⼟⽊⼯程专业英语1Civil engineering(⼟⽊⼯程)Civil Engineering. Civil engineering,the oldest of the engineering specialties,is referring to the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles,from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-Jaunching facilities.Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools , mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations..They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, rail-roads , pipelines, skyscrapers , and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.The word "civil" derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, an Englishman named John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term "civil engineering" has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader. Scope.It is so broad, that civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties.Depending on the type of project, civil engineer specialists with many kinds of skills may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement-water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project's impact on the local area: the potential for air and groundwater pollution,the project's impact on local animals and plant life,and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kinds of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed proj ect. Meanwhile, structural specialists use preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineering specialists , from the beginning to the end of the project, are the tasks of the construction management specialists. Based on the information supplied by other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantities and costs of materials and labor, schedule all work, order materials and equipments for the job, hire con.tractors and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time as specified.Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computers are used to design projects' various elements (computer-aided design,or CAD) and manage/doc/1d8a7d266137ee06eef91860.html puters are a necessity for modern civil engineers because they permit engineers to efficiently handle large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project. NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1.predominate居⽀配地位，统治，（数量上）占优势2.geotechnical岩⼟⼯程的3.specification载明，详述，技术要求，说明书，清单4.supervise监督，管理，控制5．subcontractors转包合同，转包⼯作(6. hurricane飓风，（感情等的）爆发7．asphalt沥青，铺沥青于8．aluminum【化】铝9．runoff⾬量，流量，决赛，决定性竞选10. lock⽔闸，闸门11. fill充⾜，饱满，装填物，（⼀）袋，填⼟，填⽅12. scrubber洗涤器，涤⽓器，滤清器，板刷，擦布，擦洗者13. incineration 烧尽，焚化，⽕葬14. toxic有毒（性）的，中毒的15. combustible男燃的，可燃的，易激动的16. ramp斜坡，斜⾯，滑⾏台17. excavate挖掘，发掘，在…上挖掘，挖出，变成空洞18. precisely精确的，刻板的，正好，恰恰，确实如此19. aerial空⽓的，⼤⽓的，航空的，架空的，⽣存在空中的20. sonic能发出声⾳的，声⾳的，⾳速的，利⽤⾳波的21. plotting测绘，标图，标航路22. municipal市政的，市⽴的，地⽅⾃治的，地⽅（性）23. commission委任，委托（事项），委员会24. drainage system 排⽔系统Reading Material (1) Careers in Civil EngineeringEngineering is a profession,which means that an engineer must have a specialized university education.many government jurisdictions also have licensing procedures which require engineer graduates to pass an examination,similar to the examination for a lawyer,before they can actively start their careers.In the university,mathematics,physics,and chemistry are heavily emphasized throughout the engineering curricula,but particularly in the first two or three years. Mathematics is very important in all branches of engineering, so it is greatly stressed. Today,mathematics includes courses in statistics, which deals with gathering, classifying, and using numerical data, or pieces of information. An important aspect of statistical mathematics is probability, which deals with what may happen when there are different factors, or variables, that can change the result of a problem. Before the construction of a bridge is undertaken,for example,a statistical study is made of the amount of traffic the bridge will be expected to handle. In the design of the bridge, variable such as water resource on the foundation, impact, the effects of different wind forces and many other factors must be considered.Because a great deal of calculation is involved in solving these problems, computer programming is now included in almost all engineering curricula. Computers, of course, can solve many problems involving calculations with greater speed and accuracy than a human being can do.But computers are useless unless they are given clear and accurate instructions and information,in other words,a good program.In spite of the heavy emphasis on technical subjects in the engineering curricula, a current trend is to require students to take courses in the social science and the language arts. The relationship between engineering and society is getting closer; it is sufficient,therefore,to say again hat the work performed by an engineer affects society in many different and important ways that he or she should be aware of. An engineer also needs a sufficient command of language to be able to prepare reports that are clear and,in many cases,persuasive. An engineer engaged in research will need to be able to write up his or her findings for scientific publications.An engineering program in the last two years includes subjects within the students' field of specialization. For the student who is preparing to become a civil engineer, these specialized courses may concern such subjects as geodetic surveying,soil mechanics,or hydraulics.Active recruiting for engineers often begins before the students?last year in the university.Many different corporation and government agencies have competed for the services of engineers in recent years.In the science-oriented society of today,people who have technical training are ,of course,in demand.Young engineers many choose to go into environmental or sanitary engineering,for example,where environmental concerns have created many openings;or they may choose construction firms that specialized in highway work;or they may prefer to work with one of the government agencies that deal with water resource.In deed,the choice is large and Varied.When a young engineer has finally started actual practice,the theoretical knowledge acquired in the university must be applied.He or she will probably be assigned at the beginning to work with a team of engineers.Thus ,on-the-job training can be acquired that demonstrate his or her ability to translate theory into practice to the supervisors.Civil engineers may work in research, design, construction supervision, maintenance, or even in sales or management. Each of these areas involves different duties, emphases and uses of engineers and also the development and test of newstructural materials.Civil engineering projects are almost always unique; each has its own problems and design features. Therefore, careful study is given to each project even before design work begins. The study includes a survey both of topography and subsoil features of the proposed site. It also includes a consideration of possible alternatives,such as a concrete gravity dam or an earth-fill embankment dam. The economic factors involved in each of the possible alternatives must also be weighed. Today,a study usually includes a consideration of environmental impact of the project. Many engineers,usually working as a team that includes surveyors, specialists in soil mechanics, and experts in design and construction,are involved in making these feasibility studies.Among civil engineers, there are many top people who work in design. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures,so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants in architectural or construction firms. Dams , bridges , water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the powerhouse and its equipments. In other cases,civil engineers are assigned to work on project in another field; in the space program,for instance, civil engineers are 'necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching pads and rocket storage facilities.Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the work and utilizing the equipments and the materials so that costs are kept as low as possible. Safety factor must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous.Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Reading Material (2) Civil EngineerA civil engineer is a person who practices civil engineering,the application of planning,designing , constructing, maintaining, and operating infrastructures while protecting the public and environmental health,as well as improving existing infrastructures that have been neglected.Originally, a civil engineer worked on public works projects and was contrasted with a military engineer,who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various branches of engineering have become recognized as distinct from civil engineering , including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering,and electrical engineering, while much of miry engineering has been absorbed by civil engineering.In some places, a civil engineer may perform land surveying; in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying,unless an additional qualification is obtained. On some U. S. military bases,the.personnel responsible for buildings and grounds maintenance, such as grass mowing, are called civil .engineers and are not required to meet any minimum educational requirements.SpecializationCivil engineers usually practice in a particular specialty, such as construction engineering,geotechnicalengineering,structural engineering,land development, transportation engineering, hydraulic engineering,and environmental engineering. Some civil engineers, particularly those working for government agencies, may practice across multiple specializations, particularly when involved in critical infrastructure development or maintenance.Education and licensingIn most countries, a civil engineer will have graduated from a post-secondary school with a degree in civil engineering, which requires a strong background in mathematics and physical sciences; this degree is typically a bachelor's degree,though many civil engineers study further to obtain masters,and doctoral degrees. In many countries,civil engineers are subject to licensure. In jurisdictions with mandatory licensing,people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves "civil engineers".EuropeBelgium. In Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course in one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their specialities can be all fields of engineering: civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and even computer science. This use of the title may cause confusion to English speakers as the Belgian "civil" engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact,Belgians use the adjective " civil"as an opposition to military engineers.The formation of the civil engineer has a strong mathematical and scientific base and is more theoretical in approach than the practical oriented industrial engineer educated in a five-year program at a polytechnic. Traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished by the FlemishCommunity in 2004,but is still organized in the French Community.Scandinavia. In Scandinavian countries, a civil engineer is a first professional degree,approximately equivalent to Master of Science in Engineering,and a protected title granted to students by selected institutes of technology. As in English the word has its origin in the distinction between civilian and military engineers,as in before the start of the 19th century only military engineers existed and the prefix "civil" was a way to separate those who had studied engineering in a regular university from their military counterparts. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like civil engineering , computer science , electronics engineering , etc.There is generally a slight difference between a master of science in engineering degree and the Scandinavian civil engineer degree,the latter's program having closer ties with the industry's demands. A civil engineer is the more well-known of the two; still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the mandatory courses in mathematics and physics , regardless of the equivalent master degree, e. g. computer science.Although a college engineer is roughly equivalent to a bachelor of science in Scandinavia, and to become a civil engineer, one often has had to do up to one extra year of overlapping studies compared to attaining a bachelor of science/master of science combination.This is because the higher educational system is not fully adapted to the international standard graduation system,since it is treated as a professional degree. Today is starts to have a change due to the Bologna process.A Scandinavian "civilingenjor" in international contexts will commonly call herself "master of science in engineering" and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology (now the Norwegian University of Science and Technology) , the tradition with a NTH Ring goes back t0 1914,before the Canadian iron ring.In Norway the title "Sivilingenidr" will no longer be issued after 2007,and has been replaced by "Master of technology". In the English translation of the diploma,the title will be "Master of Science" , since "Master of Technology" is not an established title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts.United Kingdom. A chartered civil engineer (known as a certified or professional engineer in other countries) is a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers,and has also passed chartership exams. However, a non-chartered civil engineer may not be a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers or the Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors. The description "Civil Engineer" is not restricted to members of any particular professional organization although "Chartered Civil Engineer" is .Eastern EuropeIn many Eastern European countries civil engineering does not exist as a distinct degree or profession but its various sub-professions are often studied in separate university faculties and performed as separate professions, whether they are taught in civilian universities or military engineering academies. Even many polytechnic tertiary schools give out separate degrees for each field of study. Typically study in geology,geodesy,structural engineering and urban engineering allows a person to obtain a degree in construction engineeting. Mechanical engineering,automotive engineering , hydraulics and even sometimes metallurgy are fields in a degree of machinery /doc/1d8a7d266137ee06eef91860.html puter sciences,control engineering and electricalengineering are fields in a degree in electrical engineering , while security, safety, environmental engineering, transportation, hydrology and meteorology are in a category of their own, typically each with their own degrees, either in separate university faculties or at polytechnic schools. United StatesIn the United States, civil engineers are typically employed by municipalities, construction firms,consulting engineering firms, architect/engineer firms, state governments, and the federal government. Each state requires engineers who offer their services to the public to be licensed by the state.licensure is obtained by meeting specified education, examination, and work experience the state. Licensure is obtained by meeting spec requirements. Specific requirements vary by state. Typically licensed engineers must graduate from an abet-accredited university or college engine ering program, pass the Fundamentals of Engineering Exam,obtain several years of engineering experience under the supervision of a licensed engineer,and then pass the Principles and Practice of Engineering Exam. After completing these steps and the granting of licensure by a state board,engineers may use the title "Professional Engineer"Building Engineering(建筑⼯程)Ⅰ: Building Types and ComponentsComponents of a BuildingMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel is a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1855. Gustame Eiffel (1832-1923) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.The first elevator was installed by Elisha Otis in a department store in New York in 1857. In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.Load-carrying frame. Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of buildings because of the enormous wall thickness required; for instance, the 16-story MonadnockBuilding built in the 1880?s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall mate rial until the 1930?s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used.After the introduction of the steel skeleton, the height of buildings continued to increase rapidly. All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall buildings being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Towers (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States; its height - 588 feet (179 meters) - is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York city, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962, has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5-meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3-meter) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube; the World Trade Center buildings are another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.Skin. The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, espeeially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick precast concrete, stones, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction; it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public buildings because of the fire hazard.Floors. The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of meta1, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.Mechanical and Electrical Systems. A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealedbuildings with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of buildings by frankly expressing them; for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building (1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposesboth the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.Soil and Foundations. All buildings are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil layers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition; they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot (976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot (2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction; that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties - they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is of - ten time - dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time, which may from minutes to years after a load is 1m - posed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building; that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend to settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects - the building may lean, walls and partitions may drack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete (spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area; in this case, a continuous slab of concrete (raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subjected to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many Buildings.New Words and Expressions1.partition [ pɑ:'ti??n ] n. 分开，分割，隔墙，隔板2.converter [ k?n'v?:t? ] n. 炼钢炉，吹风转炉3.framework [ 'freimw?:k ] n. 构架，框架，结构4.surpass [ s?'pɑ:s ] v. 超过，胜过5.exterior [ ik'sti?ri? ] adj. 外部的，外⾯的n. 外部，表⾯6.lintel [ 'lint?l ] n. 楣，（门窗）过梁7.opaque [ ?u'peik ] adj. 透明的，不透光的n. 不透明体8.deck [ dek ] n. 甲板，舱⾯；桥⾯，层⾯9.corrugate [ 'k?:ruɡeit ] v. 弄皱，使起皱纹adj. 起皱的，起波纹的10.duct [ d?kt ] n. 管道，通道，预应⼒筋孔道11.ancillary [ ?n'sil?ri ] adj. 辅助的，附属的12.ventilate [ 'ventileit ] vt. 使通风，使通⽓，给……装置通风设备。
