Sociolinguistics

I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. F2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers. F3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. T4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. T5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. T6. From the sociolinguistic per spective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. F7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.F8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. F9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. F10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. F11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. F12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. T13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. F14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. F15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. F16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. T17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn’t. F18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. F19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. T20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. FII. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community.22. Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a dialectal variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language planning.25. Social variation gives rise to sociolects which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or official language of a country.28. The standard language is a superposed , socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in inflectional morphemes.31. Linguistic taboo reflects social taboo.32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no linguistic basis.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:33. Sociolinguistics is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent .35. Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.36. Geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language.37. Language planning means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.38. Stylistic variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.39. A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds .40. Although pidgins are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.41. In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same social background.42. A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.IV. Define the following terms:43. sociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.44. speech communityThe social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms. 45. speech varietySpeech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.46. language planninglanguage standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.47. idiolectAn idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what ma kes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech. 48. standard languageThe standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by thegovernment and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, in cluding school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.49. nonstandard languageLanguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages50. lingua francaA lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.51. pidginA pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.52. CreoleA Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.53. diglossiaDiglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.54. BilingualismBilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.55. ethnic dialectWithin a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.56. SociolectSocial dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.57. registerRegisters are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are als o known as situational dialects.58. slangSlang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.59. tabootaboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.60. euphemismA euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn' t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness. Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory. This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like "lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Females have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:a. Close the door when you leave.b. Please close the door when you leave.c. Would you please close the door when you leave?d. Could you close the door when you leave?Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selec ted by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative statements in comparison with males.62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonant clusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass."Another salient characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed." Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing “side” like “sigh” and “borrowed” like “borrow.”One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard English:(1) Black English Standard EnglishThey mine. They' re mine.Y ou crazy. Y ou re crazy.Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is " in the sense of “there exists” :Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions. Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular social customs andviews of a particular culture.As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related to sex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or less of-fensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be hars h, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyone fears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people do not “die”, but “pass away”. Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting. Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized in its euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may have negative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech and writing. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or even deceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive and prefer plain language.64. 众所周知，所谓"魔力之词"，如"thank you"和"please"等，普遍存在。

语言学复习资料下定义1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics.2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds.6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers.11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head positionin another is known as head movement.12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word.13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.14.(P70)Relational opposites（关系反义词）: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites.15.(P74)Argument（论元）: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.16.(P77)Pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.17.(P81)Constatives（表述句）: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.填空题第一章1. (P3) If a linguistic aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive（描写性的）. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive（规定性的）.2.(P4) The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic(共时的）study; the description of a language as it changes through time isa diachronic（历时的）study.3.(P4) Langue(语言）refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole(言语)refers to the realization of language in actual use4. (P5) Chomsky defines competence(语言能力）as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance （语言表现）the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication.第二章5.（P17)As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics(发音符号/辨音符）6. (P23) A phoneme(音素）is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value, it is an abstract value.7. (P24) It can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast(音素对照),e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].8. (P24)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occur the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to from a minimal pair(最小配对).e.g pill and bill, pill and till are a minimal pair.9.(P25) Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, the rules are called sequential rules(序列规则).10.(P27) The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental feature(超音段特征).第三章11.(P33)Morpheme(词素): the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme(自由词素). Whereas a morpheme that must beattached to another one is called bound morpheme(粘着词素).12.(P33) The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs(词素变体).第四章13. (P44) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语), the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.14. (P45)Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: head(中心语), specifier(标志语）and complement(补语).15. (P48)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andtermed subcategorization（次范畴化）.16. (P52) Transformation(转换）is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.第五章17. (P67-68)Synonymy:近义关系的分类:1) Dialectal synonyms(方言同义词)-- synonyms used in different regional dialects.(来自不同地域的人使用同一种语言产生的不同）2) Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词) -- synonyms differing in style3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative(评价) meaning4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义)5) Semantically different synonyms（不考）18.(P69) When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones(同音不同形不同义). When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs(同形不同音不同义). When twowords are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(同形同音不同义).19. (P70) Antonymy:反义关系的分类1) Gradable antonyms(可分等级的反义词)2) Complementary antonyms(互补反义词)3) Relational opposites(关系反义词)20.(P72) Componential analysis(成分分析)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.第六章21. (P81)Three Speech Acts:三种言语行为According to Austin new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking:locutionary act(言内行为), illocutionary act(言外行为), and perlocutionary act(言后行为).22.(P90)Pragmatic failure(语用失误) occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary(言外之意) force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of c ommunication.第八章23.(P111) Speech variety(言语变体), or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.24. (P117) Halliday further distinguishes three social variables(语域三变量)that determine the register: field of discourse(语场), tenor of discourse(语旨), and mode of discourse(语式).25. (P122) The term diglossia(双言制度) refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.上一页下一页。

Chapter 8：SociolinguisticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts.2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership.6. From t he sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects.8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language.10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way.12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages.14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages.16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't.18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual.20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c________.22. Speech v_________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a d__________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language p_______.25. Social variation gives rise to s_________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. S_______ variation in a person's speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or o________ language of a country.28. The standard language is a s_________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or v_______ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in i_______ morphemes.31. Linguistic taboo reflects s_________ taboo.32. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emotions and value judgments and has no l_________ basis.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:33. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Historical linguisticsD. General linguistics34. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its _____.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes35. ____ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation36. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one's native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers37. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer38. _________ in a person's speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation39. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds .A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language40. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects41. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old42. A linguistic ____ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooIV. Define the following terms:43. sociolinguistics 44. speech community45. speech variety 46. language planning47. idiolect 48. standard language49. nonstandard language 50. lingua franca51. pidgin 52. Creole53. diglossia 54. Bilingualism55. ethnic dialect 56. Sociolect57. register 58. slang59. taboo 60. euphemismV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.F 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.F11. F 12. T 13. F 14. F 15.F 16. T 17. F 18. F 19. T 20. FII. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given:21. community 22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning 25. sociolects26. Stylistic 27. official 28. superposed 29. vernacular30. inflectional 31. social 32. linguisticIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:33. B 34. C 35. A. 36. A. 37. C 38.D 39.A 40. C 41. A 42. DIV. Define the following terms:43. sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.44. speech community: The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech community or a speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must, in some reasonable way, interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties, as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.45. speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used bya speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or a combination of linguistic features.46. language planning: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling systems, across regional boundaries.47. Idiolect: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes up one's idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual' s speech.48. standard language : The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.49. nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard languages50. lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.51. pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.52. Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech community.53. diglossia : Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.54. Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by anindividual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.55. ethnic dialect: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds . An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.56. Sociolect: Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.57. register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. Format reason, registers are also known as situational dialects .58. Slang: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.59. taboo : taboo, or rather linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition by the polite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.60. euphemism: A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 61. Discuss with examples that the speech of women may differ from the speech of men.In normal situations, female speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their male counterparts with the same general social background. For example, standard English forms such as "I did it" and "he isn' t" can be found more often in the speech of females, while the more colloquial "I done it" and "he ain' t" occur more frequently in the speech of males.Another feature often associated with so-called women' s language is politeness. Usually, tough and rough speeches have connotations of masculinity and are not considered to be desirable feminine qualities. In general, men's language is more straightforward, less polite, and more direct, and women's language is more indirect, less blunt, and more circumlocutory.This phenomenon of sex-preferential differentiation is also reflected in the relative frequency with which males and females use the same lexical items. For example, certain words that are closely associated with women may sound typically feminine as a result of that association. For example, some English adjectives like "lovely", "nice", "darling" and "cute" occur more often in female speeches and therefore cause feminine association. Females have also been shown to possess a greater variety of specific color terms than males, in spite of the fact that men do not necessarily possess less acute color perception than women. On the other hand, males have the reputation of possessing a larger vocabulary in traditionally male-dominated domains such as sports, hunting and the military.A request in English such as " Close the door when you leave" can be phrased in a number of ways ranging from a harsh command to a very polite request:a. Close the door when you leave.b. Please close the door when you leave.c. Would you please close the door when you leave?d. Could you close the door when you leave?Although the above options are all available to both men and women, it is usually the more polite forms that are selected by female speakers. In general, females are found to use more questions than declarative statements in comparison with males.62. Discuss with examples some of the linguistic differences between Standard English and Black English.One of the most prominent phonological characteristics of Black English is the frequent simplification of consonantclusters at the end of words when one of the two consonants is an alveolar /t/, /d/, /s/, or /z/. The application of this simplification rule may delete the past - tense morpheme, so "past "and "passed "are both pronounced like "pass." Another salient characteristic of Black English phonological system concerns the deletion of some word-final stop consonants in words like "side" and "borrowed." Speakers of Black English frequently delete these word-final stops, pronouncing “side” like “sigh”and “borrowed” like “borrow.”One prominent syntactic feature is the frequent absence of various forms of the copula "be" in Black English, which are required of Standard English. Compare the following expressions in Black English and Standard English:(1) Black English Standard EnglishThey mine. They' re mine.You crazy. You re crazy.Another distinctive syntactic feature of Black English is the systematic use of die expression "it is" where Standard English uses "there is " in the s ense of “there exists” :Is it a Mr. Johnson in this office?Another aspect of Black English is the use of double negation constructions. Whenever the verb is negated, the indefinite pronouns "something", "somebody", and "some" become the negative indefinites "nothing", "nobody", and "none", for example:He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)63. What is a linguistic taboo? What effect does it have on our use of language?A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use. Obscene, profane, and swear words are all taboo words that are to be avoided entirely, or at least avoided in mixed company.In sociolinguistics, a linguistic taboo, denotes any prohibition on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts. As language use is contextualized in particular social settings, linguistic taboo originates from social taboo. When an act is taboo, reference to this act may also become taboo. Taboo words and expressions reflect the particular socialcustoms and views of a particular culture.As linguistic taboo reflects social taboo, certain words are more likely to be avoided, for examples, the words related tosex, sex organs and excrement in many cultures. The avoidance of using taboo language mirrors social attitudes, emo-tions and value judgments, and has no linguistic basis.The avoidance of using taboo language has led to the creation of euphemisms. A euphemism is a mild, indirect or lessoffensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh,unpleasantly direct, or offensive. For example, we say "portly" instead of "fat".In many cultures, people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying because it is the subject that everyonefears and is unpleasant to talk about. In the English-speaking world, for example, people d o not “die” , but “pass away”.Euphemisms involve a wide range of fields. Although the use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatoryovertones, the disassociative effect is never long-lasting . Often when the negative connotation of a word is recognized inits euphemistic form, a new euphemism will have to be sought for. However, an excessive use of euphemism may havenegative effects. As a matter of fact, many euphemisms have become cliches that are to be avoided in formal speech andwriting. They also tend to be wordy and to give writing a timid quality. In addition, euphemism can be evasive or evendeceitful. Because they are often improperly used to obscure the intended meaning, many people find them offensive andprefer plain language.。

Understanding of Sociolinguistics1 Introduction (1)2 Some definitions of sociolinguistics (1)3 The scope of sociolinguistic study (2)4 The comment on Fishman’s definition of sociolinguistics (2)5 Conclusion (3)References (3)Abstract：Sociolinguistics has drawn more and more attention since it became an independent discipline in 1960s．But scholars from various disciplines look at sociolinguistics from different perspectives，and carry out sociolinguistic study in different ways．This paper tries to understand sociolinguistics in terms of its definitions and the scope of sociolinguistic study to point out the lack of comprehensiveness in Fishman’s view on the definition of sociolinguistics．Key words：sociolinguistics；definitions；scope；lack of comprehensiveness1 IntroductionThough the social aspect of language attracted early attention，it was not until the mid 1960s that sociolinguistics became an independent discipline with its representatives William Labor and Dell Hymes．It has become an indispensable course in linguistic study together with syntax，phonetics and phonology, semantics. etc．．But scholars from various disciplines have different answers to the questions：‘What is sociolinguistics?’，‘What does the sociolinguist do?’，‘What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?’，and ‘What methods should be adopted in carrying out sociolinguistic study?’．Fishman argued that sociolinguistics is the name commonly given to the study of who speaks (or writes) what language (or what language variety) to whom and when and to what end (cited from Wardhaugh，R．1986：16)．Before we make any comment on this view，it is necessary to have a basic knowledge about the definitions of sociolinguistics and the scope of sociolinguistic study．2 Some definitions of sociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a cross—disciplinary subject．Linguists and sociolinguists are not the only researchers involved in studies of language in society．Scholars such as anthropologists，psychologists，educators，and planners have an interest too．They study the socio—cultural aspect of language from different angles and come up with different understanding．Peter Trudgill says that sociolinguistics is a science that combines linguistic and social concerns in varying degrees (cited from Fasold，R．1990：FS0)．This view seems to p1ay sociolinguistics at a high level by considering it “a science”, but is vague in the failure to specify the “varying degrees”．William Labov defines sociolinguistics as the secular linguistics．While William Downes sees sociolinguistics as that branch of linguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages which require reference to social，including contextua1 factors in their explanation．To quote Holmes’ view，sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship between language and the context in which it is used．Gumperz states that sociolinguistics is an attempt to find relations between social structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occur．This definition covers a broad range，therefore is more inclusive of the scope of sociolinguistic study．Susan Pinlips in 1980 defines sociolinguistics b riefly as the ‘study of the ways in which a person’s speech conveys social information’．This view manifests that language is a social behavior．People’sdifferent choices of linguistic forms may reflect their different social background．Wolfson expresses his view by saying that sociolinguistics is the study of the interplay of linguistic，social，and cultural factors in human communication．In Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching ＆Applied Linguistics, sociolinguistics is defined as the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class，educational level and type of education, Age, sex，ethnic origins，etc．(Richard，J．C．1992：425)．It seems that there is no agreement on the exact definition of sociolinguistics，just like what Dell Hymes has claimed：“Different people may have different understanding of the term ‘sociolinguistics’．Therefore，no one has the patent for its definition.”(cited in Fasold．1990：F 12) But however different views scholars hold，they are ready to agree at least one point．That is，sociolinguistics studies the relation between language and society．Whatever sociolinguistics is，it must be oriented toward both data and theory．But still scholars will come up with different answers to the question ‘What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?’．3 The scope of sociolinguistic studyWe can generally divide sociolinguistic study into the broad sense and the narrow sense．The former is also widely called the macro-sociolinguistics，and the latter micro-sociolinguistics．To make the division clear, Wolfson compared sociolinguistic study to a sort of telescope through which language behavior may be studied in its socio-cultural context．In looking through the small end of the telescope，we view speech at the level of face-to-face interaction，and this type of study is called micro-sociolinguistics．By looking through the large end of the sociolinguistic telescope，we are able to see the workings of language contact，choice，use，maintenance，and change at the social level，a field of study called the sociology of language or macro-sociolinguistics．Hudson in 1980 made a distinction between sociolinguistics and the sociology of language in stating that the former is the study of language in relation to society while the later is the study of society in relation to language(cited in Wardhaugh，R．1986：12-13). That is to say．sociolinguistics can be studied either from the perspective of language or from that of society．Hudson further argues that the influence which society exerts on language is the major concern of sociolinguistic study．Some scholars also classify sociolinguistic study into the theoretical research model and the practical research mode1．But no matter how scholars define and understand sociolinguistics，it is generally agreed that sociolinguistic study mainly deals with social variation, language varieties，the differences of language use conventions，and the socio-cultural factors that contribute to the variation, varieties and differences．Social variation in language including the variation of region，social class, register, style，age and sex has been one of the major focuses of sociolinguistics since its formation in the early 1960．Language variety has been and still is the main concern of sociolinguistics，but the scope of sociolinguistic study may be very wide such that it can cover almost everything．Sociolinguistics is an empirical science．it must be founded on an adequate data base．This requires that when we are considering sociolinguistics，we should take the various kinds of research methods Into account．It is better to collect data through observing naturally occurring linguistic events．The ethnomethodology makes one significant contribution to the development of sociolinguistic study．4 The comment on Fishman’s definition of so ciolinguisticsFishman says that sociolinguistics is the name commonly given to the study of who speaks(or writes)what language (or what language variety)to whom and when and to what end．The American sociolinguist Nessa Wolfson shares the similar view with Fishman in generalizing the scope of sociolinguistics to be‘Who says what to whom，when and how’(cited from Hudson．1980：F14)．Brief as Fishman’s definition is，it includes the major elements in sociolinguistics:“what” representsthe language or language variety．“who”, “whom”, “when”and “to what end”represent those social variables．This may be better understood by considering the four components that influence linguistic choices，namely，the participants，the setting or social context of the interaction．the topic and the function(Holmes，Janet．1997：12)．Hymes’s SPEAKING theory may also be adopted to account for Fishman’s definition to some extent．In spite of its brevity and reasonableness，this definition is not comprehensive enough to inform us the nature of sociolinguistics，the relationship between it and the sociology of language or other disciplines．Neither does it cover the broad range of the scope of sociolinguistic study．It looks at sociolinguistics from the viewpoint of interpersonal interactions，and covers social variation and language variety, thus belongs to the scope of micro-sociolinguistics．To mention only the language variety does not make the whole story．It also fails to mention the research methods and the theoretical base of sociolinguistic study．Therefore，Fishman’s definition can not provide us with an overall and thorough understanding of sociolinguistics．5 ConclusionThough scholars from various disciplines have shown great interest in the socio—cultural aspect of language，different researchers define sociolinguistics differently and come up with different understanding．In fact，sociolinguistic study is characterized by a wide variety or inclusiveness of its research scope．Cf．McGregor argues that as long as we are fully aware of this point，questions like “How to define sociolinguist ics?” and “What content should be included in sociolinguistic study?” seem to be not very imperative and important(quoted in Fasold，R．1990：F12)．References1, Downes, William，1998．Language and Society【M】．2nd edition．Cambridge：CUP．2, Fasold，R．1 990 The Sociolinguistics【M】．Oxford：Blackwell Publishers Ltd．3, Holmes．Janet．I 997．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics【M】．New York：Longman Ltd．4, Hudson，R．A．1 980．Sociolinguistics【M】．2-edition．Cambridge：CUP．5, Richards，C．J．and Platt，J．and Platt，H．1 992．Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching＆Applied Linguistics【M】．New York：Longman Ltd．6, Salzmann，Zdenek．1993．Language．Culture．& Social An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology 【M】．Boulder：Westview Press，Inc．7, Trask，R．L．I999．Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics【M】．London；Routledge．8, Wardhaugh．R．1986．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics：Issues of Society and Schooling 【M】．Oxford：Basil Blackwel1．9, Wardhaugh．R．1998．An Introduction to Sociolinguistics【M】．3 edition．Oxford：Blackwel1．10, Wolfson，N．1989．Perspectives．Sociolinguistics and TESOL【M】．Cambridge：Newbury．。

社会语言学调查报告English.Introduction:Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how language is used in different social contexts, and how it is influenced by factors such as social class, gender, ethnicity, and power dynamics.Methods of Sociolinguistic Research:Sociolinguistics researchers use a variety of methods to collect data, including:Participant observation: The researcher immerses themselves in a community or group and observes how language is used in everyday life.Interviews: Researchers interview individuals or groups to ask questions about their language use.Surveys: Researchers distribute questionnaires to a sample of people to gather information about their language attitudes and behaviors.Corpus linguistics: Researchers analyze large collections of written or spoken language to identify patterns of language use.Findings of Sociolinguistic Research:Sociolinguistic research has uncovered a number of important findings, including:Language is a social phenomenon: Language is shaped by the social context in which it is used, and it is used to express social meanings and relationships.Language is not static: Language is constantly changing, and it is influenced by factors such as socialchange, technological advances, and globalization.There is no single "correct" way to speak: Language is a diverse phenomenon, and there is no one "correct" way to speak.Language can be a source of discrimination: People who speak non-standard varieties of language can be discriminated against in education, employment, and other areas of life.Applications of Sociolinguistic Research:Sociolinguistic research has a wide range of applications, including:Education: Sociolinguistic research can help educators to understand the language needs of their students and to develop effective teaching methods.Language policy: Sociolinguistic research can inform language policy decisions, such as which languages shouldbe used in education and government.Intercultural communication: Sociolinguistic research can help people to understand the different ways that language is used in different cultures.Conflict resolution: Sociolinguistic research can help to resolve conflicts that arise from differences in language use.Conclusion:Sociolinguistics is a vital field of study that provides important insights into the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistic research has a wide range of applications, and it can help us to understand and address a variety of social issues.中文回答。

Sociolinguistics 1 Introduction1 BackgroundThree Views of Language1）Language as Grammar (Chomsky):Three sub-systemsPhonologicalLexical: morphology; words and morphemesSyntactic: syntax2)Language as communication:The Interaction of PeopleWhat do you communicate? Ideas? Emotions? Intentions?How do you communicate?3) Language as thing:•Language as an element in social constructs.•Language planning, code switching, dialect debates, national identity, ethnicity2 What is sociolinguistics?1) Definition: Sociolinguistics is the study of language(s) in relation tosociety. (i.e.,the structure of language: words, sounds, constructions, relations vs. i.e. the structure of society: people, groups, relations)２）Relations between language and society (p79)1.Social structure may influence or determine linguistic structureand/or behavior;2.Linguistic structure/behavior influences or determines socialstructure (Whorfian hypothesis);3. Language and society affect each other;4. No relationship at all between language and culture;３) Broad/narrow conceptions of sociolinguistics (Spolsky, 2000: PP5-7) Broad: Macrolinguistics – social emphasis (sociology of language) ♦Social functions of language (national identity, power and solidarity)♦Political policy (urbanization, minority group issues, education,language policies)♦Devising of writing systems♦Language use in the constitution of individual identity (dialect show where a person comes and register reveals what hedoes)♦How conversational patterns signify community membership (e.g., black English, deletion of BE)Narrow: microlinguistics –language emphasis:variation at some level of the grammar (sociolinguistics): e.g.,1) Regional difference:行动电话(台湾)--移动电话(大陆说法)便当(台湾)--盒饭(大陆用语)公德心(台湾)--精神文明(大陆用语)超音波(台湾)--超声波(大陆用语)撞球(台湾)--台球(大陆用语)2)GreetingEnglish: Hi, how are you? How do you do? Morning? Good Morning?Chinese: 你好？吃饭了吗？最近好吗？你死哪去呢？３) Naming in English（Title + Given name + Family name）Who am I? (Richard Hudson)Professor HudsonDr R A HudsonRichard HudsonHudsonHudson, RichardDickDadPossible combinations:T G F Professor Richard HudsonT F Professor HudsonG F Richard/Dick HudsonG Richard/DickT Doctor ok for some titlesF Hudson NB: old-fashioned!Not: T F Professor Dick ungrammatical!!Consider the Solidarity and PowerTo superior stranger: TF (Mr Smith)To subordinate relative: G (John) Father to sonTo superior relative: T (Dad) son to fatherTo equal acquaintance: G (colleagues)To superior acquaintance: ? (clerk vs. boss)（Question: Any difficulty in addressing a person?）Addressing term of the first pronoun in Chinese “我”西周汉语的语料中,有"我、余(予)、朕、印、吾"，我，咱、俺（在先秦时代，“朕”是第一人称代词。

现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。