语用学 预设

5. Iteratives 反复词语
表示某个动作的反复或某种状态的延续, 预设这个动作曾 经发生过或这种状态曾经存在过。
(50) The flying saucer came / didn’t come again >> The flying saucer came before (51) You can’t get gobstoppers anymore >> You once could get gobstoppers (52) Carter returned /didn’t return to power >> Carter held power before (53) further iteratives: another time; to come back; restore; repeat; for the nth time
9. Implicit clefts with stressed constituents 含强调成分的隐性分裂句
The particular presuppositions that seem to arise from the two cleft constructions seem also to be triggered simply by heavy stress on a constituent. 说话者在说话过程中, 通过说话者的声音大小,语调的高低 等,来强调句子的某一部分, 这种强调手法与运用分裂句的 强调效果是一样的。 (62) Linguistics was / wasn't invented by CHOMSKY ! >> someone invented linguistics (cf. It was / wasn't Chomsky that invented linguistics) (63) John did / didn’t compete in the OLYMPICS >> John did compete somewhere (cf. It was / wasn’t in the Olympics that John competed)
Βιβλιοθήκη Baidu 6. Verbs of judging 判断动词
判断动词表示主语对所谈论事情的态度
(54) Agatha accused / didn’t accuse Ian of plagiarism >> (Agatha thinks) plagiarism（剽窃） is bad (55) Ian criticized / didn’t criticize Agatha for running away >> (Ian thinks) Agatha ran away
8. Cleft sentences 分裂句
分裂句是以it为引导词的强调句型, 其结构形式是: It+be 的某 种形式+ 强调部分+that/who- 分句。利用这个结构, 说话人可 以强调主语、宾语、状语等, 使之成为信息中心,而这个信息 就是句子的预设。
(60) It was / wasn’t Henry that kissed Rosie >> someone kissed Rosie
Karttunen收集了31种预设触发语，Levinson选择了其中 13种归纳如下：（肯定和否定用 / 隔开；红色斜体表 示预设触发语；>>表示预设）
1. Definite descriptions 确指描述语
主要指专有名词及特定的名词，引发存在性预设。
(37) John saw/didn’t see the man with two heads >> there exists a man with two heads
Iteratives在广告中的应用
妈妈再也不用担心我的学习。(步步高点读机)
预设触发语“再也”的使用,预设了妈妈过去总是很担心 孩子的学习。自从使用了步步高点读机之后,孩子的学习 进步很大,妈妈再也不用为孩子的学习担心了。设想一下, 有哪个家长不为孩子的学习担忧呢?这则广告对于那些总 是为孩子的学习伤透脑筋的家长的吸引力毫无疑问是巨 大的。
(40) John realized / didn’t realize that he was in debt >> John was in debt 41) It was odd / it wasn’t odd how proud he was >> he was proud (42) some further factive predicates: know; be sorry that; be proud that; be indifferent that; be glad that; be sad that
10. Comparisons and contrasts 比较和对照句
比较和对照句主要是通过比较级结构或一些其它的比较手段 来体现的。进行比较或对比必须有一个比较的基础, 这个基 础就是预设。 Comparisons and contrasts may be marked by stress (or by other prosodic means), by particles like too, back, in return, or by comparative constructions: (64) Marianne called Adolph a male chauvinist （大男子主义者） and then HE insulted HER >> For Marianne to cal1 Adolph a male chauvinist would be to insult him
4. Change of state verbs 状态变化动词
状态变化动词即表示位置变化或状态改变的动词，这类动词 预设某物原处在某地或某物的前一种状态的存在。 (46) John stopped /didn’t stop beating his wife >> John had been beating his wife (47) Joan began /didn’t begin to beat her husband >> Joan hadn’t been beating her husband (48) Kissinger continued /didn’t continue to rule the world >> Kissinger had been ruling the world (49) some further change of state verbs: start; finish; carry on; cease; take (as in X took Y from Z >> Y was at /in/ with Z); leave; enter; come; go; arrive; etc.
3. Implicative verbs 含蓄性动词
含蓄性动词指具有某种暗含意义的动词，如 manage 包含 了“ 设法去做”和“ 做成”两个意义, forget 包含“ 该做 某事而实际上没有做”之意。其暗含意义就是它所触发的 语句的预设。 (43) John managed /didn’t manage to open the door >> John tried to open the door (44) John forgot / didn’t forget to lock the door >> John ought to have locked, or intended to lock, the door (45) some further implicative predicates: X happened to V >> X didn’t plan or intend to V; X avoided Ving >> X was expected to, or usually did, or ought to V, etc.
(65) Adolph called Marianne a Valkyrie （瓦尔基里 北欧神 话中的人物）and she complimented him back / in return / too >> to call someone (or at least Marianne) a Valkyrie is to compliment them (66) Carol is / isn’t a better linguist than Barbara >> Barbara is a linguist (67) Jimmy is / isn’t as unpredictably gauche as Billy >> Bil1y is unpredictably gauche
Comparisons and contrasts在广告中的应用 Let’s make things better. (PHILIPS)
在这里,预设触发语“better”的使用预设飞利浦产品的品 质原来就“good”。现在他们正努力使其产品“better”。
Presupposition-triggers
预设触发语
Presupposition-triggers
Presuppositions seem to be tied to particular words or aspects of surface structure in general. We shall call such presuppositiongenerating linguistic items presuppositiontriggers 预设的触发语指能够引发预设产生的词语 或特定结构。
2. Factive verbs 叙实性动词
指那些反映宾语或宾语从句已经发生、成为事实的动词；起 谓语作用的形容词, 它们后面一般接that 从句, 反映已经 发生过的事实；评论性的形容词和副词，往往预设说话人所 持的观点或看法。
(38) Martha regrets/ doesn’t regret drinking John's home brew >> Martha drank John's home brew (39) Frankenstein was/ wasn’t aware that Dracula was there >> Dracula was there
此外,“拟似分裂句”(pseudo-cleft construction) 或称“伪分 裂句”也起到预设的作用 ,其主语通常是 what 引导的名词性 从句, 主语补语部分构成了信息中心。
(61) What John lost / didn’t lose was his wallet >> John lost something
7. Temporal clauses 时间从句 (56) Before Strawson was even born, Frege noticed /didn’t notice presuppositions >> Strawson was born (57) While Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics, the rest of social science was / wasn’t asleep >> Chomsky was revolutionizing linguistics (58) Since Churchill died, we’ve lacked / we haven’t lacked a leader >> Churchill died (59) further temporal clause constructors: after; during; whenever; as (as in As John was getting up, he slipped)