英美国家概况论文

British LiteratureEarly WritingⅠ.The Anglo-Saxon Period(450—1066)Historical backgroundAbout 450 A.D.,waves of the Angles,Saxons,and Jutes invaded the British Isles. The Angles and Saxons were Germanic tribes occupying parts of the coast of modern Denmark and modern Germany on both sides of the Elbe and the difference between their languages was very slight.Their language---Anglo-Saxon was called Old English.The Anglo-Saxons were heathens upon their arrival in Britain.In 597 St.Augustine was sent to England to convert the Anglo-Saxons.Wthin a century all England was Christianized.Heathen mythology was gradually replaced by Christian religion.Representatives and WorksThe Northumbrian School--------Caedmon turned the stories in the Bible into verse form (7th century) The title of the work is Paraphrase.The first Anglo-Saxon poet.Venerable Bede a monk, wrote in Latin(673—735) The Ecclesiatical History of the English People“Father of English History”Wessex literature-----------King Alfred a. a number of Latin books of educative value were translated into West Saxon dialect; b. the was responsible for the launching of The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;c. he created a style of Anglo-Saxon prose which was not obscure.Anglo-Saxon poetry---------One of the oldest “Old English” literary works is l long epic poetry Beowulf.There are also a number of religious poems and heroic poems,and some elegies.The earliest is Widsith and the last is Maldon(a poem about the battle of Maldon).Ⅱ. The Norman Period(1066—1350)Historical backgroundWith the Norman Conquest in 1066 Britain entered the Middle Ages,and the language of the royal court became French.So literature of that period was written in French or Latin.A feudal system of hierarchy was formed during the reign of Williamthe Conqueror.In the three centuries after 1066 the religious literature was voluminous.Most of them were addressed to Christ or the Virgin Mary.Representatives and WorksRomance and the influence of French literature-------The life and adventures of knights Sir Gawain and the Green Knights (usually about love,chivalry,and religion.)The exploits of Charlemagne the Great and Roland Chanson de Roland The tales about Sir Gawain, Launcelot, Merlin,the quest for the HolyGrail,and the death of King Arthur.Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain Ⅲ.The Age of Chaucer(1350—1400)Historical backgroundThe Hundred Years’War between England and France.With the awakening of national consciousness which as the result of the Hundred Years’War,the French language was gradually replaced by the native tongue.The peasant uprising of 1381.Representatives and WorksJohn Wycliff translated the Bible into standard English.Wrote many pamphlets in Latin to attack thefeudal lords and the church for their abuse of power.“Father of English prose”William Langland The Vision of Piers the Plowman(influenced thepeasant uprising in 1381)Geoffrey Chaucer (1340—1400)In his life Chaucer underwent a great variety of occupations,as courtier,soldier,ambassador,legislator,and burgher of London and was thus familiar with the lives of various classes.From 1360 to 1372, he imitated French poetry and even translated French literature poems himself.”The Book of the Duchess” It has much of the conventional romance elements in it.From 1372 to 1386, he wrote under the influence of the Italian literature. ”Troilus and Cryseyde”is adapted from a long poem by Boccacio.Other poems : The Parliament of Fowls, The House of Fame.In the last 15 years of his life, The Canterbury Tales was written in the years between 1387 and 1400. The significance of The Canterbury Tales-----a. It gives a comprehensive picture of Chaucer’s time. b. The dramatic structure of the poem has been highly commended by critics. c.Chaucer’s humour, gentle satire and mild irony. d. Chaucer’s contribution to the English language(he proved that the English language is a beautiful language and can be easily handled express different moods.He greatly increased the prestige of the English language.).Ⅳ.The Fifteenth Century(1400—1550)Historical backgroundThe Hundred Years’ WarThe War of the RoseThe discovery of America and the new sea routesReformation of the churchRepresentatives and WorksIn the field of literature during that period, folk literature,especially Ballads, became an important feature in the 15th century.Other forms are Lyrics and Folk tales. The stories is often told through dialogue and action.Sir Thomas Malory Le Morte d’Arthur (The Death of the Arthur)The stories of King Arthur and the Knights of theRound Table which were scattered in a number ofFrench romances and made great contributionthe development of English prose.Famous folk tales The Owl and the NightingaleThe Geste of Robin HoodEarly English plays Mystery Play Morality Play (about religion)。

英美国家概况作文一、英国概况。

英国，那可是个充满了各种奇妙元素的国家呢。

它的天气就像个调皮的孩子，说变就变。

早上出门的时候可能还是阳光明媚，等你走到半路，说不定就乌云密布，下起淅淅沥沥的小雨了。

这也难怪英国人出门总是带着伞，那可是他们应对多变天气的“魔法武器”。

说到英国的建筑，那可真是一大看点。

那些古老的城堡就像从童话故事里走出来的一样。

像爱丁堡城堡，高高地矗立在山上，远远望去，既雄伟又神秘。

城堡里的石头似乎都在诉说着过去的故事，有战争的热血，也有贵族们的传奇。

还有伦敦的大本钟，那是伦敦的标志性建筑。

每当整点的时候，大本钟就会“当当当”地敲响，那声音在伦敦的上空回荡，仿佛是在提醒人们时间的脚步。

英国人的性格也很有趣。

他们大多都很绅士和淑女，礼貌用语那是不离口。

“Please”“Thank you”“Excuse me”就像他们的口头禅一样。

不过呢，他们也有那种含蓄到让人捉摸不透的时候。

有时候你和一个英国人聊天，你觉得他说的是一回事，可实际上他可能有另一层意思。

这就像一场微妙的文字游戏，需要你好好琢磨。

在饮食方面，英国传统食物可不像法国菜或者意大利菜那么花哨。

炸鱼和薯条可是英国的国民美食。

简单的炸鱼，外酥里嫩，再配上一大份薯条，虽然看起来没那么精致，但吃起来却别有一番风味。

不过可别吃太多，毕竟这是高热量的食物。

而且英国的下午茶那也是相当有名。

精致的点心，搭配着香浓的茶，在一个悠闲的午后，坐在花园或者温馨的茶室里慢慢品尝，这可真是一种享受。

二、美国概况。

美国就像是一个超级大的大熔炉，各种文化在这里碰撞融合。

从东海岸到西海岸，那是一片广袤而充满活力的土地。

美国的城市各具特色。

纽约就像一个永不眠的巨人，高楼大厦林立，时代广场上的大屏幕闪烁着各种广告和灯光秀，让人眼花缭乱。

华尔街则是金融的中心，那些西装革履的人们在那里忙碌地穿梭，每一个决策都可能影响到世界的经济。

而洛杉矶呢，那是好莱坞的所在地，是电影爱好者的天堂。

FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE TO THECOMMONWEALTHI.Introduction.Great Britain, also known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, had once been the center of world for centuries and made great contributionto human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise ofother countries, Britain began to fall in the fierce competition among capitalist countries. Afterwards, suffering great loss in the two world wars, Britain became less powerful and thecolonies won independence one after another. The Great Britain Empire gradually transformed itself to a friendly and harmonious Commonwealth. II.Background: The Rise of The British Empire.a)Industrial Revolution and ExpansionThe British Industrial Revolution, which took place in 1700s, resulted in great development of the British society.Hand production methods could no longer meet the need of products.The newly-invented machines simplified the process of production and greatly increased the productivity.And the well-known steam engine provided new source of power, thanks to which, fast development also took place in other important fields such as transportation, steel industry and coal industry.The industrial revolution marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind.In 1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated by the Great Britain, which marked Great Britain’s gaining of sea supremacy, and paved the way for the expansion.During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, British citizens were encouraged to trade abroad,or even plunder and colonize through sailing. Weaker countries’ door s were first knocked open with commerce, and it was often followed by occupation and colonization backed withstrong military force.With advanced technology and broad market, bourgeoisie of Britain started their accumulation of capital, and the country started to lead theworld.b)The Sun-never-set EmpireThe British Empire became the “workshop of the world”, and London became the financial center. For over a century, it was the principal naval and imperial power, and almost unchallenged at seaand in territory. In the early 1900s, it ruled a population of over 500 million and occupied more than one fifth of the Earth’s total land ar ea.Because of its expanse around the globe, the sun could shine on at least one of its territories at any time. P eople call it “the empire on which the sun never sets”.III.Transformation to the Commonwealth.a)The Proposal of CommonwealthQueen Elizabeth II once declared that the confederation of Canada on 1st July 1867 marked “the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations".In 1884, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, described the changing British Empireas some of its colonies became moreindependentas a "Commonwealth of Nations".In 1917, a specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts,at that time a member of the British Imperial War Cabinet, when he brought up the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which concluded the Irish War of Independence, when the term “British Commonwealth of Nations” was substituted for “British Empire” in the wording of the oath taken by the parliament of the Irish Free State.b)Falling EmpireThe two Industrial Revolutions pushed more countries to develop bourgeoisie and look for foreign markets and raw materials.Therefore, the competition became fiercer. Newly-emerging powers, especially Germany, struggled for a repartition of market and land, while the British Empire had to fight to defend the acquired benefits.The First World War broke out in 1914 and lasted about four years, during which nearly every country suffered from it except America.Although Britain was one of the victorious nations and won many new colonies from the Germans, it could n’t afford to the great expenses for maintainingsuch a huge lions of people died, economy suffered, and Britain became a debtor, rather than creditor. At the same time, independence movements in thecolonies were running high.The empire was losing its control of the colonies. The international financial center transferred to New York. All of these deprived the Empire of its hegemonic position.c)TransformationThe Balfour Declaration, issued by the 1926 Imperial Conference, declared that the United Kingdom and the Dominions are...autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. ...The declaration accepted the fact that the dominions were having growing independence in internal and external affairs in the years after World War I, and became the basis of the Statute of Westminster 1931.The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed Statute of Westminster in 1931. It is a statutory embodiment and formalization of the principles of equality and allegiance to the Crown, which were brought up in the Balfour Declaration. Until today, the Statute of Westminster still serves as a basis of the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown.d)Postwar ChangesAfter World War II, the situation of the world changed profoundly. Europe, a continent that had dominated the whole world for several centuries, was in ruins. The United States and Soviet Union held the super power, while Britain was left bankrupt.In this period, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations.The London Declaration was issued by the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. It is considered a milestone in the history of the modern Commonwealth.The declaration allowed the Commonwealth to admit and retain members that were not Dominions, and it changed the name of the organization from the “British Commonwealth of Nations”to the “Commonwealth of Nations”. The dropping of the word “British” reflects the major changes.After London Declaration, the colonies gained their independence and new members from different continents joined the Commonwealth.Finally, the handover ceremony of Hong Kong in 1997 marked the end of the long decolonization process, as well as the empire.monwealth Today.The Commonwealth of Nations is an voluntary intergovernmental organization of52 independent member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.Although they acknowledge the British Monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth, they have no obligation to each other and have full autonomy on their own internal and external affairs. They are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.Commonwealth countries interact with each other outside governmentwith various non-governmental organizations of different fields, such as sport, culture, education, law and charity.The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organization, resourced by Commonwealth governments. It aims to strengthen civil society in theachievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centered and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.The Commonwealth games is the third largest multi-sport event in the world.Being held every four years, the games include sports particularly popular in Commonwealth countries, such as netball and rugby sevens. The games were designed with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.V.Conclusion.History witnessed the rise and fall of the British Empire and its transformation to the Commonwealth of Nations.From the history, there’s much we can learn.The rise of the British Empire from the Industrial Revolution can help us realize the importance of science and technology. With advanced technology, a little effort can produce great achievement.The lack of ability and power to control the large area of colonies can remind us that we should pre-estimate the situation, in order that what we wouldn’t cause results that we cannot control.The self-transformation to a loose commonwealth can also enlighten us that we should always follow the historical trend and that being against the trend is not a wise option.。

比较地理环境对中英两国文明进程的影响人类的文明，无论是古代的、现代的、都发生于某一特定的时间和空间所外的自然环境。

原始人采撷果实、居于洞穴或露宿于野，所有的一切都离不开自然环境，他们的衣食住行、生活和生产都深深地依赖地理环境。

进入文明之后，随着人类自身巨大潜能的逐渐发挥，人类对自然的依赖表面看来似乎有所淡化和隐化，但实际情况是，人类的文明程度愈高，对地理环境的利用的范围也愈益扩大和深化。

今天，科学技术的突飞猛进，都是建立在无数对自然宇宙的新发现、新认识和众多新材料、新方法产生的基础之上。

所以，无论对人类历史的哪一阶段进行研究，都决不能忽视自然地理环境对人类文明的影响和作用。

英国是一个岛国，总面积244200平方公里，东邻北海，西、北面对大西洋，南面是英吉利海峡，与法国隔海相望。

地理学上叫“不列颠群岛”，它们星星点点地散布在欧洲大陆西北边的水域中。

最大的岛屿——大不列颠岛，上面分布着英格兰、苏格兰和威尔士三个区域单位。

从英格兰的最南端到苏格兰的最北端只跨越10个纬度，最长也不过600英里（966公里）。

在欧洲国家中英国的面积之小可想而知。

英国的海岸线异常曲折，构成了许多港湾。

在英国，“内陆”离海洋最远处也不过75英里（120公里）。

位于欧洲大陆袈上的不列颠诸岛沿海水域不深，当大西洋暖流缓缓穿过这个“陆桥”之时，它温暖了空气、提升了水温，使不列颠的气候与同纬度其他地区相比，都要暖和宜人。

浅水、暖流、深湾共同构成了远古时代养育不列颠人的天赐富源。

独特的地理环境，对英国的政治、经济、文明、价值观念和民族精神都产生了深远的影响，其影响可归纳为以下几点：1.国家面积小，有助于政治统一，社会、经济和文化易于交流，制度容易规范化。

亚里士多德曾论述过城邦人口的规模，他认为一个城邦最适当的人口限度应该是足以满足自我需要而又是观察所能遍及的最大数目。

正是这种小国寡民的城邦才有条件建立那种公民直接参与的民主政治，而且极不容易形成专制。

Britain and the United States, in today's world is the two big powers in society, the two countries have extremely similar in a lot of places, so they have the obvious differences?First，the character of Americans and British man was not the same.British tradition, focusing on good manners etiquette. Americans believe in freedom, not like constraints.The British character traits are: apathy, subtle, introverted, conservative and rational rigor, gentleman's humor. Corresponds to American character was summed up as follows: warm, cheerful, adventurous, innovative, and imaginative alive, straightforward humor.Second，British and American philosophy of education is different.British Conservative and strict, reflected in education was rigorous style of study, improve the education system. It has a strict quality control system, quality assessments and scientific research and university teaching evaluation results known to the world, United Kingdom higher education is being checked on a regular basis.Americans are pursuing equality and freedom, reflected in education is the United States education system with diversity, openness Characteristics, internationality, flexibility, the United States education is to ensure fair and equal opportunities for education, and to give full play to different educational objects can meet the personality characteristics to raise the full of vigor and vitality.Third, British and Americans in their everyday life practices also differ.From the fashion point of view, Britons are paying attention to clothing, paying attention to a gentleman, Americans are more casual, wants to wear what, in their own comfort, not to mind other people's assessment, will not be evaluated.See from eating food of both countries, British diet also exudes British upper classes should be noble, from selection to Cook, and then at the dinner table, the British none to maximize detail. Americans -diet does not pay attention to fine, the pursuit of fast and convenient, not luxury, more popular. Three meals a day are just. Such eating habits to some extent also reflected American life, vigorous and resolute, as if it is not to the British procrastination, so attention to detail.British and American in their respective essence on why such a huge difference? Human environment is the main reason, I think. Secondly geographical environment is one of the indispensable factors.。

随着我国改革开放的深入和对外贸易的日益发展，国内机构和企业与国外相关机构和企业开始了更加频繁、更加密切的交流合作。

特别是商务领域对商务英语人才的需求和素质要求不断提高。

作为高层次复合型商务英语人才，不仅要注重语言技能和商务知识的教学和训练，更要注重人文素质的熏陶和培养。

由于英语往往是当今国际交流和贸易活动中常用的工作语言之一，商务英语人才必须具有国际视野，深入学习和了解英语国家特别是英美国家的社会历史和文化。

奥巴马政府上台后，以经济金融危机为首要任务，先后出台《美国复苏与再投资法案》、《金融稳定计划》等政策措施，实施量化宽松等非传统货币政策，稳定金融市场，刺激经济增长和创造就业；高度重视能源、气候变化等问题，加大科技研发投入，实施创新战略，倡导发展绿色经济；完成医疗保险、金融监管等经济社会改革立法，推进教育改革。

2012年以来，奥巴马集中精力竞选连任，围绕促进经济复苏和保障社会公平两条主线，不断推进各项内政议程。

围绕保增长、促就业目标，先后推出两轮“量化宽松”和一轮“操作扭转”，推动国会通过延长工资税减免、促进制造业回流和就业外包、努力吸引境外投资、促进房地产市场回暖、加强外贸执法、继续促进地方能源发展、稳定油价等议案.。

聚焦社会公平，充分维护医保改革等既有改革成果，塑造中产阶级代言人形象，保障弱势群体利益。

2012年11月6日，美国正式启动2012年总统选举。

8月底9月初，共和党和民主党相继召开全国代表大会，正式提名现任总统奥巴马击败共和党总统候选人罗姆尼、瑞安、奥巴马和拜登，分别成为总统和副总统候选人，并通过各自的党纲扩大领先优势，使得晋级前景明朗。

美国总统选举逐渐进入两党对抗阶段，选情更加激烈，顺利连任。

在国会选举中，民主党和共和党分别赢得参众两院多数席位，保持分裂局面。

2012年底和2013年初，两党围绕“财政悬崖”(多项税收优惠政策到期、大规模强制减支措施启动、国债上限再度触顶)展开激烈角力.。

A GUIDE TO ENGLISH-SPEAKINGCOUNTRIESWhen English jumps to life, it displays a starting quality. Nowadays, the connections among countries are increasing frequently, English is becoming more significant. After learning this course, I know more about some English-speaking countries, like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, especially the UK and America.Britain, the whole is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, in ancient Britain is known as the "day not fall", includes England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is the largest part of Great Britain.There are many rivers in Great Britain. Among the most important rivers is the Thames, which flows into the North Sea. Its length is 336 km and it is the deepest rive in Britain. It is navigable as far as the capital of Great Britain –London. The longest river in Britain is the Severn. Its length is 354 km. London is also called foggy London as the climate of Britain is classified as temperate, with warm summer, cool winters and plentiful precipitation throughout the year.Britain also has a long history. The earliest setters include Iberians (3000BC) , the Beaker folk and Celts. But the recorded history dates from 55BC, when Julius Caesar and his roman troops invaded the island. And then through the medieval period, the industrial revolution, the colonial expansion, and the World War II, the history has been in the present day.Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. Although the Queen is the head of state, their power is largely symbolic. The government is elected by people and governs according to British constitutional principles, and that election is held every five years. However, parliament is the law-making body of Britain. Strictly speaking, it consists of the Crown, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. TheHouse of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament. It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority. Britain is divided 651constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals. Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labor Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labor Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General election commands a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and shadow cabinet. The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy criticizing the Government and debate with the Government. However, the monarchy is usually regarded as a separate institution because even though the Queen must consent to pass a law, that consent is given as a matter of course. Additionally, it is a capitalist country in Western Europe. Agriculture, energy production, manufacturing industry, service industry and foreign trade are current British economic characters. Since the end of WWII, service industry has a spectacular growth.Britain has a rich culture. Education in Britain is compulsory for all children between ages of 5 and 17. There are two parallel school systems in Britain for primary and secondary education, which includes the state system, where education is provided free of charge, and the independent system where fees are required. Britain’s education and academic research level is currently in the world's leading position. The world-famous education has a holy land at the university of Cambridge and Oxford University. British especially like reading newspapers, like the Times, the Guardian and the Daily Telegraph and so on.The United States is located in the central part of North America, expect Alaska and Hawaii. The country is bordered by Canada to the north, Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean t the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The coastline is 22680 kilometers. Unlike UK, major area belongs to temperate continental climate, the southern subtropical climate, while western coastal area distribution has a temperate climate with Mediterranean climate.The US is a country of the western hemisphere, comprising fifty states and several territories. Forty-eight contiguous states lie in central North America between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bounded on land by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south; Alaska is in the northwest of the continent with Canada to its east, and Hawaii is in the mid-Pacific.After Christopher Columns has discovered American, this nation was founded by thirteen colonies declaring their independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776. It adopted the current constitution, which has been amended several times subsequently on September 17, 1787. When the War of Independence was over, the US was not one unified nation as it is today. Each new state had its own government and was organized very much like an independent nation. One of the most events in America is the Civil War. American slavery existed after the first immigrants from Europe founded their settlements. In certain circumstances, slaves were treated with occasional dignity by their owners, but for the most part they were neglected and treated with severe harshness.Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America. But the south feared that the north would abolish slavery, and the north was afraid it would spread westward into the newly established states. Soon, anti-slavery leaders were becoming active and loud. Slavery effectively ended in the U.S. in the spring of 1865 when theConfederate armies surrendered. The victory can also be attributed in part to failures of Confederate transportation, materiel, and political leadership. And then the country greatly expanded in territory throughout the 19th century, acquiring further territory from the United Kingdom, as well as lands from France, Mexico, Spain, and Russia. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it became the world's sole remaining superpower, and is a declared nuclear weapons state. The United States continues to exert dominant economic, political, cultural and military influence around the globe.The United States is a federal constitutional republic with Washington DC its federal capital. The Constitution of the United States is the basic law of the land. There are two obvious characteristics in the Constituti on. One is “check and balance”, consisted of the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Each branch has powers that the others do not have and each branch has a way of counteracting and limiting any wrongful action by other branch. Another characteristic is that the Constitution specifies the respective powers of federal government and of the state government. Congress is the legislature branch of the federal government. It is law-making and the supreme legislative body of the nation. It consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives, while the executive branch consists of 15 departments and many independent agencies. According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the US shall be vested in one Supreme Court. The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 Court of appeals, 91 district courts and 3 courts of special jurisdiction. Us judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.As in Britain, a two-party system has been dominant in the United States. Today, the two major parties in America are the Democratic Party which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson’s party, formed before 1800 and the Republican Party which was formed in the 1850s by people in the states of the North and West.Curre nt American economical forms are the same as Britain’s.American society is the product of large-scale immigration and is home to a complex social structure as well as a wide array of household arrangements. The U.S. is one of the world's most ethnically and socially diverse nations.In America, education is regarded as both an individual benefit and a social necessity. It is a general view that every American should have the right and obligation to become educated. They hold the view that the future of the nation depends largely on education. Formal education in the United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education. Elementary and secondary educations, the basis of public education, are compulsory and are divided into 12 grades. Higher education in the US began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636. As a undergraduate student, he has to earn a certain number of credits In order to receive a degree at the end of four years of college, which is similar to Chinese students. The culture of the United States is a Western culture, and has been developing since long before the United States became a country. Its chief early influence was British culture, due to colonial ties with the British that spread the English language, legal system and other cultural inheritances. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially countries from which large numbers immigrated such as Ireland, Germany, Poland, and Italy; the Native American peoples; Africa, especially the western part, from which came the ancestors of most African Americans; and young groups of immigrants. American culture also has shared influence on the cultures of its neighbors in the New World.Although American history is not so long, but it still is the super country. Let’s find out the cause together. It is said that American active, confident and brave, while British diffident, gentle andreliable. British and American detest each other, British think there is no history in America, but American think British cannot understand what future is.According to this term’s study, I know more about Britain and American. In addition, this course arise my interests in Britain and America. Nowadays, more and more people like traveling abroad. So do I. I try to find something more about these two counties.People in Britain and America are different in greeting and introduction. For British people, a handshake is the most common way of greeting, and it is customary when being introduced to someone new. When one wants to introduce oneself, one extends his or her hand for a shake and says “hello, I am…” and it is proper to say “pleases to meet you…’ as a response. For friends, the British will also hug. And if the friends have not seen each for a long time, they would kiss the cheek of the opposite sex. For America people, they greet total strangers by saying “hello’ and it is thought polite to reply. They say “have a nice day when parting” and “you are welcome” when thanked. British people are punctual persons, so it is polite to arrive on time for appointments. Being late for even a few minutes would be considered impolite.In social settings, people always say “come to see me soon’ and “drop in anytime”. But it is often necessary to call before visiting others. If one does not plan to go, it is better to accept the invitation. It is often considered polite to bring gifts like flowers, chocolate or a small thing for the host. It is an appropriate way to express ones appreciation for being invited by writing a thankful note or giving a telephone call after the visit.In most parts of Britain, the evening meal is the main meal. When one is invited for dinner, it is better for one to tell the hosthis or her dietary restrictions. Food may be served in the following ways: family style, buffet style or serving style. But in America, some families express grace before meals.In the USA, everyone takes pride in doing things by themselves, which is a spirit from their forefathers. And it is also a call of the whole society to do things like gardening, carpentry, upholstering and interior decorating all by oneself.But both British and American people love privacy. It is their right to have privacy and personal freedom. When we communicate with British or American people, don’t ask some private questions. We should remember it.At last, I want to say that this course is quite interesting and practical. I do learn something through the study. Although this course is going to end, I think we should not stop the study of western country cultures because it is useful for our other study as well. if we come to a foreign enterprise after graduation, we could know how to talk with our foreign interviewers or our bosses. When we travel aboard, we could experience local culture in a better way. To some extent, no matter what you are learning now, it must be useful in your future. Thus, I am happy I have learned something in this course.。

美国国家概况论文《主要英语国家概况》学期论文American Immigrants教师姓名：学生姓名：专业年级: 商务英语学号：摘要本文论述了美国移民的历史。

美国移民的历史可以被视为在四个时代：殖民时期，十九世纪中期，到了二十之交，及后1965年。

每一个时代带来了鲜明的民族群体和种族到美国。

在十七世纪，英国人约175,000迁移到美国殖民地时期。

在美国半数移民所有欧洲殖民时期和18世纪的到来为17日的契约仆人。

在十九世纪中叶，主要来自北部一看到涌入欧洲，二十世纪初，主要来自南欧和东欧世纪后的1965年拉丁美洲和亚洲居多。

关键词：免签证社会福利保障体系教育体系创业环境AbstractThis article narrated the history of American immigrants. American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-nineteenth century, the turn of the twentieth, and post-1965. Each epoch brought distinct national groups, races, and ethnicities to the United States. During the seventeenth century, approximately 175,000 Englishmen migrated to Colonial America. Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants. The mid-nineteenth century saw mainly an influx from northern Europe; the early twentieth-century mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe; post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia.Key words：Visa-free Social welfare Security system Education system Business environmentAmerican Immigrants1. IntroductionTens of millions of immigrants over four centuries have made the United States what it is today. They came to make new lives and livelihoods in the New World; their hard work benefited themselves and their new home country.Discoveries made by various anthropologists of human remains over the past few decades provide evidence that long before Ellis Island opened its doors to welcome those seeking political and religious freedom as well as the "adventurer, the wanderer, the persecuted, the fortune seekers, and others" America was a kaleidoscope of ethnic and cultural groups! Thus, the history of US immigration spans a long period of migration of many different peoples from various parts of the world. One common belief is that America was originally peopled by wanderers from Northeast Asia about 20,000 years ago. These wanderers were believed by some to be the founding population of today's Native Americans. Others believe that the first Americans came from Polynesia, South Asia or even Europe.错误！未找到引用源。

从奥巴马看美国的种族歧视—浅谈美国种族歧视消弱的原因【摘要】美国是一个多民族国家。

种族歧视是美国历史上的一个长期问题，它困扰了美国几百年。

终于，在美国黑人们的长期抵抗和奋斗下，种族歧视在美国逐渐被消弱。

更甚之，2008年，第一位非洲裔总统奥巴马在美国出现，这更加表明黑人在美国社会中的地位显著提高，黑人将会过上更加美好的生活，并且美国的种族歧视也将最终走向消亡。

【关键词】美国种族歧视消弱原因众所周知，2008年，奥巴马当选为美国总统，成为美国历史上第一位黑人总统，从而创造了美国乃至世界上的一大奇迹。

看到奥巴马在就职仪式上那激情澎湃的演说，我不禁想起几百年来在美国历史上那惨不忍睹的种族歧视。

当时，美国黑人处于极其卑微的地位，这与现在黑人成为美国总统形成鲜明对比，这不仅表明美国黑人的社会地位不断提高，更加表明美国的种族歧视正在被消弱，这是一种积极的社会现象，也是全世界人民所乐意见到的。

可是，是什么原因引起了美国社会种族歧视的消弱呢？一、美国黑人奴隶制的废除在北美殖民地时期，由于殖民地急需大批劳动力，所以在此时期对非洲黑人奴隶的贩卖和奴役十分猖獗。

从1686—1786年的100年间，约有25万非洲黑人被贩卖到英属北美殖民地。

黑人奴隶在北美殖民地的地位极其悲惨，特别是那些在田间终日劳动的黑奴，被当作“耕畜”使用，每天被迫劳动18—19个小时。

美利坚合众国成立后，制定了联邦宪法。

但宪法保留了奴隶制，维护了奴隶贸易。

到1860年，美国黑人奴隶已达到400万。

19世纪上半期，美国人民开展了广泛的反对奴隶制运动。

30年代起，废奴主义在美国广为流行。

废奴主义者加里森创建了新英格兰反对奴隶制协会，并领导成立了全国性废奴主义组织——美国反对奴隶制协会。

到40年代，废奴团体已达2000个，形成了声势浩大的群众运动。

虽然反动势力多方压制和迫害，但废奴主义者仍坚持开展多种活动。

他们出版书籍、报刊并散发传单，到各地宣传演讲，控诉奴隶主的罪行，揭露和抨击奴隶制的罪恶。

英语国家概况学期论文The History of Development of British Democracy班级：英语N113班姓名：沈晓学号：201145639303AbstractThe history of the democracy of the United Kingdom is the history that consistsof party politics, monarchy, judicial system, parliamentary system, and cabinet system, the history that parliament gradually replaced King to rule the nation, the history that the principle which cabinet should be responsible to Parliament produced, developed and finally established, the history that party began and grew in its interior, the history that democracy defeated despotism and equality defeated privilege constantly, the history that the United Kingdom society make progress constantly.The whole process of the history is exactly the process that the United Kingdom establishes the constitutional regime and gradually realizes the democratization.In a word, the political democracy of the United Kingdom went through its process of gestation, birth, growth and maturity. And with this process, United Kingdom-style political democracy gave the world its unique nature.Keywords：democracy Knights of Round Table Magna Carta Civil War the Bill of Rights Parliamentary Reform of 1832Britain is arguably the oldest representative democracy in the world, with roots that can be traced over a thousand years. Other countries also have long political histories but these histories are marked by periods of sudden, and often violent, change. Although Britain too has had its periods of political instability, in contrast to say, France or the United State, the process of state-building has been one of evolution rather than revolution. This long, unbroken history is still apparent in Britain’s current political institutions and in its political culture.Knights of Round TableRound table is the meaning of "equality" and "solidarity". There was a legend that King Arthur’s knights had reached 150 up. The knights fought on the battlefield and discussed the domestic affairs in round table. When round table was held, King Arthur was around the big round table with the 30 knights, sitting in a circled. At this point, they were equal, no difference of king and knights. They could speak freely, adopting the principle that minority must obey the majority when dealing with national affairs. Though they would form some factions because of opposing political views, only on the round table there were no differences of status and everyone was allowed to speak freely.This kind of democratic institutions was too advanced in the medieval, dark and ignorant Europe. Whether it existed or not, wide and long spread of this thought is enough to surprise. No wonder that Europe ended the feudal era and stepped into the era of the rapid development and modern civilization hundreds of years earlier than Asia.Magna CartaThe oldest institution of government is the monarchy. This dates back to the Saxons who ruled from the 5th century AD until the Norman Conquest in 1066. The present Queen, Elizabeth II, is directly descended from King Egbert, who united England under his rule in 829.The power of the monarchy was largely derived from the ancient doctrine of the “divine right of King”. It was held that the sovereign derived his authority from God, not from his subjects. Because of this diving right, although there were sometimes battles between different families who insisted they were the legitimate heirs to the throne, the actual existence of the monarchy has seldom been questioned. For a thousand years Britain has had a hereditary king or queen as the head of state.While the King in theory had God on his side, in practice even in medieval times it was thought that he should not exercise absolute power. Instead, the sovereign should be willing to receive advice from prominent men. The monarch’s willingness to do this led to many battles between the king and other powerful groups like the Church and powerful, land-owning feudal barons.It was a gang of feudal barons and the Church which opposed some of King John’s (1199-1216) policies. This opposition was so powerful that the king finally granted them a charter of liberty and political rights, sill known by its medieval Latin name of Magna Carta. Magna Carta placed some limits on the king’s ability to abuse his royal power. This is still regarded as Britain’s k ey expression of the rights of citizens against the Crown.Civil WarIn 16th century, at the appearance of the enclosure movement, capitalism developed rapidly in the United Kingdom, which was inevitable to conflict with the conservative forces at the time. Thus by the 1560s Puritan appeared, attacking the Church. At the beginning of the 17th century, there was opposition forming in the Parliament during James I and Charles I period. The Parliament adopted petition of right in 1628 to limit the kingship. The following year Charles I announced the dissolution of the Parliament. Then the Parliament was not convened for 11 years.At the end of the 1630s, the Scottish uprose. In order to raise military spending, Charles I convened new congress on April 13, 1640, which met with the resistance from the bourgeoisie and members of the new Aristocrat. They required further limitation of the kingship and to give freedom of developing industry and commerce.But it was rejected by Charles I. therefore, Charles I dissolved the Parliament on May 5. It was known as the short Parliament.As Scottish insurrectionists attacked, Charles I was forced to convene the Parliament again on November 3. The Parliament existed until April 20, 1653, known as the long Parliament. This Parliament was regard as a sign of the revolution beginning.After the long parliament was convened, Parliament adopted Three years of law, providing that parliament shall be convened on a regular basis and shall not be dissolved without parliamentary consent. After many struggles, Charles I were at the end of his wits. Then in January 1642, he left London for Yorkshire in north of the United Kingdom. During August, Royal banner was risen in the Nottingham, declaring the crusade against Congress and provoking a civil war.In Naseby in June 1645, Oliver Cromwell led Congress army to defeat the King's army and achieved a decisive victory. In June 1646 they overcame the King's home in Oxford. Civil war ended with a parliamentary victory for the first time and the King became a prisoner of the parliament.In the spring of 1648, the Restoration rioted in South Wales, Kent, Essex and other places and launched a second civil war with Scotland military alliance. In August, Oliver Cromwell defeated the Scottish army in the battle of Preston, and Scotland was into the United Kingdom. The second civil war was end.After the ending of the civil war, the army went into London for the second time in December 1648, occupying the parliament and washing away the Presbyterian members .The remaining members were about more than 200 people. Since then, the Long Parliament was named as Residual Parliament. The parliament established Supreme Court to bring to trial of Charles I. On January 30, 1649, the Supreme Court courted decision that Charlie Stuart should be beheaded as a tyrant, traitor, murderer and national enemies. Charles I was publicly executed. Subsequently, the parliament adopted the resolution that canceled the House of Lords and abolished the monarchy. On May 19 it was announced that the United Kingdom was Republic and Commonwealth, no King and the House of Lords (Commonwealth of England).On April 20, 1653, Cromwell dissolved the remaining long boards and established another small parliament (Bell States Parliament). Because some of radical members came up with the reform requirement, Little Parliament was forced to disband. Then on December 16, 1653, Cromwell became Lord Protector and republicanism was overthrown.The Bill of Rights of 1689In 1685, Cromwell died and his son succeeded to the throne as Lord Protector. He was cowardly and incompetent, which led to the phenomenon that national affairs were dominated by a small group of military officers. In 1659, Charlie Cromwell resigned. General Monck who was stationed in Scotland led the army marching in London on the pretext of protecting the parliament. After arriving in London, he decided to send someone to the Netherlands to negotiate with Charles I's son for restoration issues. Under the control of Monck, he announced the declaration in Netherlands.In May 1660, Charles succeeded to the throne in London, named Charles II. It is known as the monarchy's restoration in the history.After Charles II's restoration, he receded from his promise and dealt with participants in the revolution by means of terror. In 1685, Charles II died and his brother James II succeeded to the throne. During the reign of James II, he gave the Catholic Church civil rights of religious liberty and equality. Later he published the declaration of indulgence and gave all non-Catholic Church believers freedom of belief, including the Catholic Church believers. It led to the opposition of the whole country. In November, 1688, William, a Protestant, landed with his army. James II fled to France. Parliament plenary was convened in February, 1689. William and Mary (James II's son-in-law and daughter) ruled the country together, and they made up with Declaration of Rights, condemning the James II’s act of sabotage, requesting the King not to levy taxes without the parliament's consent in the future, asking the Catholic not to be King of the United Kingdom, demanding any King of the United Kingdom not to marry Roman Catholics. In October, the parliament adopted the Declaration of Rights and enacted into law. It was known as the Bill of Rights. Sincethen, the United Kingdom gradually began to establish constitutional monarchy and political principle that the parliament is above the monarchy.Parliamentary Reform of 1832The United Kingdom was the first country that realized modernization in the world. In the process of establishing the modern state system, the development of British history experienced a peaceful and gradual process. With distinctive characteristics, parliamentary reform of 1832 reflected the unique historical and cultural tradition of Britain. British parliamentary system is known as “the mother of parliaments". Reform of 1832 is extraordinarily significant for the development of British history, making an outstanding contribution to the development of democratic society.In the conflict of tradition and change, taking the road of integration is notable characteristic of British cultural patterns. Parliamentary reform in 1832 is an important event during the process of British political democratization and an important part that capitalism developed and matured. Because of the civil war and Glorious Revolution, United Kingdom took the first step in the political transition, which finished the transformation from absolute monarchy to multiple oligarchies, realizing the first spread of power.In 1830, July Revolution broke out in France. It greatly encouraged the people of the United Kingdom and pushed forward with the reform movement. In November of this year, Gray form the cabinet. Face with strong calls of reform, Grey believed that concession had to be made now and reform was necessary. To that end, he appointed committee to proceed immediately to draw up a reform scheme and made instructions on the general principles of the reform scheme in order to meet the demands of public opinion as much as possible. Accordingly, committee soon devised a social reform scheme. In March 1831, the scheme came out. Main purpose of the reform was to make the middle class went into parliament because the middle class had formed a real and adequate public opinion group. Without them, there would be no aristocratic power.Despite this, the reform scheme still met with the opposition of conservative Tory. Aiming at the opposition, some solons insisted that if political change had not kept up with social and economic change, revolution would have occurred. So, what they needed to do now was reforming the existing political system. Following the resignation of the cabinet, King William again asked Wellington to form the cabinet. Faced with this situation, Wellington finally made concessions though he had previously strongly opposed reform. But Pierre, his political partner, still opposed reform scheme, otherwise he did not participate in the cabinet. At the same time, people also protested in Wellington on stage. Wellington who was beset with troubles internally and externally cannot form the cabinet so he had to recommend to the King to recall Gray. Then the King did and ensured to canonize a sufficient number of nobles as necessary to make the upper House to pass the Bill. On June 4, the reform scheme was finally submitted to the upper House for consideration. Then it was adopted. On June 7 the King approved it. The bill is 1832 Reform Bill.Parliamentary reform of 1832 was a turning point of British political party. Whig party regained the power and enlarged strengthen with this opportunity, driving Tory that occupied British political scene for a long time out of the Government. Whig party dominated the power of government solidly in decades and thereby created "liberalism" times.The conservation of parliamentary reform of 1832 is also evident. It changed members of House of Commons but did not shake the dominance of nobles. The proletariat and the masses that took charge of major struggle tasks in this fight did not have the right to vote. The reform was like a hoax for them.However, parliamentary reform of 1832 continued to be major historical event of the United Kingdom and an important starting of political reform after the bourgeois revolution in 17th century. The reform temporarily adjusted the internal contradictions of the ruling class, opening the gates of parliament for industrial bourgeoisie. Under the historical condition of that time, parliamentary reform of 1832 was significant.The British Government TodayFrom this brief history we can see that British government today is deeply influenced by its long past. Britain is both a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy. While the official head of state is the Queen, her powers are largely traditional and symbolic. The government at national and local levels is elected by the people and governs according to British constitutional principles.Because of Britain’s imperial past, when many other corners of the globe w ere ruled from London, we find similar systems of government in many former colonies. Other countries which are governed according to the principles of British parliamentary democracy are Australia, Canada, New Zealand and India. All but India recognize the Queen as their head of state, and a representative of the Crown, called the Governor-General, is present in such constitutional monarchies in order to fulfill the role of the monarch.。

A Comparative Study on Reserve of Natural ResourcesBoth Britain and the United States are advanced industrial countries. As we all know, natural resources are the gifts that are given by nature and should be cherished by our human beings, because they are raw materials of industry and supply energy to engines and machines or they play an important role in maintaining the balance of ecological system. So we need to make a comparison on reserve of natural resources between two countries in order to know more about how resources contribute to the development of industry and the environmental protection.Both two countries are rich in natural resources. Among so many resources, they both are rich in coal and petroleum. Talking about the coal, many of the coalfields in the UK have been in continuous production since the beginning of the seventeenth century. And the annual coal production output in the UK is over 120 million tons. And both Scotland and W ales have valuable reserves that are used for industry and heating homes. The coal mining area of England is the largest one of the country, which consists about 40% of the total output. For the USA, its coal reserves rank first in the world. There are so many important mining areas, such as, the northern part of the Appalachian Highlands, Pennsylvania, W est Virginia and Alaska.Then as for the petroleum, Britain is not only self-sufficient in oil supply but also can export the oil to other countries now. The biggest oilfield in the United Kingdom is in Dorset. And there are two important oil companies, one is Britain Petroleum Amoco, the other is Shell Transport and Trading Company. And the USA produces more than 370 million tons of petroleum annually, supplying much of the nation’s energy to the household works and industrial operations. The four main oilfields are in the following four states: Texas, Alaska, Louisiana, and California. Now there are so many oil companies in the USA, such as, Exxon Mobil, Chevron Texaco.Concerning about their differences, we can talk about three aspects as follow.Firstly, although they both have so many rivers, the water resources in Britain still can not meet the need of its agriculture and industry because of the severe water pollution. Britain has a diverse pattern of natural vegetation, as the result of its all-year round rainyweather, but the pollution is very serious, which have already affected fishing and drinking. So it is high time that the government should take some measurement and effective methods towards this problem. And so many laws and regulations have been published immediately. While in the USA, water has been a significant part in its growth. Also the water is used for generating electricity power. It is beneficial to industrial development and it can accounts for a large part of supply to household work. And water resources, as we all know, it is the cleanest power. If being made full used of, it can efficiently decrease the air pollution that is caused by fossil fuels and other materials like woods.Secondly, both of them have a large area covered by forests, but woodland in the UK is covering less and less area because of the long-time denudation. According to the report of the forestry ministry in 2008, the area covered by forest is 28,810,000 square kilometers, accounting for the 12% of the total land, which is the lowest among the developing countries. But the USA has taken advantage of rich forestry resources, producing lager amount of paper and other wooden products. The area covered by forests is 3,400,000,000 square kilometers, which accounts for 33% of the land, and it is mainly situated in the east coast and the coast of the Pacific Ocean.Thirdly, the two countries have different kind of resources reserve. The other main resources in the UK are iron ore, limestone, clay, shale, chalk, natural gas and tin. The reserve of iron is estimated about 3,800,000,000, and the reserve of gas is r eported about between 860,000,000,000 and 25,850,000,000,000 per cubic meter. While the USA is rich in mineral resources, such as copper, zinc, silver, gold, and lead. The reserve of copper in the USA accounts for 7.4% of the total reserve in the world, and the zinc accounts for 13.6%, the silver 9.3%, the gold 6.4% , and the lead accounts for 12.1%.In a conclusion, the UK and the USA are all rich in various natural resources. The natural resources reserves are so many. Both of them have taken advantage of resources, to make progress on their economic development. W e also can know the USA has paid more attention than the UK to the valuable resources, to benefit its industry and environmental protection. While in the UK, there are still not enough strategies to regulate the protection of resources to be against the pollution and the overuse. I think itis one of the main reasons of their different level of the industrial development.Reference:中文参考书籍：温洪瑞，李学珍，A Brief Introduction to Britain and America 英文参考报刊：The W ashington Post, Oil & Gas Journal.电子参考文献：Net1 英国能源与自然资源Net2 英国煤炭工业Net3 英国煤炭资源概况Net4 英国石油天然气工业现状及政策/oil/Net5 英国林业概况及发展现状/viewNet6 美国石油状况简介http:// Net7 美国森林经营之谜.。

Sino-American Relation: Dangling Between Friendsand Rivals姓名：微微班级：11级英语二班学号：1112019677二零一三年三月1.IntroductionSino-American relations refer to international relations between the United States of America (U.S.A.) and the government of People’s Republic of China (PRC). Most analysts characterize present Sino-American relations as being complex and multi-faceted. The United States and the People's Republic of China are usually neither allies nor enemies; the US government and the military establishment do not regard the Chinese as an adversary but as a competitor in some areas and a partner in others. As of 2011, the United States has the world's largest economy and China the second largest. China has the world's largest population and the United States has the third largest. China is also the largest foreign creditor for the United States. China's challenges and difficulties are mainly internal, and there is a desire to maintain stable relations with the United States. The Sino-American relationship has been described by top leaders and academics as the world's most important bilateral relationship of the 21st century. 2.history2.1 Opium WarsThe end of the First Opium War in 1842 led to the Anglo-Chinese Treaty of Nanking which forced many Chinese ports open to foreign trade. Until then, Sino-American relations had been conducted solely through trade, but this new pact between Britain and China severely threatened further American business in the region. This treaty effectively ended the era of the Old China Trade, giving the United States as many trading privileges as other foreign powers.2.2 World War IIThe outbreak of the Second-Japanese War in 1937 saw aid flow into the Republic of China, led by Chiang Kai-shek, from the United States, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. A series of Neutrality Acts had been passed in the US with the support of isolationists who forbade American aid to countries at war. American public sympathy for the Chinese was aroused by Japanese brutality in China. When open war broke out in the summer of 1937, the United States offered moral support but took no effective action.After World War II ended in 1945, the hostility between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China exploded into open civil war. American general George C. Marshall tried to broker a truce between the Republic of China and the Communist Party of China in 1946, but it quickly lost momentum.2.3 Relations frozenThe United States continued to work to prevent the PRC from taking China's seat in the United Nations and encouraged its allies not to deal with the PRC. The United States placed an embargo on trading with the PRC, and encouraged allies to follow it. The PRC developed nuclear weapons in 1964 and, as later declassified documents revealed, President Johnson considered preemptive attacks to halt its nuclear program. He ultimately decided the measure carried too much risk and it was abandoned.Despite this official non-recognition, the United States and the People's Republic of China held 136 meetings at the ambassadorial level beginning in 1954 and continuing until 1970, first in Geneva and later in Warsaw.2.4 RapprochementBoth the PRC and the US made efforts to try to improve relations between the two major powers. This became an especially important concern for the People's Republic of China after the Sino-Soviet border clashes of 1969. The PRC was diplomatically isolated and the leadership came to believe that improved relations with the United States would be a useful counterbalance to the Soviet threat.Nixon believed it necessary to forge a relationship with China, even though there were enormous differences between the two countries. He also worried immensely that one of the Democrats would preempt him and go to the PRC before he had the opportunity.From February 21 to February 28, 1972, President Nixon traveled to Beijing, Hangzhou, and Shanghai. At the conclusion of his trip, the US and the PRC issued the Shanghai Communiqué, a statement of their respective foreign policy views. In the Communiqué, both nations pledged to work toward the full normalization of diplomatic relations. The US acknowledged the PRC position that all Chinese on both sides of the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is only one China and that Taiwan is part of China..2.5 Obama administrationBarack Obama’s presidency has fostered hopes for increased co-operation and heightened levels of friendship between the two nations. On November 8, 2008, Hu Jintao and Barack Obama shared a phone conversation in which the Chinese President congratulated Obama on his election victory. During the conversation both parties agreed that the development of US-China relations is not only in the interest of both nations, but also in the interests of the world. In the cooperation between China and American, the conflicts of profit happened normally. Only the common profit exists, the relations between them will to turn to better.3. Important issues3.1 Economic affairEconomic affair is the biggest issue among countries. With the help of open and reform policy, based on natural advantages of mineral and cheap human workforce, China sucks in huge amount of funds in developing its internal economy while exports numerous kinds of cargos to the whole globe. Both the US and China benefit a lot after mutual complementary economic relation formed. But that does not mean the whole. Conflict and tension arises when trade surplus oc curs, also with several interest groups’ malevolent attitudes towards a more prosperous China.3.2 Both of them have their own unique way in dealing with politic matters.Though the politic ideology of social status differs sharply, China and the US have to seek cooperation in dealing with regional affairs in order to protect nation’s own safety and interest. The North Korea nuclear incident is such an occurrence that requires multilateral mutual cooperation.3.3 China and America do not share a same origin of civilization.This means that the difference of cultural between countries may bring about conflicts and deputes ceaselessly. Today, with the gradual deepen of mutual understanding in civilization, old hostile attitudes are gone. In the mean time, some of them stay alive or even sharpened as a weapon to achieve creepy goals. For example: the cultural invasion, accusation of human rights, democracy and religion.4. ConclusionFrom all that above, we can see that the relation of the big two has its own uniqueness apart from common bilateral relations. Conflicts, interest intrusions and ideological disputes are constant, however, all of them laid on the foundation of mutually dependent economy. Though trouble happens and in some certain periods the two sides acted like rivals, they are a little more like cooperators, for the foundation they stand on is so steady to wobble. What we can do for the two countries ‘relation is not much, but we all hoping that our country will become powerful and prosperous again and for all.。

A General Survey of UK and USA 英美概况Contents• 地理特点 Geographical Features• 历史History• 政治 Political Systems• 传统文化 Traditions and Cultures1.美国地理The Geographical Features of the USAⅠ.General KnowledgeⅡ.Regions and CitiesⅢ.Lakes and RiversⅣ.MountainsⅤ.OthersThe U.S has a land area of 9.3 million square kilometers. It is the fourth largest country in the world in size after Russia, Canada and China.就面积而言，美国是世界第四大国，就人口而言，美国是世界是第三大国。

Traditionally from the east to the west the United States can be divided into seven geographical regions. 美国从东到西可分为七个地理区。

New Englanders were originally knows as Yankees, which came to stand for all Americans.新英格兰人最初曾被称作"美国佬：这一名称，后来渐渐指所有的美国人。

The soil is rich, the rain usually plentiful and the growing season long. These factors make the Midwest America's most important agricultural area .It is also a major manufacturing region and the nation's leading center of heavy industry. 中西部地区是美国最重要的农业区，也是主要的制造业区各最主要的重工业区。

The government intervention in American economic developmentRecently we have discussed either privatization or nationalization is more important. Many students draw the conclusion that nationalization plays a more important role than privatization in the American economic. Next, I want to discuss the influence of the government intervention in American economy further.The first part, the relationship between the government intervention and the history.As we know, the American Presidential election is around the corner, With the U.S. election just days away, it has never been more important to consider what the next President must do to keep America competitive. In this time of crisis, Washington has focused on the immediate and the short term. Lost are the more basic questions we really need to worry about, what is the fundamental competitive position of the U.S. in the global economy? And what must we do to remain strong when other nations are making rapid progress? To find the answers, we should get some knowledge of the American economic history first.The modern American economy traces its roots to the questof European settlers for economic gain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The New World then progressed from a colonial economy to a small, independent farming economy, and eventually to a highly complex industrial economy. So America starts from a free-market, and it also has been written in the law that every citizen in American has the right to pursuit happiness. In my point of view, wealth, of course, is included in the meaning of happiness. Government intervention can be original tracked back to the beginning of the country.The American economic system seemed worked very well until the economic crisis of 1929 to 1933 in America. For the sake of saving American economy, Franklin D Roosevelt, the new President of 1933, brought a large-scare reform into effect in America. Because these reform measures had characters of capitalistic improvement, this reform was called Franklin D.The New Deal administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a critical watershed in the development of the welfare-warfare state in the United States. Precedents concerning public policy and ideology set during that period are still with us today. However there is much mythology and misunderstanding regarding FDR and the New Deal found in academic and popular historical accounts. We must sift throughthe volume of published works trying to ascertain the truthfulness and accuracy of these studies. Dr. Gary North recently pointed out that there exists no single critical analysis of this history, written on a scholarly academic level, which treats both domestic and foreign policies of Roosevelt’s New Deal and their consequences. While this is indeed true, there in fact exist many volumes in print which undertake to explore and explain this period. This annotated bibliographic guide is an attempt to acquaint attention with this literature regarding Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal.Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal is obviously a good example for the government intervention in American economy. Besides, there is another part to show you.The second part, the relationship between the government intervention and the economic system.The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating undercompetitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, both together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. Therefore, there is a high level possibility to cause economic crisis without the government intervention.After the serious economic crisis, the Americans has learned lessons from that，therefore, government intervention plays a very important role in the American economy. Now the American economy has performed remarkably well, but our continued competitiveness has become fragile. Over the last two decades the U.S. has accounted for an incredible one-third of world economic growth. As the financial crisis hit, the rest of the American economy remained quite competitive, with many companies performing strongly in international markets. U.S. productivity growth has continued to be faster than in most other advanced economies, and exports have been the growth driver in the overall economy.In American economy, privately owned and operated businesses, including farms, produce about 85% of the totalfinal output of goods and services. People in independent professional practice, such as doctor lawyers, and accountants, produce about 3% of the total. Government units, including school districts, turn out most of the rest of the country's products and services. Government workers at national, state, and local levels come next, with approximately 21%.In addition, the government intervention has been an obvious feature not only in the socialist countries but also in the capitalist countries like American. The government can still exercise some control over the market economy through taxation, federal banking system or by other means. Generally, the role of government in American economy is to function as an additional part protecting each element of the economy from abuse, or to improve markets when they do not function effectively.外国语学院0903班李娇1801090314。

What I Have Learnt in This CourseAs we know,English has become the most popular language in the world nowadays.And as the main countries that use English as the offical language,the UK and the USA both have a long and splendid culture.After the course of Essentials of British and American Cultures,we have got more understanding of the different cultures.After the course, we can make a comparison between the west and the east culture.So much common point and difference can be found in different kind of cultures.At the the same time,it can promote us with a deeper understanding of our own Chinese culture.Now,I will share something useful that I have learnt in this course.1.The basic information of British and AmericaThe full name of British is United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.England, Scotland, wales and Northern Ireland constitute the United Kingdom, the unification of the central government and in a head of state. Britain is located beyond continental Europe in Great Britain, surrounded by the North Sea, British Isles, Celtic sea, across the English channel, the Atlantic ocean and the Irish sea.The land area is 24.36 square kilometers and a population of about 60 million. Britain is the world's first industrialised countries and with a culturally diverse and opening-up thoughts of society. Capital London is the largest and most international city in Europe.America is short for The United States of America.The east is coast Atlantic, west near the Pacific, north to Canada, south meets Mexico. The land area of America is more than 962 million square kilometers,third in the world.On July 4, 1776, the continental congress in Philadelphia has officially approved the declaration of independence, declared the U.S. to birth. Since 1870, United States national economy ranks the first in the world.Today's America is one of the five permanent members of the UN security council, in its global politics,the huge influence in economy, military, entertainment and other domain can’t be matched by other nations.2.The history of British and AmericaAlthough the United Kingdom covers only a small area of the earth’s surface,it represents people of many different origins and cultures.The history of human habitation and settlement in Britain goes back to the Stone Age hunters and gatherers who arrived from the European continent about 10,000 years ago.Around 2000 BC these Stone Age people started to erect huge monuments.Work on the henges continued intermittently into the Bronze Age,until about 1500 BC.The clearest historical item in the general knowledge of most British people is the year 1066.Passing quickly over a long period of civil wars,the wars of the Roses,fought between two branches of the English royal family who each claimed the throne,we approach the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern period.In the 16th century,Europe as a whole was changing rapidly.During the 17th and the 18th century,Britain was under war for decades.The main enemy was Spain and France.After the battle of Waterloo and the fall of Napoleon,Britain enjoyed a long period of peace.And then time cames to 20th century.Britain is still widely respected.America is a young country,it was first discovered around the year 1000.after that,some English settlements come to this continent,and they captured the land.In the 18th century,a revolution took place,Americans broke away from the control of British,and then a constitution was devised.After sectional conflict and civil war,America came to get a quickly development in the following decades,and America now has become a great nation.3.English as a languageAs we know,English is one of the main offical languages of the United Nations, is a international exchange language as well. English belongs to the indo-european of sino-japanese Germanic branch, and through the British colonial activities,it widely spreads to other part of the world. Because of history and various national language contact, its vocabulary, grammar from a dollar into multiple from "more inflectional" into "little inflectional", voice has also undergone a regular changes.According to the number of English native speakers of English may be calculated, the world's third-largest language, but it is the world's most widely second language. The world is more than 60% of the letters written in English in two centuries, English and American culture, economic, military, political and scientific leadership makes English become a international language.Along with the time changes, China's continuous development and the level of English requirement rise ceaselessly, more and more foreign students go abroad. Oral English gradually developed into a indispensable part in life. Therefore, the prevalence of oral English in expanding the scope constantly too, the importance of spoken English also will be more and more important.In about 1500 years,English has developed from the language of a small,warlike,agrarian people,to the language of a highly developed technological civilization and now has one of the richest vocabularies of any language in the world.It has become the most influential and most international language of modern times,spoke by 275 million native speakers,and the language that so many people in the world want to learn.4.Others beyond the text bookBeyond the text book,I think I have experienced a lot in other aspects.During this course,for instance,we have seven team members,when we made the PPT,we divided our work and then united them together.It improves our team spirit and raises our passion.When we acted as a teacher in class,I think we all have terrific performance because we have prepared it for so a long time.Afterwards,Mr.Tyler,the foreign teacher,give me very deep impression.From the lesson,I realized that my English is so poor.Even though I studied English when I just a child,but I found so many sentences that he said was beyond my comprehension.As a motto puts it,where there is a will,there is a way.As far as I’m concerned,the learning way is still far and I have no alternative but to improve my oral English,spare no effort.。