting patents on newly discovered properties of old elements 经济利益pecuniary interest经济利益the economic well-being竞争优势a competitive edge救济措施relief救济措施remedies局长Commissioner局长the Commissioner具备特定行业专业知识人员those knowledgeable in the particular art具有普通智力的人the ordinary intelligent man具有唯一功能的外观设计an exclusively functional designe具有原创性的表达original expression具备描述性/显著性的商标in the descriptive/distinctive continuum决定专利的实用性qualitative utility绝对等同absolute identityK抗辩/指控defensive/offensive可能性likelihood可取得专利的，可授予专利的patentable可实施的公开性文件an“enabling disclosure”可授予专利的patentable可享有版权的作品copyrightable woks可意识到的或者被注意到be so intentional or noticed客观标准objective tests客观标准objective standard口头表达形式oral presentations口头公开oral publicationL类似的或者相同的similar or identical类似于analogous理解和实施articulation and implementation利害关系人privy利益分配apportions these interests利用，实施exploit利用exploitation连续两年two consecutive years联邦法院管辖权（指不同州的公民之间或州公民与外侨之间所发生的诉讼管辖权）diversity 联邦公告federal publication联邦管辖权federal jurisdiction联邦巡回法院Federal Circuit联邦优先原则the doctrine of federal pre-emption联邦注册federal registration联系nexus《联邦条例》（美国1781年至1789年的第一部宪法）Articles of Confederation临时禁令preliminary relief零售retail垄断monopolization《垄断法》，又称《专卖条约》the Statute of Monopolies录音sound recordings录音制品制作者producer录音作品sound recordings律师费attorney’s fees律师费attorneys’feesM买卖sale卖断be sold outright冒犯性offensive美国食品及药物管理局FDA美国专利与商标局the Patent and Trademark Office美术作品works of fine arts《美国法典》United State Code美国版权作品新技术应用委员会the National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Words(CONTU)描述，阐明describe描述性商标descriptive marks名录、汇编物directories,compilations明确的因素well-defined factors明知，故意scienter明知、故意scienter目标代码the object codeN尼泊尔公约实施法The Berne Convention Implementation Act年版权法Copyright Art of 1976 1976P旁证，间接证据circumstantial evidence批发wholesale批准通知notice of allowance剽窃pirate剽窃plagiarism平行进口parallel imports普通法common law普通法上的版权common law copyright普通技术工匠journeyman mechanic普通设计人员ordinary designer普通消费者the average consumer“普通观察者”检验方法the “ordinary observer”test《飘》Gone With The WindQ期满expiration欺骗消费者consumer fraud欺诈动机deceptive intent奇异性curiosity启动异议程序的资格standing起诉书和答辩状a complaint and answer起诉资格standing to sue“弃用”条款“deadwood”provision前提premise强制许可a compulsory license强制许可compulsory license强制许可compulsory licensing强制许可使用费the compulsory fee巧合coincidence侵犯trespassing侵权infringement侵权的实质性检验标准substantiality test of infringement侵权法tort law侵权抗辩——滥用专利权infringement defenses——misuse侵权诉讼charge of infringement侵权诉讼infringement action侵权诉讼infringement actions侵权所获利润profits侵权行为tortious conduct勤勉diligence清偿liquidation区别购买者理论“discriminating purchase”theory区域优先使用理论the doctrine of regional priority曲作者composers取证方法evidentiary device全部产权all title to全部销售额gross全体出庭法官（在美国，指巡回上诉法庭通常对一个重大案件的审理可扩大法庭审判官的人数，又称（sitting en banc）en banc权力要求不同原则the doctrine of claim differentiation权利分配allocation权利要求the claim权利要求书claims确定ascertain确权判决declaratory judgement确有部分消费者a recognizable number of consumersR人工浓缩或提纯的自然产品concentrated or purified products ofnature人物和顺序characters and sequence认证Seal of Approval“如何使用”原则the “how-to-use”doctrineS善意good-faith善意的后使用人good faith junior users善意或不知情good faith or ignorance善意使用bona fide use商标保护及部分保护的丧失loss of trademark protection and partial protection商标淡化dilution商标的客体subject matter商标的使用trademark practice商标的影响力strength of the mark商标法the trademark statute商标局Trademark Office商标局公告the Official Gazette of the Office商标权扩展的可能性likelihood of expansion商标权扩展理论doctrine of expanded rights商标权扩展理论expansion of trademark doctrine商标审理与申诉委员会the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board（TTAB）商标诉讼实用主义pragmatics of trademark litigation商标主簿注册the Principal Register商品或服务的相似性similarity of goods or services商业道德business ethice商业方法business methods商业方法business methods商业利益集团mercantile interests商业秘密trade secrets商业秘密法secret law商业上的成功commercial success商业上利用commercial exploitation商业中的首次使用first use in commerce商誉goodwill商品识别机制以及市场优势手段 a mechanism for providing identification as well as a technique for providing a marketing advantage少量、一点点modicum申请Application申请优先权application priority申请优先权application priority申请专利file申请专利patent身份、资格standing身份、资格standing审查程序the screening process审查员examiner生产、使用、销售make，use，or sell胜诉方the prevailing party“胜诉可能性”标准the standard of “likelihood of success on the merits”石版画lithographs实际的实用性substantial utility实际上的可互换性practical interchangeability实施exploitation实施work实施working实施发明的要求a working requirement实体法the substantive law实验性例外the experimentation exception实益utility实用-----非实用二分法utilitarian-nonutilitarian dichotomy实用物品utilitarian objects实用性utility实用专利a utility patent实用专利utility patents实用作品utilitarian works实质等同a substantial equivalent实质等同原则the principle of substantial identity实质等同原则the principle of substantial identity实质相似substantially similar实质相同substantially identical实质性的和有意识的在先公开substantial and realized anticipation使（在法律上）无资格的，这里指丧失专利性disabling使免除（责任）exempted使用Use使用费royalty使用意向intent-to-use“使用意向”条款“intent-to-use”provision使所属领域的普通技术人员能够重现发明enable a person having ordinary skill in the appropriate art to duplicate the invention世（俗）人、外行人laypersons市场弊端marketplace evils市场特征及其相似性character and similarity of markets市场现状market reality事实调查factual inquiry事实放弃actual abandonment事实上Factually事实信息factual information事项，特征a count试验性使用experimental是结构具有创造性，而不是其内容structure，rather than its content，that is inventive是能够公开的enabling disclosure首创性专利a pioneer parent首次销售穷竭first sale “exhausts”受法律保护的利益the interests protected受让人assignees授权、转让delegate授权authorization授予Grants授予issued数据库repositories数学方法mathematical method数学公式（或算法）mathematical formulas（or “algorithms”）数学算法mathematical algorithm数学证明mathematical manifestation说明书a specification说明书specification说明书和权利要求书the specifications and claims司法裁决judicial decree司法管辖范围the judicial arena司法怀疑理论judicial skepticism司法解释judicial construction司法判断、裁量judicial fiat司法审查judicial review私人出庭检察官（指可出庭为每个公民实施公共权利的个人检察官）private attorney general 思维步骤mental step思想-----表达二分法the idea-expression dichotomy诉讼费用costs诉因cause of action诉争的litigated随意的arbitrary损害赔偿damages损害赔偿damages所有权转移transfer of ownership12个月的宽限期a grace period of 12 monthsT特别是inter alia特定技术的历史history of the art特定实用性a specific utility特殊规则ad hoc rules特殊情况exceptional case特许经营权协议franchising arrangement提出抗辩interpose the defense通用药品generic drugs同时注册concurrent registration偷窃purloined推测的实用性speculative utility推定的实用性presumed utility推定放弃或法定放弃constructive or legal abandonment推定使用constructive use推定通知constructive notice推定通知原则the doctrine of constructive notice推断现有技术理论a doctrine of constructive prior art推论inferenceW外观设计专利design patent外观设计专利design patents外观设计专利design patents外观设计专利及植物专利Design and plant patents王权、君主特权royal prerogative危及jeopardize危险jeopardy违反contravenes违反violation违宪unconstitutional维护vindicate委婉的说法euphemism未经授权的使用人unauthorized user未透露发明的秘密without divulging the secrets of the invention文字上重叠literal overlap文学作品/音乐作品、戏剧作品、舞蹈作品、图形作品、音像作品、录音作品literary works, musical works, dramatic works, choreographic works, graphic works, audiovisual works, and sound recordings无保证许可naked licensing无辜侵权innocent infringement无过错侵权innocent infringement无过错侵权人innocent infringer无任何效力has no effect at all无效的invalid无形的intangible无形性amorphous character无性繁殖植物asexually reproducing plant无需dispenses with无选择余地a Hobson’s choice无意识的或者偶然的unconscious or accidental无意识侵权unconscious infringement侮辱contempt舞蹈choreography舞谱choreographic notation物理现象physical phenomenon物质的组合a composition of matter物质的组合compositions of matterX戏剧、电影plays, motion pictures戏剧人物dramatic character先发明人a senior inventor先例效力precedential先注册人senior registrant显著性distinctiveness现有出版物中的参考文献references to prior publications现有技术prior art现有技术prior state of the art现有技术和参考文献的完整结合the total combination of prior art and references 现有专利Prior patents限于一定范围内或秘密使用limited or restricted限制bars限制circumscribed限制解释a restrictive interpretation相当于be tantamount to相关的pertinent相关公司related companies相关商品原则“related goods”doctrine相关性relatedness相互抵触的权利要求conflicting claims象征性交易token transactions象征性使用token use消费者的相似性the similarity of consumers消费者的信任consumer loyalty消费者期望consumer expectations销售渠道channels of trade肖像likeness新的生命形式new life forms新技术new technology新颖、实用的改进new and useful improvement新颖性、装饰性和非显而易见性novelty，ornamentality，and nonobviousness 新颖性novelty新颖性novelty行会，互助会guild行会guild行业trade修订revisions修复与再造repair and reconstruction修复与再造两分法repair-reconstruction dichotomy修正amend需求needs许可协议license agreement序言preamble续展renew选择、选定adoption巡回法院circuits协和作用synergism“形式”或“风格”“form”or”style”先构思者常享有专利保护的优先权the first to conceive generally has priority to patent protection行政法上的用尽救济原则（指司法复审原则，要求原告只有用尽所有行政救济措施办法后，法院才不得拒绝复审行政机构的决定的请求）the exhaustion of remedies doctrine of administrative lawY哑剧pantomime衍生物derivative掩膜作品mask works演绎derivations演绎作品derivative works一相关裁决a correlative holding已公布published以地域为界on a geographic basis以类似的方式in a similar fashion以有形形式固定作品fixation of the work into tangible form以这么被普遍接受的方法in such a black-letter way以最佳方式in its best mode义务obligation艺术作品artistic creation异常的或奇异的效果unusual or surprising result异议Challenge意想不到的效果unexpected results一种具有新颖性、实用性以及非显而易见性的方法或产品 a new ,useful ,and nonobvious process or product异议程序、抵触申请程序、撤销程序及再同时注册程序opposition proceedings，interference proceedings，cancellation proceedings，de novo concurrent registration proceedings译文、编排、改编成戏剧、小说、电影、录音制品、删节本、缩写本translations,arrangements,dramatizations,fictionalizations,films,recordings,abridgments,condensat ions引进型专利importation patent隐藏concealment印刷出版、公开使用、销售printed publication，public use，sale印刷品printed-matter英美普通商标法the Anglo-American common law of trademark营利目的for profit影响力strength of优先权priority优先权悖论Priority paradox优先使用priority of appropriation优先适用权pre-emption优先于pre-empt优先权取决于决于三个因素：构思时间、付诸实现的时间、在寻求专利保护和发明物的有效性过程中的应有注意Priority depends upon three factors：the time of conception，the time of reduction to practice，and the use of due diligence in pursuing both patent protection and perfection of the discovery。

Animal Rights Standing Up for Animals Animal rights is a contentious and emotionally charged issue that has been the subject of debate for decades. On one hand, there are those who believe that animals should be treated with the same respect and consideration as humans, while on the other hand, there are those who argue that animals are simply a resource to be used for human benefit. As a result, the topic of animal rights has sparked passionate discussions and activism from both sides of the debate. One perspective on animal rights is that animals should be granted the same fundamental rights as humans. Proponents of this view argue that animals are sentient beings capable of feeling pain, joy, and suffering, and therefore should be afforded the same protections and rights as humans. They advocate for the abolition of practices such as factory farming, animal testing, and the use of animals for entertainment, and instead promote a vegan lifestyle and the adoption of cruelty-free products. This perspective is often fueled by emotional appeals, as advocates highlight the suffering and mistreatment that animals endure in various industries. Images and videos of animals in deplorable conditions, such as cramped cages on factory farms or being subjected to painful experiments in laboratories, serve as powerful tools to evoke empathy and compassion from the public. Additionally, personal stories of rescued animals and their road to recovery further tug at the heartstrings of individuals, compelling them to take action in support of animal rights. On the other hand, there are those who argue that while animals should be treated humanely, they are ultimately a resource for human use. This perspective often stems from cultural, religious, or economic reasons, as well as a belief in human superiority over animals. For example, in some cultures, the consumption of meat is deeply ingrained in tradition and is seen as essential for nourishment. In other cases, industries such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics rely on animal testing to ensure the safety and efficacy of their products. From this standpoint, emotions may also play a role, but in a different way. Individuals who support the use of animals for human benefit may feel a sense of security and comfort in maintaining familiar practices and traditions. They may also express concern about the potential economic impact of transitioning away from industries that rely on animal use, fearing job lossand economic instability. Additionally, some may argue that the advancement of human medicine and technology is dependent on animal research, and that the benefits to human health and well-being outweigh the ethical considerations of animal rights. In the midst of these conflicting perspectives, there are also individuals and organizations that advocate for a middle ground approach to animal rights. This approach seeks to find a balance between the use of animals for human benefit and the ethical treatment of animals. It may involve supportinglegislation and regulations that improve animal welfare standards, promoting the adoption of alternative testing methods in scientific research, and encouraging sustainable and ethical practices in food production. Emotionally, this perspective may resonate with those who feel torn between their concern for animal welfare and their reliance on animal products or services. They may experience a sense of moral conflict, wanting to make ethical choices for animals while also navigating the practical realities of their daily lives. This middle ground approach acknowledges the complexities of the issue and seeks to find practical solutions that consider both human and animal interests. In conclusion, the topic of animal rights is a multifaceted and emotionally charged issue that elicits passionate responses from various perspectives. Whether advocating for the fundamental rights of animals, supporting the use of animals for human benefit, or seeking a middle ground approach, emotions play a significant role in shaping individual beliefs and actions. As the debate continues, it is important to consider the diverse perspectives and emotions involved, and to strive for constructive dialogue and meaningful change in support of animal rights.。

American IP lawChapter 1 The Foundations of Patent ProtectionDiscussion:• 1 What is intellectual property?• 2 What are intellectual property rights?• 3 Name some examples of IPR.• 4 What are the main kinds of IPR laws?• 5 Why do governments establish IPR laws?• 6 Why does America attach great importance to the protection of IPR?•7 Brief introduction to American IPR laws.•1 What is intellectual property?IP refers to such creations of the mind as inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce.2 What is intellectual property right?IP rights are intangible legal rights which protect the products of human intelligence and creation, such as copyrightable works, patented inventions, trade marks, and trade secrets.3 Name some examples of IP.IP is divided into two categories: Industrial property, which includes inventions (patents), trademarks, industrial designs, and geographic indications of source; and Copyright, which includes literary and artistic works such as novels, poems and plays, films, musical works, artistic works such as drawings, paintings, photographs and sculptures, and architectural designs.4 What are the main kinds of IPR laws?Intellectual property rights laws include patent, copyright, trademark, and trade secret laws, which typically protect IP rights.5 Why do governments establish IPR laws?Countries have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to protect creators and others producers of intellectual goods and services by granting them certain time-limited rights to control the use made of those productions. The second is to induce creative people to expend the time, effort, and funds necessary to invent or produce intellectual things and then promote technological innovation and economic growth and enrich people’s spiritual life.6 Why does America attach great importance to the protection of IPR?IP plays a very important role in American economy.7 Brief introduction to American IPR laws.Intellectual property laws include patent, copyright, trademark, and trade secret laws, which typically protect IP rights. Patents, copyrights, and trademarks are creations of statute, where thegovernment recognizes and enforces the public expression of an original idea for a limited period of time. Trade secrets, established by common law, can protect IP through contractual and tort remedies. Copyright laws generally protect creative and artistic works such as books, movies, music, paintings, photographs, and software. Patents, trademarks and trade secret laws are used more often to protect industrial properties, as they are generally created and used for industrial or commercial purposes.In the United States, these laws exist at both the state and federal levels. The laws vary somewhat from state to state. At the federal level, the Constitution and legislation authorized under the Constitution deal exclusively with patents and copyrights, and partially with trademarks and related areas of unfair competition. Intellectual property law is extraordinarily complex, and by its very nature, continuously evolving.Chapter 1The Foundations of Patent Protection1.1Ancient Greece The origin of American patent law.At the beginning of medieval times The monarch granted some royal privileges to control various sectors of the market.By the time of Elizabeth The practice of royal patents had become a burden on free competition.1623The Statute of Monopolies effectively ended the most serious monopolies.It was received by the American colonies.By the time of the Revolution Virtually all of the colonies had granted patents;Well-established state patent practices developed.1790The first patent statute was enacted.1793、1836、1952、2007 There have been four major revisions of the Patent Act.1.2 Patent Basics1 The requirements that a patent needs to meet.A. preparing documents: request, specification, claimB. submitting the applicationC. examining the applicationD. granting a patent or rejecting the application2. The right that a patentee hasA. the patentee has the exclusive right to make, use, or sell the invention.1 The owners can exclusively use their patents.2 The owners can sell (assign) their patents.B. the owner has the complete right to determine who will have the right to use, make, or sell the patented item.3 The owners can license their patents.C. the patentee has different ways of using the patent4 The owners can use their patents to invest a factory.D. a patent owner may sue anyone he believes has been using part or all of the basis of the patent without authorization.1.3 The Two Theories of Patent Protection(1) The “bargain”or contract theoryIt starts with the premise that people will be encouraged to produce new inventions if there is some reward as an incentive.(2) the “natural rights”theoryThe product of mental labor is the property of the person who created it. Having all title to the invention, the inventor has no obligation to disclose anything and has every right to be compensated therefor.CommentBoth of the two theories are partially incomplete and both theories have great utility.The present patent system reflects the advantages of both theories.Chapter 2 The Subject Matter of Patents1 The Subject Matter of PatentsChinese relevant provisions.专利保护的客体是指专利保护的对象，也就是说，可以取得专利保护的发明创造。

Justice is a fundamental principle that underpins the fabric of society,ensuring that every individual is treated fairly and equitably.It is the cornerstone of a harmonious world where the rights and freedoms of all are respected and protected.In the realm of law and governance,justice is the guiding force that shapes the legal frameworks and institutions that govern our lives.It demands that laws be applied impartially,without favoritism or bias,and that the judicial process be transparent and accessible to all.This ensures that everyone,regardless of their status or background,has an equal opportunity to seek redress for grievances and to hold those in power accountable for their actions.Economic justice is another critical aspect of a fair world.It involves the fair distribution of resources and opportunities,ensuring that wealth and power are not concentrated in the hands of a few,but are shared more equitably among all members of society.This can be achieved through progressive taxation,social welfare programs,and policies that promote access to quality education,healthcare,and employment opportunities for all.Social justice is also essential for creating a fair and inclusive society.It involves recognizing and addressing the systemic barriers that prevent certain groups from fully participating in society,such as discrimination based on race,gender,religion,or sexual orientation.By promoting diversity,tolerance,and mutual respect,we can create a more just and equitable world where everyone has the opportunity to thrive. Environmental justice is another important dimension of a fair world.It recognizes the disproportionate impact that environmental degradation and climate change have on vulnerable communities and future generations.By promoting sustainable development, protecting natural resources,and addressing the root causes of environmental injustice, we can ensure a healthier and more sustainable future for all.In conclusion,justice is a multifaceted concept that encompasses legal,economic,social, and environmental dimensions.By striving for a more just world,we can create a society where everyone has the opportunity to live with dignity,freedom,and respect for their rights.It is our collective responsibility to uphold the principles of justice and to work towards a fairer and more equitable world for all.。

永不干涉大自然原则作文英文回答：The principle of non-interference with nature is a fundamental concept that emphasizes the importance of allowing natural processes to unfold without human intervention. It recognizes that nature has its own balance and wisdom, and that our interference can disrupt this delicate equilibrium.By adhering to this principle, we can protect and preserve the diversity of ecosystems and species that exist in our world. We must resist the temptation to exploit natural resources for short-term gains, as this can lead to irreversible damage to the environment. Instead, we should strive to live in harmony with nature, respecting its rhythms and cycles.Furthermore, the principle of non-interference with nature also extends to the ethical treatment of animals. Itmeans that we should not exploit or harm animals for ourown selfish desires. We should recognize that animals have their own rights and deserve to be treated with kindnessand compassion.In conclusion, the principle of non-interference with nature is a guiding principle that reminds us of our responsibility to protect and preserve the natural world.By embracing this principle, we can ensure a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations.中文回答：永不干涉大自然原则是一个基本概念，强调了让自然过程自由发展的重要性，不干预。

对美国独立宣言的理解英文作文$$The Significance and Impact of the Declaration of Independence$$The Declaration of Independence, a document of profound historical significance, stands as a monumental testament to the principles of freedom, equality, and democracy. It not only marks the beginning of a new nation, the United States of America, but also establishes a foundation for the rights and freedoms that have become the cornerstone of Western civilization.At its core, the Declaration of Independence is a powerful assertion of the natural rights of mankind. It begins with a resounding declaration that "all men are created equal" and are endowed with certain unalienable rights, including the pursuit of happiness and the freedom to engage in the pursuits of life and liberty. These rights are not granted by any government or ruler, but are inherent to all human beings. This assertion challenges the prevailing belief that the rights of individuals are derived from the whims and whimsies of those in power.The Declaration further argues that when a government becomes tyrannical and oppressive, it violates the natural rights of its citizens. It is then the duty of the people to rise up and overthrow such a government, establishing a new one that respects and protects their rights. This revolutionary idea, that the people have the right and the responsibility to determine their own form of governance, was a radical departure from the traditional view that power flowed solely from the monarchy or aristocracy.The Declaration of Independence was not merely a political document. It was also a powerful expression of the ideals and aspirations of the American people. It called for a nation that would be a beacon of liberty and freedom for the world. It envisioned a society where individuals could pursue their dreams and ambitions without fear of oppression or persecution. This vision has been a guiding light for the United States throughout its history, inspiring countless individuals to fight for freedom and justice.The impact of the Declaration of Independence has been felt not only in the United States, but also globally. Itsprinciples of freedom, equality, and democracy have been embraced by nations around the world as the foundation for their own political systems. The Declaration has served as a model for other oppressed peoples to rise up and demand their own freedom and independence.Moreover, the Declaration of Independence has had a profound influence on the development of international law and human rights law. Its assertion of the inherent rights of all human beings has been a key element in the establishment of international norms and treaties aimed at protecting the rights and freedoms of individuals.In conclusion, the Declaration of Independence is a document of immense historical and philosophical significance. It established the United States as a nation dedicated to the principles of freedom, equality, and democracy. It challenged the prevailing political order and inspired countless individuals to fight for their rights. And it has had a lasting impact on the development of international law and human rights law. The Declaration of Independence remains a powerful reminder of the importanceof individual rights and freedoms, and a beacon of hope for those who seek to build a more just and equal world.。

Justice is a fundamental concept that underpins the fabric of society,ensuring that all individuals are treated fairly and equitably.It is the cornerstone of a just and democratic system,where the rule of law prevails and the rights of every citizen are respected and protected.In an essay on justice,one would first define the term and its various dimensions.Justice can be understood as the principle of fairness,impartiality,and the equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.It encompasses both procedural justice,which focuses on the fairness of the processes that lead to a decision,and distributive justice,which is concerned with the fair allocation of resources and rewards.The essay would then delve into the importance of justice in society.Justice is essential for maintaining social order and stability,as it helps to prevent conflicts and disputes that may arise from perceived unfairness or discrimination.It also fosters a sense of trust and cooperation among individuals,as they can rely on the system to treat them fairly and protect their rights.Furthermore,the essay would explore the different ways in which justice can be achieved. This may include the establishment of fair laws and regulations,the impartial enforcement of these laws by the judiciary,and the promotion of transparency and accountability in all aspects of governance.It would also highlight the role of education in instilling a sense of justice and fairness in individuals,as well as the importance of media and civil society in holding those in power accountable.However,the essay would also acknowledge the challenges and complexities in achieving justice.It would discuss the various forms of injustice that persist in society, such as discrimination based on race,gender,or social status,and the barriers that prevent certain groups from accessing justice.It would also examine the role of power dynamics and corruption in undermining the pursuit of justice.To address these challenges,the essay would propose potential solutions and strategies for promoting a more just society.This might involve reforming legal and political systems to eliminate bias and ensure equal representation,as well as empowering marginalized communities to advocate for their rights.It could also suggest the need for a cultural shift towards greater empathy and understanding,as well as the importance of education in fostering a sense of social responsibility and justice.In conclusion,the essay would emphasize the vital role of justice in creating a harmonious and equitable society.It would argue that while achieving perfect justice may be an idealistic goal,striving for greater fairness and equality is both a moral imperativeand a practical necessity for the wellbeing of all members of society.By reflecting on the principles of justice and the obstacles that hinder its realization,the essay would inspire readers to consider their own role in promoting a more just world.。

The Ethics of Animal Rights A Debate forthe AgesTitle: The Ethics of Animal Rights: A Debate for the Ages Introduction: The question of animal rights has been a subject of intense debate for centuries, pitting different perspectives against each other. This ethical dilemma raises important questions about the treatment and rights of non-human animals. While some argue that animals have inherent rights and should be treated with respect and compassion, others contend that humans have dominion over animals and can use them for their own benefit. This essay will explore multiple perspectives on the ethics of animal rights, delving into the moral, philosophical, and practical aspects of the debate. Perspective 1: Animal Rights as Inherent and Inviolable Advocates for animal rights argue that animals, like humans, possess inherent rights that should be respected. They believe that animals have the capacity to feel pain, suffer, and experience pleasure, making them deserving of ethical consideration. These proponents argue that animals should not be used as mere resources for human consumption or entertainment. Instead, they advocate for the abolition of practices such as factory farming, animal testing, and animal exploitation in various industries. They emphasize the importance of recognizing animals as individuals with their own interests, and call for legal protections to ensure their welfare. Perspective 2: Animal Welfare and Utilitarianism Another perspective on animal rights revolves around the concept of animal welfare. Adherents of this viewpoint argue that while animals may not possess inherent rights, they should still be treated with kindness and compassion. This perspective is often grounded in utilitarianism, which advocates for actions that maximize overall happiness and minimize suffering. Proponents of animal welfare argue that it is in the best interest of society to ensure that animals are not subjected to unnecessary pain and suffering. They support regulations and standards that promote ethical treatment of animals, such as providing adequate living conditions and minimizing stress during captivity. Perspective 3: Human Superiority and Animal Use Opponents of animal rights argue that humans hold a superior position in the natural order and, therefore, have the right to useanimals for their own benefit. They believe that animals are fundamentally different from humans and lack the moral agency necessary to possess rights. This perspective often stems from religious or philosophical beliefs that emphasize human dominance over nature. These individuals argue that human interests and needs should take precedence over those of animals, justifying practices such as animal agriculture, hunting, and medical research. They contend that the benefits derived from these practices outweigh any ethical concerns. Perspective 4: Balancing Human and Animal Interests A more moderate perspective acknowledges that while animals may not possess the same rights as humans, their interests should still be taken into account. This approach recognizes the importance of balancing human needs and desires with the welfare and well-being of animals. Proponents of this view argue for the implementation of regulations and policies that minimize animal suffering and promote responsible stewardship. They advocate for the use of alternative methods in scientific research, the reduction of animal agriculture through dietary changes, and the promotion of conservation efforts to protect endangered species. Conclusion: The debate surrounding animal rights is complex and multifaceted, encompassing a wide range of ethical, philosophical, and practical considerations. While some argue for the inherent rights of animals, others emphasize the importance of animal welfare or human superiority. A more balanced perspective calls for the recognition of animal interests while considering human needs. Ultimately, finding a middle ground that respects the rights and welfare of animals while acknowledging human interests is crucial. By engaging in this ongoing debate, society can strive towards a more ethical and compassionate treatment of non-human animals.。

As we all know, the Nature Conservancy is a non-profit organization which engaged in Ecological environment protection. I want to say: I am a nature lover and I wish to do something to save our earth, save the places which giving birth to us.As far as I know, the Nature Conservancy was founded in 1951 in America. Now, the number of the TNC members is more than 100 million. The mission of the TNC is to protect ecologically important lands and waters for nature and people. Hundreds of staff scientists have pioneered countless conservation solutions — from regrowing coral reefs to planning dams to mapping wildlife corridors.For me, I think we could have a lot to do. Now, the situation on earth is emergent. First, it’s the global warming. In recent 100 years, the average globe temperature has experienced cold—warm-cold two warm fluctuations. After entering 1980s, the global temperature rises apparently. Two, deforestation. Because of the large use of the wood and urbanization, or other reasons. The forest has been reduced quickly. Three, endangered species of plants and animals. Sanjiang plain wetland is the largest wetland of the China. Nowadays, the size of that has been cut by half. Four, air pollution. the source comes from the factories, domestic garbage and transportation pollution. A few weeks ago, the PM2.5 in Beijing nearly 1000. Five, water pollution. We know Huangpu river was polluted by dead pigs on March. That means, people have drunk dead pig-soaked water.I think, the best way to solute the problem is publicity and education. Schools need more cultural quality education. Society need more Environment Protection Agency. The government need pay more in terms of environmental issues. In fact, the nature conservation problem is everyone’s responsibility. I ask for becoming a TNC member to do my best to protect the earth. I’ll be the publicizing ambassador and do something more substantive.。

Animal Rights The Fight for JusticeAnimal rights have been a topic of debate for decades, with advocates and opponents presenting contrasting views on the matter. The issue is complex, as it involves balancing the interests of humans and animals. While some people argue that animals exist to serve humans, others believe that animals have their own inherent value and should be treated with respect and compassion. In this essay, I will explore the different perspectives on animal rights and the fight for justice.One perspective on animal rights is that animals should be treated as property and used for human benefit. This view is often held by those who believe that humans have dominion over animals and that animals do not have the same rights as humans. They argue that animals are not capable of rational thought and therefore cannot have rights. Supporters of this view often point to the fact that humans have been using animals for food, clothing, and labor for thousands of years.On the other hand, animal rights advocates believe that animals have their own inherent value and should be treated with respect and compassion. They argue that animals have the capacity to feel pain and suffer just like humans do and therefore should be protected from harm. Animal rights activists often point to the cruel and inhumane treatment of animals in industries such as factory farming, animal testing, and entertainment.Another perspective on animal rights is that animals should be treated as individuals with their own rights. This view is often associated with the animal rights movement, which seeks to grant animals legal personhood. Animal rights activists argue that animals are sentient beings with their own interests and that they should be granted the same legal protections as humans. This includes the right to life, liberty, and freedom from harm.However, opponents of animal rights argue that granting animals legal personhood would have significant consequences for society. They argue that it would lead to a slippery slope where animals would be granted the same rights as humans, which would have a negative impact on industries such as agriculture and biomedical research.Despite the differing perspectives on animal rights, there is a growing movement towards animal welfare and the fight for justice. This movement seeks to improve the living conditions of animals and reduce their suffering. Animal welfare organizations work to promote humane treatment of animals in industries such as farming, testing, and entertainment. They also advocate for stronger animal protection laws and regulations.In conclusion, the debate over animal rights is complex and multifaceted. While some people view animals as property to be used for human benefit, others believe that animals have their own inherent value and should be treated with respect and compassion. The fight for justice and animal welfare seeks to improve the living conditions of animals and reduce their suffering. As society becomes more aware of the impact of human actions on animals, it is likely that the debate over animal rights will continue to evolve.。

Animal Rights The Fight for a MoreHumane WorldAnimal rights have been a contentious issue for many years, with passionate advocates on both sides of the debate. The fight for a more humane world for animals has gained momentum in recent years, as more people become aware of the mistreatment and exploitation of animals in various industries. This issue encompasses a wide range of perspectives, including ethical, environmental, and economic considerations. It is crucial to explore these perspectives in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the complex and multifaceted nature of the animal rights movement. One of the key perspectives in the animal rights debateis the ethical consideration of the treatment of animals. Many advocates arguethat animals are sentient beings capable of experiencing pain, fear, and suffering, and therefore deserve to be treated with compassion and respect. This perspectiveis often rooted in moral and philosophical beliefs about the inherent value of all living beings, regardless of their species. For proponents of this view, the fight for animal rights is a fundamental moral imperative, akin to other social justice movements aimed at ending oppression and discrimination. On the other hand, there are those who hold a more utilitarian perspective, weighing the costs and benefits of animal use for human purposes. This perspective often emphasizes the importance of considering the overall welfare of society, including human well-being and economic interests. Proponents of this view may argue that certain uses of animals, such as in agriculture or scientific research, are necessary for human survivaland progress. They may also point to the economic impact of animal industries and the potential consequences of disrupting these systems. Another important perspective to consider is the environmental impact of animal agriculture andother industries that exploit animals. The mass production of livestock for food,in particular, has been linked to deforestation, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Advocates for environmental sustainability often highlight the detrimental effects of animal agriculture on ecosystems and natural resources, as well as the potential benefits of transitioning to plant-based diets and sustainable farming practices. In addition to ethical and environmentalconsiderations, the animal rights movement also intersects with legal andpolitical issues. Laws and regulations regarding animal welfare vary widely across different countries and regions, and the enforcement of these laws can be inconsistent. Animal rights activists often engage in lobbying efforts and legal advocacy to push for stronger protections for animals and stricter enforcement of existing regulations. This aspect of the movement involves navigating complex political landscapes and working within existing legal frameworks to effect meaningful change. Furthermore, the fight for animal rights is deeply intertwined with cultural and social norms surrounding the use and treatment of animals. Practices such as hunting, animal entertainment, and the use of animals in traditional medicine are deeply ingrained in many societies, making it challenging to shift attitudes and behaviors. The cultural significance of certain animal products and practices can also present barriers to the widespread adoption of more humane alternatives, requiring a nuanced and culturally sensitive approach to advocacy and education. Ultimately, the fight for a more humane world for animals is a multifaceted and complex endeavor that requires consideration of a wide range of perspectives. It is a deeply emotional issue for many people, driven by a sense of empathy and compassion for the suffering of animals. At the same time, it is also a practical and pragmatic issue that involves navigating ethical, environmental, legal, and cultural complexities. As the animal rights movement continues to evolve and gain momentum, it is essential to engage with these diverse perspectives in order to work towards meaningful and sustainable change.。

INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS公民权利和政治权利国际公约Preamble 序言The States Parties to the present Covenant, Considering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world, Recognizing that these rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person, Recognizing that, in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ideal of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom and freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if conditions are created whereby everyone may enjoy his civil and political rights, as well as his economic, social and cultural rights, Considering the obligation of States under the Charter of the United Nations to promote universal respect for, and observance of, human rights andfreedoms, Realizing that the individual, having duties to other individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognized in the present Covenant, Agree upon the following articles:本公约缔约各国，考虑到，按照联合国宪章所宣布的原则，对人类家庭所有成员的固有尊严及其平等的和不移的权利的承认，乃是世界自由、正义与和平的基础，确认这些权利是源于人身的固有尊严，确认，按照世界人权宣言，只有在创造了使人人可以享有其公民和政治权利，正如享有其经济、社会、文化权利一样的条件的情况下，才能实现自由人类享有公民及政治自由和免于恐惧和匮乏的自由的理想，考虑到各国根据联合国宪章负有义务促进对人的权利和自由的普遍尊重和遵行，认识到个人对其他个人和对他所属的社会负有义务，应为促进和遵行本公约所承认的权利而努力，兹同意下述各条：PART I 第一部分 Article 1 第一条1. All peoples have the right of self-determination. Byvirtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development.2. All peoples may, for their own ends, freely dispose of their natural wealth and resources without prejudice to any obligations arising out of international economic co-operation, based upon the principle of mutual benefit, and international law. In no case may a people be deprived of its own means of subsistence.3. The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self-Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self-determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.一、所有人民都有自决权。

Universal Declaration of Human RightsPreambleWhereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world,Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in cooperation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms,Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance for the full realization of this pledge,Now, therefore,The General Assembly,Proclaims this Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.Article IAll human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any otherlimitation of sovereignty.Article 3Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.Article 4No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.Article 5No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.Article 6Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law. Article 7All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination. Article 8Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law. Article 9No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.Article 10Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.Article 11Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.Article 12No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.Article 13Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each State.Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.Article 14Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising fromnon-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.Article 15Everyone has the right to a nationality.No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.Article 16Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.Article 17Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.Article 18Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.Article 19Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.Article 20Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.No one may be compelled to belong to an association.Article 21Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.Everyone has the right to equal access to public service in his country.The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.Article 22Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.Article 23Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work. Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.Article 24Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.Article 25Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection. Article 26Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.Article 27Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author. Article 28Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.Article 29Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing duerecognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.Article 30Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.。

Animal Rights Standing Up for theVoicelessAnimal rights is a deeply important issue that has been gaining increasing attention in recent years. As humans, it is our responsibility to stand up for the voiceless and advocate for the fair and ethical treatment of animals. This is not just a matter of compassion, but also one of justice and morality. Animals are sentient beings, capable of feeling pain, joy, and fear, and they deserve to be treated with respect and dignity. One of the key aspects of animal rights is the ethical treatment of animals in various industries, such as food production, entertainment, and scientific research. In the food industry, for example, there is a growing movement towards plant-based diets and ethical farming practices that prioritize the well-being of animals. This is not only beneficial for the animals themselves, but also for the environment and our own health. By reducing our consumption of animal products and supporting ethical farming practices, we can help reduce the suffering of animals and promote a more sustainable and compassionate food system. In the entertainment industry, there is a long history of exploiting animals for human amusement, whether it be in circuses, zoos, or marine parks. These animals are often subjected to cruel training methods, cramped and unnatural living conditions, and a lack of proper medical care. It is important for us to advocate for the rights of these animals and support entertainment venues that prioritize animal welfare and conservation efforts. In scientific research, animals are often used as test subjects for medical and cosmetic purposes. While there have been significant advancements in the development of alternative testing methods, such as cell cultures and computer simulations, there is still a long way to go in reducing the use of animals in research. It is crucial for us to support and advocate for the development and implementation of alternative testing methods, as well as the ethical treatment of animals in research facilities. Another important aspect of animal rights is the protection of wildlife and endangered species. Human activities such as deforestation, poaching, and climate change have had devastating effects onwildlife populations around the world. It is our responsibility to advocate forthe protection of these animals and their natural habitats, as well as to support conservation efforts and sustainable environmental practices. It is also important to acknowledge the intersectionality of animal rights with other social justice issues. Many marginalized communities are disproportionately affected by animal exploitation and environmental degradation. By addressing these interconnected issues, we can work towards a more just and equitable society for all beings. In conclusion, standing up for the voiceless and advocating for animal rights is a moral imperative that requires our attention and action. By supporting ethical farming practices, advocating for the fair treatment of animals in various industries, protecting wildlife and endangered species, and addressing the intersectionality of animal rights with other social justice issues, we can work towards a more compassionate and sustainable world for all beings. It is up to us to be the voice for the voiceless and create positive change for animals and the planet.。

Animal Rights Protecting the Voiceless The issue of animal rights is a deeply complex and emotional one, as it involves the protection of creatures that cannot speak for themselves. The debate surrounding animal rights encompasses a wide range of perspectives, from those who believe that animals should have the same rights as humans to those who see them as mere commodities for human use. It is important to consider the ethical, environmental, and emotional aspects of this issue in order to fully understand the implications of protecting the voiceless. From an ethical standpoint, the concept of animal rights is rooted in the belief that all living beings have intrinsic value and deserve to be treated with respect and compassion. This perspective argues that animals should not be subjected to unnecessary suffering or exploitation for human gain. Proponents of animal rights often advocate for the abolition of practices such as factory farming, animal testing, and the use of animals in entertainment, as they believe these activities infringe upon therights of animals to live free from harm. On the other hand, there are those who view animals as a resource to be used for human benefit. This perspective is often rooted in the belief that humans hold dominion over animals and therefore have the right to use them as they see fit. This viewpoint is often used to justify practices such as hunting, fishing, and animal agriculture, as proponents argue that these activities are essential for human survival and well-being. From an environmental perspective, the issue of animal rights is closely tied to the impact of human activities on the natural world. The exploitation of animals for food, clothing, and other products has significant environmental consequences, including deforestation, habitat destruction, and greenhouse gas emissions. By advocating for the rights of animals, environmentalists argue that we can mitigate these impacts and create a more sustainable and harmonious relationship with the natural world. Emotionally, the issue of animal rights evokes strong feelings in many people, as it forces us to confront our treatment of creatures that are often seen as innocent and vulnerable. The thought of animals suffering at the hands of humans can be deeply distressing, and many people feel a moral obligation to speak out against these injustices. This emotional connection to the issue of animal rights has led to the rise of animal welfare organizations and the widespreadadoption of vegetarian and vegan lifestyles as a means of reducing harm to animals. In conclusion, the issue of animal rights is a deeply complex and multifaceted one, encompassing ethical, environmental, and emotional considerations. While there are varying perspectives on this issue, it is important to consider the implicationsof our treatment of animals and strive to create a more compassionate and sustainable relationship with the natural world. By protecting the voiceless, wecan work towards a future in which all living beings are treated with the respect and dignity they deserve.。