戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 8

Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:①The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptation→develop naming ability→interactions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it refers toc) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language①pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogram Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字②Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.“Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive②Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③Speech and writingSpoken language is primary, not the written④Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language s.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Organs of speechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords [C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:[l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic)[l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[l]→[hel ]--→a dental [l] ( )[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n]→[ b✈tn]→a syllabic nasal [n] ( )[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]②Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [ ]/[❆], [☞]/[✞], [h] (approximant)③Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[t☞]/[d✞]④Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [⏹], []By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[H] Some rules in phonology①sequential rulesSyllableOnset rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1:___/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [t☞]/[d✞] and the sibilants [s], [z], [☞], [✞] are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant[I] Suprasegmental features①StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element②ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall toneChapter 4 Morphology[A] The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology)Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words→ Lexical morphemes [ & functional morphemes [Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form→ Derivational morphemes----→affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + root→ Inflectional morphemes → 88 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -’s, -s [possessive; plural]Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past participle]Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative][C] Derivational vs. inflectionalInflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordInflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional[D] Morphological RulesN. +ly→ a.; A. +ly→ adv.; guard overgeneralization[E] Morphs and allomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.[F] Word-formation process①Coinage→the invention of totally new terms②Borrowing→the taking over of words form other languagesLoan-translation (Claque)→ a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing languageStand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③Compounding→ a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.b)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.c)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.d)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,While the second element receives secondary stress.④Blending→ taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤Clipping→ a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form⑥Back formation→ a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing wordHypocorisms→clipping or +ie⑦Conversion→ category change, functional shift⑧Acronyms→ new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words⑨Derivation→ the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words ⑩Abbreviation→ a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form AnalogyChapter 5 Grammar[A] Types of grammarThe study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a language, has a very long tradition.①Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. → Psychologist②Linguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. → Sociologist③The study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French. → Linguist[B] The parts of speechNouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions→ the grammatical categories of words in sentences[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)Other categories: number, person, tense, voice and genderAgreement:English language←natural genderGrammatical gender→ French[D] Types of grammar concerning analysisThe prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a languageThe descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.[E] Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a languageIC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents[F] Labeled and bracketed sentencesHierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentenceLabel each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NPChapter 6 Syntax[A] The definition of syntaxA subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language[B] The basic components of a sentenceSentenceSubject PredicateReferring expression comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject[C] Types of sentencesSimple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clause←→ matrix clause①subordinator ②f unctions as a grammatical unit ③may be complete[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentencesWhen a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structureBrackets and subscript labels[E] Some categoriesSyntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate Lexical categories: (parts of speech)Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP[F] Grammatical RelationsThe structural and logical functional relations of constituentsIt concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verbSubject of and direct object ofStructural subject, structural objectLogical subject (the doer of the action), the logical object (the recipient of the action)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G] Combinational rulesAre small in number→ Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones①phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)S→ NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP→ (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,VP→ V (NP) (POP) (S)AP→ A (PP) (S)PP→ P NP②the recursiveness of phrase structure rulesSignificantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.③X- bar theoryHead→ an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXP→ (Specifier) X (complement)Formula:X”→Spec X’X-bar theory (X-bar schema)X’→ X complTree diagramX”Specifier X’X complement[H] Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement: occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new placeTransformational rules①NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement: active voice → passive voicePostposing, preposingWH-movement: affirmative→ interrogativeLeftward matter to the sentence initial-position②Other types of movementAux-movement: the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysis④Move α– a general movement ruleMove any constituent to any placeCertain constituents can move to only certain positions[I] Universal Grammar (UG)Principles-and-parameters theory:UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.①general principles of UGCase condition principle: a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V or P to the object position or by Aux to the subject position Adjacency condition or Case assignment: a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences, not other languages (no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variation in order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.②The parameters of UGParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The Directionality Parameter → involves word order[Leftward directionality]En: VP word order VP→ V NPJp: VP word order VP→ NP VNatural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.Chapter 7 Semantics[A] The definition of semanticsDefinition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B] Some views concerning the study of meaning①the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.②the conceptualist view: There’s no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and t he real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/reference → conceptSymbol/Form (words) Referent →(real object)Proposed by Ogden & Richards③contextualism: John FirthThe situational context: in a particular spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context (co-text): the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word④behaviorism→ Bloomfield based on contextualist viewBehaviorists define meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer S: stimulus r: responseJill JackS---------r………s---------R(the small letters r, s→speech)(the capitalized letter R, S→practical events)[C] Sense and referenceSense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienceMoving star I once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.[D] Major sense relations①synonymy→ the sameness or close similarity of meaninga. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialectsb. stylistic synonyms——synonyms differing in stylec. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd. collocational synonymse. semantically different synonyms②polysemy——one word that has more than one related meaning③homonymyHomophones: when two words are identical in soundHomographs: when two words are identical in spellingComplete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and inSoundEtymology④hyponymy—— inclusivenessThe word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.Co-hyponym⑤antonymy——oppositenessGradable antonymsComplementary antonymsRelational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items⑥metonymyMeaning based on a close connection in everyday experience, of which can be based on a container-contents relation, a whole-part relation, or a representative-symbol relationship⑦collocationOrganize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together⑧prototypesThe concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, not in terms of component features, but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar.[E] Sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y②X is inconsistent with Y③X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)④X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)⑤X is a contradiction⑥X is semantically anomalous[F] Componential analysis→a way to analyze lexical meaningSemantic features: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic featuresPhoneme→ distinctive featuresShow how those words are related in meaning[G] Predication analysis→a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech①the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components)②Grammatical meaning and semantic meaningGrammaticality selectional restrictionsSemantic analysis:Predication (basic unit)→ the abstract meaning of the sentenceArgument(s) 论元predicate（谓词）Logical participant(s) Sth said about an argument or states the logical relation linking the argument(s) in a sentenceThe predicate can be regarded as the main element.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE)→ one-place predicationKids like apples.→ KID, APPLE (LIKE)→ two-place predicationIt’s raining.→ (RAIN)→ no-place predication。

戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集Chapter I IntroductionT 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to(in contrast to) the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.F 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F 10. Syntax(rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in L) is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.F 12. Both semantics(L is used to convey meaning- the study of meaning) and pragmatics( the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use) study meanings.T 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T 14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.T 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.F 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F 18. A diachronic历时（it changes through time）study of language is the description of language at some point in time. Synchronic 共时F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.F 20. The distinction between competence语言能力and performance语言运用was proposed by F. de Saussure. N. ChomskyChapter 2：Phonology1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. (T)2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. （F）3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. （F）4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. （F）5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. （T）6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. （T）7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. （F）8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. （F）9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. （T）10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. （F）11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. （F）12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. （T）13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. （F）14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. （F）15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. （F）16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. （F）17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. （T）18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. （F）19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. （T）20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.（T）Chapter 3：Morphology1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（T）2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. （F）3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.（T）4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.（T）5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.（T）6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.（T）7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.（T）8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.（F）9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.（F）10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.（T）Chapter 4： 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words. （F）2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.（T）3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.（F）4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence. （T）5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. （T）6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. （T）7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.（T）8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.（F）9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. （F）10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.（T）11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list ofwords and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.（F）12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.（T）13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.（T）14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.（T）Chapter 5 Semantics1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. （F）2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. （F）3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. （T）4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. （F）5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. （T）6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. （T）7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. （F）8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. （T）9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. （T）10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. （T）Chapter 6：Pragmatics1.Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（F）2.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. （F）3.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. （T）4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. （T）5.The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. （F）6.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （F）7.The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （F）8.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences （F）9.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. （F）10.Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.（T）11.Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. （T）12.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.（F）Chapter 10&11：（Second）Language Acquisition1.L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes. （F）2.The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with. （T）3.All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. （T）4.Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. （T）5.Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6.Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. (T)nguage acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language. (F)8.Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development. (F)9.Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech.(F)10.In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. (F)11.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults. (T)12.The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. (T)13.Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. (T)14.Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language. (T)15.Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. (T)16.A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.(F)17.In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year. (F)18.Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. (T)19.Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. (T)20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time thatthe process of lateralization comes to an end. (T)Chapter12：language & brain (Psycholinguistics)1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords. （F）2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. （T）3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front. （T）4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body. （T）nguage functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. （T）6. The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. （F）7. Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking. （F）8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept. （F）9. Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc. （T）10. Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being. （T）Chapter 7：Language Change（Historical Linguistics）1.One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. （T）nguage change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. （T）3.The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. （T）4.Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. （F）5.In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. （F）6.In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. （T）7.A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. （F）8.In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language. （F）9.The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. （T）10.The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. （F）11.In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender. （T）12.The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.（F）13.Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. （T）14.“Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy. （F）15.“fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation. （F）16.Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.（F）17.Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”. （T）18.Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. （T）nguage change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules （F）20.The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.（T）Chapter 8：Language and Society (Sociolinguistics)1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. （F）2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system witha homogeneous group of speakers.（F）3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. （T）4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. （T）5.The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. （T）6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. （F）7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects. （F）8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. （F）9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. （F）10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. （F）11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. (F)12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinctidiolect. (T)13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. (F)14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. (F)15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. （F）16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. （T）17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't. （F）18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. （F）19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. （T）20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. （F）第11 页共11 页。

戴炜栋英语语言学概论ChapterChapter 1: Introduction to English Linguistics1.1 The Scope of English LinguisticsEnglish linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, focuses on the study of the English language. It encompasses various aspects of the language, including its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Through the examination of these linguistic components, linguists aim to understand how English is structured, how it functions, and how it is used for communication.1.2 The Historical Development of EnglishEnglish has a rich history that can be traced back to the Germanic languages spoken by the Anglo-Saxons in England during the 5th and 6th centuries. Over time, it evolved and absorbed influences from other languages, such as Latin, French, and Norse, due to political, cultural, and social interactions. This resulted in the Old English, Middle English, and Modern English periods, each characterized by distinct linguistic features and changes.1.3 English Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics is concerned with the physical aspects of speech sounds, while phonology examines the patterns and rules governing the organization of these sounds in a particular language. In English phonetics, the sounds are classified into vowels and consonants and further divided into various articulatory features, such as place and manner of articulation. Englishphonology, on the other hand, investigates sound patterns, such as stress, intonation, and phonotactics, which affect the pronunciation of words and sentences.1.4 English MorphologyMorphology is the study of word formation and structure. In English morphology, linguists analyze the internal structure of words and identify morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units. English words can be divided into free morphemes, which can stand alone as single words, and bound morphemes, which can only be attached to other morphemes. Moreover, word formation processes, such as affixation, compounding, and derivation, are examined to understand how new words are created in English.1.5 English SyntaxSyntax investigates the rules and principles governing the arrangementof words to form grammatically correct sentences. In English syntax, linguists analyze sentence structures, constituents, and grammatical relationships, such as subject-verb agreement, word order, and sentence types (declarative, interrogative, imperative, etc.). The analysis of syntactic structures allows us to comprehend how sentences are constructed and how different meanings are conveyed through sentence formation.1.6 English SemanticsSemantics studies the meaning of linguistic expressions, including words, phrases, and sentences. In English semantics, linguists explore how meaning is conveyed through lexical and grammatical devices, such as synonyms,antonyms, hyponyms, and collocations. Additionally, pragmatic aspects, such as implicature, speech acts, and context, play a crucial role in understanding the intended meaning of utterances in different communicative situations.1.7 English PragmaticsPragmatics involves the study of how context influences the interpretation and use of language. In English pragmatics, linguists examine various pragmatic phenomena, such as politeness strategies, discourse analysis, speech acts, and conversational implicature. Understanding pragmatics helps us interpret utterances and understand the intended meanings beyond the literal level, as well as navigate the social and cultural aspects of communication.1.8 ConclusionEnglish linguistics provides us with a comprehensive understanding of the English language's structure, function, and usage. Through the examination of its phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, linguists gain valuable insights into the complexities of English and its role as a global language. By continuing to explore and analyze these linguistic aspects, we can further enhance our knowledge and proficiency in English communication.。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（下）【圣才出品】第8章语⾔与社会1. How is language related to society?Key: (1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “How is your family?”, “Nice day today, isn’t it?”(2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker.(3) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and social environment of a society. For example, while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather thanlinguistic.Key: As a social phenomenon, language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communication functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore,judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.A case in point is the use of the postvocalic []. While in England accents without postvocalic [] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [] enjoys more prestige and considered more correct than without it.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointlydetermine idiolect?Key:The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, age and gender. Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way she/he talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?Key: (1) The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users, but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age.(2) The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language;usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually, the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.(3) The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; imposed from above the range of regional dialects.(4) The standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purpose as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. Key: According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on biology in a technical college could be identifiedas:Field: scientific (biological)Tenor: teacher-students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?Key: (1) Linguistic features of Black English:Phonological features: simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is often pronounced [], mend [], desk [], and told [].Syntactic features one: the deletion of link verb “be”. In Black English, we often come across many sentences without copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English, it is often found in other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese.Syntactic features two: the use of double negation structure. e.g.He don’t know nothing. (He doesn’t know anything.)I ain’t afraid of no ghosts. (I am not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make positive. But in fact, such double negative constructions werefound in all dialects of English of earlier period.(2) I don’t think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English.Linguists are agreed that no variety of a language is inherently better than any other. They insist that all languages and all varieties of a particular language are equal in that they quite adequately serve the needs of those who use them. The only exception they recognize are pidgins, which are by definition restricted varieties, or the varieties we associate with people who are impaired in some way, e.g. certain mentally or physically handicapped people. American English is considered “better”only in a social sense: it has a preferred status; it gives those who use it certain social advantages; and it increases their life chances. Black English, being a nonstandard variety, tends to produce the opposite effect. These are some of the consequences that follow from elevating one variety and denigrating others, but there is no reason to suppose that any one of the varieties is intrinsically more worthy than any other.7. What peculiar features does pidgin have?Key: A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. Pidgin arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders andmissionaries. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss ofinflection, gender and case. The “simplified” variety performs its function as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common? Key: Differences:(1)Bilingualism refers to the situation that two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(2)Diglossia, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. In a diglossic situation, two varieties (high variety and low variety) of a language, instead of two different languages, exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. One of the most important features of diglossia is the specialization of function of the two varieties. Each variety is the appropriate language for certain situations with very slight overlappings.Similarity:The two languages of bilingualism and two varieties of diglossia exist side by side and have different role to play as situation changes.。

contribution more informative than is required.te closure:wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to thecurrent constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. ) 26.cohort model:in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers frombeginning to end.27.Selectional restrictions--- a restriction on the combining of wordsin a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of theword-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words isorganized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.what．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members ohere is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different sp eech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distin ction in the temporal structure of an event. English has tw o aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes followspart of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituen t types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional langu ages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies forgrammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but Englis h pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subjees where the truth of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a ta boo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or s ubjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorr ect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.n a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as i n with me,to him.nguage universal (语言共性): any property that is shar ed by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for com munication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua fran ca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of languaNature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation betweenany linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmat ic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sen tence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the wconsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meani ng.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universal s are principles that enable children to acquire a particul ar language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universapproaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The t ypical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases a nd adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exoce ntric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.sks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical fun ction of a word without adding or removing any part of it.A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or ze ro derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper asimultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are th ose attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice, tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non -linguistic meanings are those indicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of b ody languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the wor d every member of the language speaking community will agrere is no limit to the structural diversity of languages. Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we vie w and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strong determinism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that lang uage actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。

第8章语言与社会I. Multiple choices:1. A special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purpose of trading is called______.A. dialectB. idiolectC. pidginD. register【答案】C【解析】pidgin洋泾浜是原本讲不同语言的人们由于某些特殊原因（如商业交流）的直接交流目的而产生的特殊语言混合体。

dialect的意思是方言，idiolect是个人方言，register是语域。

因此，本题的正确答案为C。

2. The distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT ______.A. lexicalB. syntacticC. phonologicalD. psycholinguistic【答案】D【解析】语言的变体可以是词法、句法、音位方面的变化。

心理语言学是语言学的一个分支。

因此，本题的正确答案为D。

3. Which of the following is NOT the speech variety?A. Regional dialects.B. Sociolects.C. Registers.D. Discourse accents.【答案】D【解析】在社会语言学的研究中，人们对三种言语变体特别感兴趣，即：地域方言、社会方言和语域。

因此，本题的正确答案为D。

4. Which of the following does NOT fall into dialectal varieties?A. Regional dialects.B. Sociolects.C. Registers.D. Idiolects.【答案】C【解析】一门语言的变体是该语言的一般概念的实际体现，它们被假定为与语言的使用者和语言的用途相关。

Chapter 1:Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions◆What is language?◆How does language work?◆What do all languages have in common? (languageuniversal语言共同性)◆What range of variation(变体) is found amonglanguages? (dialect. Mandarin普通话，accent)◆What makes language change?◆To what extent are social class differencesreflected in language? (sociolinguistics社会语言学)◆How does a child acquire his mother tongue?(language acquisition 语言习得)1.1.2 The scope of linguistics（语言学研究的范围）branches●general linguistics（普通语言学）●phonetics（语音学）●phonology（音系学）●morphology（形态学）●syntax（句法学）●semantics（语义学）Example:boy: human male young animategirl: human female young animate componential analysis 语义成分分析●pragmatics（语用学）It is cold here.Please close the door.I want to put on more clothes.I don’t want to stay here.●sociolinguistics（社会语言学）●psycholinguistics （心理语言学）●applied linguistics（应用语言学）broad sense:广义,narrow sense:狭义=language teaching1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics (语言学中一些重要的概念区分)1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（规定与描写）If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;If the linguistic study aims to lay down(规定) rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.1.1.3.2 Synchronic（共时语言学） vs. diachronic（历时语言学）●The description of a language at some point of timein history is a synchronic study.●The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study; it studies thehistorical development of language over a period oftime.1.1.3.3 Speech and writing（言语与文字）Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.1.1.3.4 Langue and parole（语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（语言社区）Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. （actual use of language,concrete）Differences:1. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(语言事件)2. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.（Saussure索绪尔）1.1.3.5 Competence and performance(语言能力和语言运用)competence and performance,Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（a prof. at MIT） defines competence（langue） as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance (parole) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔The differences:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework of the languages used by mankind.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language◆"Language is a purely human and non-instinctivemethod of communicating ideas, emotions and desiresby means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir,1921)◆Language is "the institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other by means ofhabitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols."(Hall, 1968)◆"From now on I will consider language to be a set(finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite inlength and constructed out of a finite set ofelements." (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a system of arbitrary （任意的）vocalsymbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary（任意的） in the sense that there is no intrinsic （天生的，内在的）connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word "pen" and the thing we write with.（This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.1.2.2 Design features（识别特征)1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2) Productivity（多产性)3) Duality（二重性）4) Displacement（移位）5) Cultural transmission（文化传递）Chapter 2: Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介)Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Manylanguages in the world today are both written and spoken. But statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing for reasons that were discussed in the last chapter. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are limited in number. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介); and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （言语语音）.2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.First, it studies the sounds from the speaker's point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. These three branches of phonetics are labelled articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）, auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）, and acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）respectively.Of the three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics has the longest history. However, some important facts have also been either discovered or confirmed by acoustic and auditory phonetics, especially by the former. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs（频谱仪）. By studying the sound waves thus recorded, they have discovered that what might be heard as the same one utterance is only coincidentally, if ever, physically identical. The "same" sounds weclaim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.2.2.2 Organs of speech（发音器官）The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）-- the throat, the oral cavity（口腔）- the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻腔）-- the nose. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. It may also be modified in the larynx before it reaches any of the cavities. Such modification results from some kind of interference with the movement of the air stream. The principal source of such modifications is the tongue, and the word "language" itself derives from the Latin word "lingua", meaning the "tongue". The pharyngeal cavity Air coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. This is the first point where sound modification might occur. Lying across the glottis are the vocal cords. These two thin tissues can be held tightly together to cut off the stream of air, as when one is ' holding his breath'. They can be relaxed and folded back at each side to let airflow through freely and silently as in normal breathing. Then they may also be held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing'', which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Such consonants are voiced. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless. The oral cavity The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.Of all these, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g ]. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [j]. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [t] and [d]. Partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongue produces the sounds [θ] and [ð].1. lips唇2. teeth牙齿3. tooth ridge (alveolus)齿龈4. hard palate硬腭5. soft palate (velum) 软腭6. uvula7. tip of tongue8. blade of tongue9. back of tongue10. vocalcords11. pharyngeal cavity12. nasal cavityThe nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized , such as the vowels and most consonants in English. Then , the passage can also be left opento allow air (or part of it)to exit through the nose. In this case, the sounds pronounced are nasalized, such as the three nasal consonants in English [m], [n], and [η]. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed. But in some styles of speaking or in some dialects, partial opening may be observed, and the result is speech with a nasal colouring or "twang".2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds --broad and narrow transcriptionsTowards the end of the nineteenth century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being. With minor modifications it is still widely used now. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Thus two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now available. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is thetranscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i. e. the transcription with diacritics, is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [I] is used for the sound [1] in the four words leaf [l i:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [1] in all these four sound combinations differ slightly. The [1] in [li:f ], occurring before a vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:I] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in "leaf". It is called dark and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [1] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [1], and in narrow transcription the diacritic is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, thesound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised "h" is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h It] and spit is transcribed as [splt].2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsAn initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. Two definitions of vowels as a general phonetic category are quoted below:"V owels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips." (Bloomfield) "A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction." (Jones)The two definitions point to one important feature of vowels, i.e. in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. In the production of the latter category it is obstructed in one way or another.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:stops: When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. The English stops fall into three pairs: [p][b],[t][d],and [k][g].fricatives: When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.affricates: When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. The English liquids are [ I ] and [ r ]. [ 1 ] is called a lateral soundbecause in the production of it the surface of the tongue, instead of being more or less flat, is made slightly convex and causes stoppage in the centre of the roof of the mouth while allowing air to pass at the sides. In the production of the other liquid [r], the tip of the tongue is curled back and the air passes over it. It is also called "retroflex".nasals: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English [m] [n] and [η].glides: Glides, sometimes called "semivowels", are a rather marginal category. The English glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [I ], with a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:bilabial: In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. The English bilabials are [p] [b] [m] [w].labiodental: In the production of these sounds, the lower lip isbrought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f] and [v].dental: The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English; they are [θ] and [ð].alveolar: The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t][d][s][z] [n][l][r].palatal: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.velar: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or the soft palate. The sounds thus produced in English are [k][g] and [η].glottal: The vocal cords are Drought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English, i.e.[h].The two classifications are combined in the table below, with the help of which we can adequately describe a consonant, or identify a consonant when given its phonetic features:2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsAs in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulatioa:0r place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification. V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. A front vowel is one in the production of which the front part of the tongue main-tains the highest position; If it is the central part of the tongue that is held highest, the vowels thus produced are called central vowels. Then if we raise the 'back of the tongue higher than the rest of it.To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. The following diagram summarises our classification by applying the two criteria.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be notedthat some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.After applying the three criteria, we can now aptly describe some of the English vowels. For example, the vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-close, and unrounded. But the feature "unrounded" is usually omitted since all front vowels in English are unrounded.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, no such tension occurs, the larynx is quite relaxed.So far we have been classifying the individual vowels, also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to thestudy of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Now'let's take the [1] sound in English as an example and see how the same sound can be investigated from both the phonetic and the phonological point of view. As we know, the [1] sound in the two English words leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first one is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark .The difference between these two sounds is what the phoneticians are interested in. But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same one basic entity. From the phonological point of view, these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark in the word :"peel" incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to Understand him, he would still understand what action he is talking about but would only find his pronunciationa little bit strange. The phonologists have found that the various versions of the [I] sound do notoccur at random in English; their distribution follows a nicely complementary pattern: we use clear [1] before a vowel, such as loaf, and dark at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such as tell, quilt. This is an important phonological conclusion. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [p h] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p h](as in tip).But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do , as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t h ] and [t ] don't, as [stDp] and [st h op] mean the same to a speaker of English. Again, we should remind ourselves that what does not distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another language.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract: unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an nnaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [1 ] and dark: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/1/in English can be realized as dark, clear [1] , etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /1/.Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it isrule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules. The rule that governs the distribution of clear [1] and dark is an example.Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. A native speaker of English can tell by intuition that the following sound combinations all carry different meanings: [ mæn ], [ pæn ], [ bæn ], [ tæm ], [ ræm ], [ kæn ], [ðæm]. This is because they all contain a different phoneme. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.2,3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIt can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might berelated in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit]and [bit ], [roup]and [roub]. If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear [1]。

戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter一、引言英语语言学是一门研究英语语言的学科，通过对英语语言中的语音、语法、词汇、语义以及社会文化背景等方面进行深入分析，以探寻语言的本质规律和使用方式。

本章将介绍戴炜栋英语语言学概论中的第一章，旨在为读者提供对英语语言学的整体概念和研究对象的基本了解。

二、语言学的定义及分支领域1. 语言学的定义语言学是研究语言的科学，关注语言的结构、发展、演变以及语言与思维的关系，旨在了解语言的规律和作用。

2. 语言学的分支领域- 语音学：研究语音的产生、传播和感知。

- 语法学：研究语言的句法结构和词法规则。

- 语义学：研究语言的意义和概念的表达方式。

- 语用学：研究语言的使用方式和交际功能。

- 语言变化学：研究语言的历史演变和变异现象。

- 社会语言学：研究语言与社会文化背景的关系。

三、基本语言单位1. 音素音素是语言中的最小发声单位，可以通过音标或符号进行表示。

2. 音节音节是由一个或多个音素组成的音序单位，每个音节至少包含一个核心音素。

3. 词汇词汇是语言的基本单位，是由一个或多个音节组成的，具有独立意义的单位。

4. 句子句子是语言中表达完整意义的单位，由一个或多个词汇组成，具有主谓宾结构。

四、语音学的基本概念1. 发音器官发音器官是人类用于发出语音的器官，包括呼吸器官（肺部、气管）、声带、腔道（口腔、鼻腔）等。

2. 语音语调语音语调是指人们在语音交流中所表达的语言节奏、音调和语气等。

不同语言的语音语调差异较大，是语言交流中的重要组成部分。

3. 音素分类音素可分为元音和辅音两大类，元音是声音发出时不产生任何阻塞的音，而辅音是声音发出时经过喉头或口腔等部位的阻塞或摩擦的音。

五、语法学的基本概念1. 词类和词汇词类是对词汇进行分类的方法，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词等。

每个词类都有相应的语法特征和功能。

2. 语法关系语法关系是指词汇之间在句子中的语义或句法关联关系，包括主谓关系、动宾关系、定状补关系等。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》必背考点Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 PhonologyChapter 3 MorphologyChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 SemanticsChapter 6 PragmaticsChapter 7 Language ChangeChapter 8 Language and SocietyChapter 9 Language and CultureChapter 10 Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 12 Language And The Brain《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter 1 Introduction考点1 Distinguish beween prescriptive and descriptive study(1)Prescriptive（规定性）: The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.(2)Descriptive (描写性）: The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.(3)Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normallyknown as “grammar” in that the latter is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language.It aims to set models forlanguage users to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the languagepeople use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.考点2 Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?(1)Synchronic (共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(2)Diachronic (历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time. It is ahistorical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.(3)In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.考点3 Why speech is prior to writing?Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.a. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writingsystem of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.b. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than wiring in terms of the amount of information conveyed.c. Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.d. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.考点4：How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?(1)Langue (语言) vs Parole (言语)The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (索绪尔) in the early 20th century.Langue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is abstract and is not the language people actually use. It is relatively stable and systematic, does not change frequently.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. It is concrete and it refers to the naturally occurring language events. It varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.In Saussure's opinion,parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistic study.Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.(2)Competence (语言能力)VS Performance (语言运用)The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky（乔姆斯基）in the late 1950sCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and it is a set of rules internalized in the brain. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.Performance refers to the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. Despite one’s perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.考点5 What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性:①there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, that is, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning②A good example is that different sounds in different languages are used to refer to the same object.e.g. “汽车” in Chinese, “der Wagen” in German and “car” in English;③The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of complexity, which makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.④While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The first example isonomatopoeic words (拟声词) which imitate natural sound, such as rumble, crash, bang in English, putong(扑通）shasha(沙沙）in Chinese.The second example is compound words because the meaning of the compound words are determined by the combination of two words, such as type-writer, shoe-maker.⑤Non-arbitrary words account for only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. Therefore, it doesn’t negate the fact that language is arbitrary.（2）Productivity/Creativity创造性①Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This explains why people can produce and understand an infinitely la rge number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard or used before.②Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality/ Double articulation 二重性①Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.②At the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless themselves. e.g. the three separate sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ are meaningless.③But the sounds of language can be grouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes(词素) and words according to certain rules, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. e.g. The combination of the three sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ can produce a meaningful words [kæt] (cat).④This duality of structure or double articulation(双重分节）of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.(4) Displacement 移位性①Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. That is, Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.②This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication possesses this feature. For example, animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stops.(5) Cultural transmission 文化传递性①While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.②Language is culturally transmitted in that it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct like animal call system. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, namely, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.考点6 What are the major functions of language identified by Jakobson?Jakobson (雅克布逊)identified six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser说话者---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication, i.e. to express attitudes, feelings and requests. e.g. I hate those who are always lying.Addressee受话者---Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking, i.e. to persuade and influence others through commands and requestse.g. Why not go with us to have a picnic? Why not go and see another doctorContext语境---Referential 所指功能The addresser conveys a message or information 传达信息e.g. Currently, we live in an information age when the Internet plays a significant role.Message 信息----Poetic 诗学功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.e.g. poetryContact 接触--Phatic communication寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee. e.g Hi, How are you this morning?Code 语码---Metalinguistic 元语言功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “ EST” means.考点7 What are Halliday’s metafunctions?Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.①The ideational function (is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, feelings and emotions.②The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.③The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学考点1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.There are three branches of phonetics :①articulatory phonetics 发音语音学——It studies the sounds from the speaker's point ofview, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.②auditory phonetics 听觉语音学——It looks at the sounds from the hearer's point ofview, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.③acoustic phonetics 声学语音学——It studies the way sounds travel by looking at thesound waves, the physical means by which sounds transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs.考点2 Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription宽式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols only is the broad transcription and it is used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.Narrow transcription严式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号) is the narrow transcription and it is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.考点3 How are the English consonants classified?Manner of articulation:发音方式①stop闭塞音：[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] 6When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction suddenly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or plosive. （气流在声道中完全受阻，然后被突然释放, 受阻气流冲出而形成的音叫爆破音）②fricative 摩擦音：[f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [h] 9When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.（气流部分受阻，被迫在狭窄缝隙间通过，在某一点引起摩擦而形成的音被称为摩擦音）③affricate 破擦音： a stop+a fricative [tʃ] [dʒ] 2When the obstruction is complete at first and then is released slowly with the friction resultingfrom partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.(前半部分发音，气流完全受阻，与爆破音相似；后半部分发音，气流部分受阻，逐渐释放，产生摩擦，与发摩擦音相似)④liquids 流音: [l] [r] 2When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue( the tip or the side) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids.(气流在口腔中受阻，但还不至于引起摩擦，气流可以从舌尖、两侧或口腔上部逸出而形成的音，被成为流音)⑤nasals 鼻音: [m] [n] [ŋ] 3When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals.(如果将软腭降低至口腔后部，完全阻塞口腔，从而使鼻腔通道张开让气流经过，这样发出的音称为鼻音)⑥glides 滑音: [j] [w] 2Sometimes are called ‘semi-vowels”. It is produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.(有时也称为半元音，双唇或舌与硬腭间对流形成的局部阻碍而引起一些轻微的噪音而形成)Place of articulation发音部位①bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w] 4the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. And then the obstruction is suddenly released and the airstream pass out again.（上下唇合拢形成完全阻碍，再突然打开，释放气流而形成的音）②labiodental 唇齿音：[f] [v] 2the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction.（通过下唇和下齿的接触，迫使气流从唇齿间挤出而形成的音）③dental 齿音：[θ] [ð] 2the obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.（舌尖抵住上齿，气流被阻碍）④alveolar 齿龈音：[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r] 7the obstruction is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge/ alveolus to create the obstruction. （舌尖抵住上齿龈，气流形成阻碍所发出的音）⑤palatal 腭音：[ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] 5The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. （气流阻碍发生在舌后和硬腭之间）⑥velar软腭音:[k] [g] [ŋ] 3the back of the tongue is brought into contact with the soft palate. （舌后部向上抬起，接触软腭，形成气流）⑦glottal 声门音：[h] 1the vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction.（声带暂时性闭合，形成气流阻碍）考点4 Classification of English vowels①the position of the tongue in the mouth(舌位）：front, central and back 前元音中元音后元音②the openness of the mouth（开口程度）：close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels闭元音半闭元音半开元音开元音③the shape of the lips（唇形）rounded 圆唇：all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are roundedunrounded 非圆唇：all front vowels+the central vowels④the length of the vowels（元音的长度）：long and short vowels长元音短元音⑤The tenseness of the sound: tense and lax vowels 紧元音松元音⑥monophthongs 单元音diphthongs 双元音：Sounds are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [eɪ] [aɪ] [ɔɪ] [aʊ] [əʊ][ɪə] [eə] [ʊə]考点5 phonology and phoneticsphonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classfied.For example:①The [l] sound in the two English word leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark [ɫ].②The difference between the two sounds, is what the phoneticians are interested in.③But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same basic entity. These two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication---in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark [ɫ] in the word peel incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to understand him, he would only find his pronunciation a little bit strange.考点6 phone, phoneme, and allophone(1)phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones are to be written with square brackets [ ].e.g [t] [d] [f] [v][i:] [i] [e] [t h]But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings. [t h] and [t] don’t as [stɒp] and [st hɒp] mean the same to a speaker of English.(2)phoneme音位is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, written in slashes / /. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air being withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [ p ], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [l ] and dark [l ]: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/ is a phoneme in the Englishsound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts.(3)allophones音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. Allophones are to be written with square brackets [ ].But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed.e.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as a dark [ɫ] 模糊舌边音in tell and a clear [l]清晰舌边音in lead, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.考点7 Phonemic contrast ,complementary distribution, and minimal pair(1)Phonemic contrast音位对立: If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form aphonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].(2)Complementary distribution互补分布: If they are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. Allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.e.g. the clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [ɫ] always occurs between a vowel and a consonan or at the end ofa word, so they are in complementary distribution.(3)Minimal pairs 最小对立对: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. e.g. pill and bill bet and batSignificance: Minimal pairs make it easy to know what the English phonemes are. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Accordingly, it is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.minimal set 最小对立对集：Under the same condition, when a minimal pair is extended to two, three or even more, then all these sound combinations constitute a minimal set.e.g. “pill and bill”“pill and till”“till and dill”“till and kill”“kill and gill”考点8 Phonological rules 音系学规则①Sequential rules 序列规则——There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.rule 1: If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. This explains why [lbik] is impossible combinations in English. Because it has violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.rule 2: if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules：The first phoneme must be /s/;(it shows that/s/ is the most easiest sound for human being to pronounce; linguistics should serve people, which means it is descriptive)The second phoneme must be /p,t,k/ ---stops(爆破音）(Why not /b,d,g/: because they are not easy for human to pronounce)The third phoneme must be /l,r, w/---/1//r/ 流音，/w/ 滑音eg: spring[sprɪŋ], scream[skri:m], square [skwer], splendid [ˈsplendɪd] , strict[strɪkt]②Assimilation rule 同化规则A.Definition: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. One sound will affect the neighbouring sound so that sounds become sounds around them. This process is called assimilation. The rules which will be followed during the assimilation is called assimilation rules.B.Reason: Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory orphysiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language. This is primarily due to the our desire for convenience and efficiency.C.ClassificationRegressive assimilation 逆同化: If a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation.a.Nasalization 鼻音化in the case of “can” [kæn], the preceding sound [æ] is nasalized dueto the influence of the following nasal sound [n].b.Dentalization 齿音化：in the case of [n] in the word “tenth”[tenθ], the preceding sound[e]is dentalized due to the influence of the following dental fricative sound [θ].c.Velarization软腭化: in the case ‘sink’ [sɪŋk], the preceding sound[ŋ] is velarized due to the influence of the following velar sound [k].Progressive assimilation 顺同化: It is the converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar.e.g. in the case of ‘map”[mæp], the following sound [æ] is nasalized because of the influence of the preceding nasal consonant [p].③Deletion rule 省略规则Another phonological rule is the deletion rule. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g. The letter“g”is sometimes pronounced and sometimes mute(不发音的).The rule: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonantsign[saɪn] ----signature [ˈsɪgnətʃə(r)] 签名; 署名;考点9 What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.(1) Stress 重音: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable. e.g.重音在前是名词n 'progress 重音在后是动词v pro'gress(2)Tone 声调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.Our mother tongue Chinese is a typical tone language.E.g.mã 妈má 麻mǎ 马mà 骂(3)Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Four tones：①The falling tone— what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement②The rising tone—make a question of what is said③The fall-rise tone—there is an implied message in what is said④The rise-fall tonee.g.1.' That’s 'not the 'book he `wants.---Spoken in the falling tone, it simply states a fact, i.e. the book in question is not the one he wants.2.' That’s 'not the 'book he ̗wants.---Spoken in the rising tone, it indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker: he is asking the question: It that not the book he wants?3.' That’s ˌnot the ˌbook he ̗wants.---Spoken in the fall-rise tone, it indicates that apart from what it said literally, there is an implied message, i.e. besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.Chapter 3 Morphology考点1 Open class and closed classOpen class words开放类词: They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.Closed class words封闭类词: Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “ functional” words. The number of such words is small and stable since new words are added.考点2 Morphemes词素(1)Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.It is important to note that a morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.Also morphemes are usually arbitrary: there is no natural connection between their sound and their meaning.e.g. reader consists of two morphemes: read and –er (to form nouns which refer to a person, animal or thing that does the action described by the verb), here “reader” is someone who reads.考点3 Morph语素形式Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morph.e.g. the English plural and possessive morphemes may be said to share a single morph, the suffix/-s/.考点4 Free and bound morphemes 自由词素和黏着词素A free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itselfe.g. dog, man, desire. They are free because they can used as a word on its own.A bound morpheme: A morpheme that must be attached to another onee.g. -ist, -ful, un-, en-考点5 Allomorph 词素变体In some cases, morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.E.g 1. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.eg: in the same plural morphemewritten form spoken formmap- maps [s] dog--dogs [z]watch--watches [iz] mouse--mice [ai]。

06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

每本教材每个章节都包含：学霸笔记，强化练习，过关检测，思维导图，复习要点，学习目标，时间安排，重难点分析，易错点分析，考点分析，音频笔记等......如果参考教材有多个版本，那么每个版本都有全套资料；如果目标院校没有指定参考书，那么所有推荐的参考书都有全套的资料可供学习。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）第8章语言与社会的复习攻略：1.复习要点-了解语言与社会的关系：语言是社会文化活动的产物，反过来也受到社会文化的影响。

-理解社会变量：社会变量指年龄、性别、社会阶层、地区等各种社会属性，这些变量会影响人们的语言使用。

-掌握范畴跨越问题：范畴跨越问题指不同社会群体之间的语言差异，包括方言、口音、族群语言等。

-明确语言政策和规划：国家对语言使用的规定和发展计划。

2.学习目标-培养对语言与社会关系的理解和分析能力；-掌握社会变量对语言使用的影响，并对其进行比较和分析；-了解不同社会群体之间的语言差异以及其背后的原因；-了解国家对语言方面的政策和规划，并思考自己的语言发展方向。

3.时间安排1)了解语言与社会关系（20分钟）-理解社会文化对语言的影响；-了解语言的功能和地位。

2)掌握社会变量（1小时）-掌握社会变量的概念；-分析社会变量对语言使用的影响；-通过实例加深对社会变量的理解。

3)范畴跨越问题（1小时）-探究方言、口音和族群语言等；-比较不同社会群体之间的语言差异；-分析范畴跨越问题背后的原因。

4)语言政策和规划（40分钟）-了解国家对语言方面的政策和规划；-思考自己的语言发展方向。

5)复习总结（20分钟）-回顾重点内容；-总结学习收获。

戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。

No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。

I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。

Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解-第6~8章【圣才出品】第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。

实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Pragmatics vs. semantics3. Context4. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningII. Speech act theory1. Austin’s model of speech acts2. Searle’s classificati on of speech acts3. Indirect speech actsIII. Principle of conversation1. Cooperative Principle and its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Cross-cultural Pragmatic FailureI. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】1. Definition（定义）It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.它是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。

戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字Two major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing syste m is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while w riting language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.语言Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied话语(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言能力Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言应用(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics传统语法和现代语言学The beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features识别性特征----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12) Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.任意性Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.能产性(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning双层性(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doe sn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.移位性(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through t eaching and learning, rather than by instinct.文化传承3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to ref er to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker use s his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physical properties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in thepronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means forforming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‘s c ategory, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thus, a word‘s distributional facts together with inf ormation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (P P)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make m ore precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖ ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not conta in an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter1IntroductionChapter2PhonologyChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxChapter5SemanticsChapter6PragmaticsChapter7Language ChangeChapter8Language and SocietyChapter9Language and CultureChapter10Language AcquisitionChapter11Second Language Acquisition Chapter12Language And The BrainChapter1Introduction考情分析本章分为两个部分，第一部分介绍了什么是语言学，主要是对语言学的定义、语言学的研究范围以及语言学中6对重要的概念进行了区分。

第二部分介绍了什么是语言，主要对语言的属性，语言的区别性特征以及语言的功能进行了详细的介绍。

本章常出的题型有填空题、翻译术语、术语解释、简答题以及论述题，大家在复习的时候尤其要注意以下重点内容:◆语言学中6对重要的概念区分Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)◆语言的识别性特征Design features of language(5)◆语言的功能Functions of languageContents1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1Definition1.1.2The scope of linguistics1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)Prescriptive规定性vs.Descriptive描写性Synchronic共时性vs.Diachronic历时性Speech口语and Writing书面语Langue语言and Parole言语---Saussure索绪尔Competence语言能力and Performance语言运用---Chomsky乔姆斯基Traditional grammar传统语法and modern linguistics现代语言学1.2What is language?1.2.1Definitions1.2.2Design features of language(5)Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity创造性Duality/Double Articulation二重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递性1.2.3Functions of languageVersion1Social function社会功能Expressive function表达功能Descriptive function描述功能Version2Code语码---Metalinguistic元语言功能Jakobson Addressee受话者---Conative意动功能Context语境---Referential所指功能Message信息----Poetic诗学功能Contact接触---Phatic communication寒暄功能Addresser说话者---Emotive情感功能Version3ideational概念功能Halliday interpersonal人际功能textual functions语篇功能Chapter1Introduction1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.◆It studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.◆It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisticdata,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Q1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?1.1.2The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学Phonetics(语音学)——The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Phonology(音系学)——It studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology（形态学）——The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study.Syntax(句法学）—It studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantics(语义学）——It studies the meaning conveyed.Pragmatics(语用学）——It studies the meaning in the context of language use.跨学科分支Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学）：The study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics(应用语言学）【2017术语解释104points】：The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguitics.In a narrow sense,it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,especially the teaching of foreign andsecond languages.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(1)Prescriptive vs descriptive【2013简答题2710points】①Prescriptive（规定性）The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.（为语言的“正确和规范”规定一系列的语法规则，例如告诉人们应该说什么和不应该说什么）【2015翻译术语18prescriptive grammar规约性语法】②Descriptive(描写性）The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.（对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析）For example,traditional grammar is prescriptive because it aims to set models for people to follow.While modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use.Q2.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?（2）synchronic vs diachronic①Synchronic(共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述)②Diachronic(历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time.It is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.【2011填空1】【2016术语解释216points】(它是对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述，是一种历史性的研究，研究的是语言在某一段时间内的历史发展)Q4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?why?a.In modern linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更重要。

戴炜栋语言学名词解释（2）戴炜栋语言学名词解释1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose.(03) 3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. 5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words. 6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation. 7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes. 8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.Chapter 8: Language And Society variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05) speakers. A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. communication is carried out. on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen. speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis. in this daily life. role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C) a speech community, each having a definite role to play.Chapter 9: Language And Culture The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community. A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)《戴炜栋语言学名词解释》。

Chapter I IntroductionT 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to(in contrast to) the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.F 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F 10. Syntax(rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in L) is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.F12. Both semantics(L is used to convey meaning- the study of meaning) and pragmatics( the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use) study meanings.T 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T 14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.T 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.F 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F 18. A diachronic历时（it changes through time）study of language is the description of language at some point in time. Synchronic 共时F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.F 20. The distinction between competence语言能力and performance语言运用was proposed by F. de Saussure. N. ChomskyChapter 2：Phonology1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. (T)2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. （F）3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. （F）4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. （F）5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. （T）6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. （T）7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. （F）8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. （F）9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. （T）10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. （F）11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. （F）12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. （T）13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. （F）14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. （F）15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. （F）16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. （F）17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. （T）18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. （F）19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. （T）20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.（T）Chapter 3：Morphology1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（T）2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. （F）3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.（T）4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.（T）5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.（T）6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.（T）7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.（T）8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.（F）9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.（F）10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.（T）Chapter 4： 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words. （F）2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.（T）3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.（F）4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence. （T）5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number ofsentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. （T）6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. （T）7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.（T）8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.（F）9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. （F）10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.（T）11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.（F）12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.（T）13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.（T）14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.（T）Chapter 5 Semantics1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. （F）2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. （F）3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. （T）4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. （F）5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. （T）6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. （T）7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. （F）8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. （T）9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. （T）10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. （T）Chapter 6：Pragmatics1.Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（F）2.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. （F）3.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. （T）4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. （T）5.The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. （F）6.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （F）7.The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （F）8.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences （F）9.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. （F）10.Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.（T）11.Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. （T）12.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.（F）Chapter 10&11：（Second）Language Acquisition1.L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes. （F）2.The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with. （T）3.All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. （T）4.Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. （T）5.Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6.Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. (T)nguage acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language.(F)8.Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development. (F)9.Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech. (F)10.In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. (F)11.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults. (T)12.The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. (T)13.Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. (T)14.Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language. (T)15.Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. (T)16.A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. (F)17.In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year. (F)18.Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. (T)19.Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. (T)20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end. (T)Chapter12：language & brain (Psycholinguistics)1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords. （F）2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. （T）3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front. （T）4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body. （T）nguage functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. （T）6. The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. （F）7. Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking. （F）8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept. （F）9. Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc. （T）10. Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being. （T）Chapter 7：Language Change（Historical Linguistics）1.One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. （T）nguage change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. （T）3.The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. （T）4.Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. （F）5.In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. （F）6.In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. （T）7.A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. （F）8.In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language. （F）9.The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. （T）10.The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. （F）11.In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender. （T）12.The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.（F）13.Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. （T）14.“Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy. （F）15.“fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation. （F）16.Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.（F）17.Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”. （T）18.Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. （T）nguage change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules （F）20.The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.（T）Chapter 8：Language and Society (Sociolinguistics)1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. （F）2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.（F）3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. （T）4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and in different social situations. （T）5.The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. （T）6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. （F）7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects. （F）8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. （F）9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. （F）10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. （F）11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. (F)12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. (T)13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. (F)14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. (F)15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. （F）16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. （T）17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't. （F）18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. （F）19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. （T）20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. （F）。