英语国家概况小论文

If Y ou Are Tired of London, Y ou Are Tired of Life.Y es, I think so.At first, London was in a depression in the chalk north of the weald. It is surrounded by richer clay soil which produced food for the citizens of London. two thousand years ago, Roman built this city, from that time, London has been owing a maximum influence in the world, and from 1801 to 20 century, as a empire of the world-the capital of British empire, London become the biggest city of the world for acquiring a outstanding achievement in politics, economy, humanity culture, science and technology invention.T hat’s the history of London, but now London is still the biggest city of Europe a nd meanwhile it also a city which is worthwhile to visit.London is a cosmopolitan mixture of the Third and First worlds of chauffeurs and beggars, of the establishment the avowedly working class and the avant-garde. Unlike comparable European cities, much of London looks unplanned and grubby, but that is part of its appeal. Visiting London is like being let loose on a giant-sized Monopoly board clogged with traffic. Even though you probably won’t know where the hell you are, at least the names will look reassuringly familiar.London has many famous places, such as River Thames, Tower Bridge, Swiss Re Towe r, Palace of Westminster, Big Ben, Millennium Bridge, London Eye, St Paul’s Cathedral, and Tower of London and so on. At the same time, as we known, it is one of the most important economic centre of the world and the maximum economic centre of Europe as well.London is a year-round tourist center, with few of its attractions closing or significantly reducing their opening hours in winter. Y our best chance of good weather is, of course, at the height of summer in July and August, but there’s certainly no gu arantee of sun even in those months and that is when you can expect the biggest crowds and highest prices. Besides when it rains hard, the weather gets a little cold in the later, afternoon the sky will be clear, the sun will begin to shine and it will be summer at this time of day. And then, London fog is the obviously characteristic.With so many beautiful places and the amazing history, anyone who didn’t visit it before is really a pity. No other area of Britain is as rich in history tradition and cultural associations as London. Throughout the capital there are great mansion, venerable old buildings, houses, unrivalled collections of art treasure and colorful ceremonies to suit every possible taste and mood. History is from there and, of course, it is worthwhile visiting London. So, if you are tired of London, you are tired of life. I think that’s true.。

学院、系专业班级学号姓名······························密································封·······························线··································· 齐鲁工业大学 13 / 14 学年第 1 学期《 英语国家概况》 期末考试试卷之二 —— 小论文论文题目：Comparison of British and American PoliticalSystem 班级组别：英语2013级一班一组 姓 名：王甜甜 学 号：201310011017The differences between Britain's constitutional monarchy andAmerica's presidential systemAmerica BritainHead of state President MonarchElection HereditaryHead of stateformationHead of state power Yes NoHead of government President The prime ministerThe president appointed Parliamentary elections GovernmentformationThe power center President ParliamentSYSTEMBritain:The constitutional monarchy means that the power of the monarch is limited by the country's constitution,the legal authority is given to Parliament and the executive authority to the government.The Sovereign reigns,but does not rule. The country is governed in the name of the Sovereign by His or Her Majesty's Government who is responsible to the Parliament.America:The United States has a federalist system.It means that there are individual state,each with its own government,and there is a federal,or national,government.The US Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government,other powers to the state governments,and yet other powers to both.For example,only the national government can print money;the states establish their own school systems;and both the national and the state governments can collect taxes.THE GOVERNMENTBritain:Her Majesty's Government is the government of the United Kingdom.It is answerable to the House of Commons.However,neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons.Instead,the Queen requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House,normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons,to form a government.So that they may be accountable to the学院、系 专业班级 学号 姓名 ······························密································封·······························线···································Lower House,the Prime Minister and the House of Commons. Under the Constitution of the United Kingdom,executive authority notionally lies with the monarch but is exercised in practice by her ministers. Her Majesty's Government is the collective name for these ministers,and it is effectively an executive authority for the U.K. America:A Federal Government.Many countries have a federal system.In a federal system,power is shared between a central government and smaller government units.The United States,for example, is a federalist system as defined in the Tenth Amendment of its constitution.There is a federal,or central,government for the entire country.In addition,each of the 50 states has its own government.In some matters,the state governments have final say.In other matters,the federal government rules.However,only the federal government,can mint money or declare war. HEAD OF GOVERNMENT Britain:The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the Head is the Head of Her Majesty's Government.He or she is the leader of leader of party that holds the most seats in the House of Commons.The Prime Minister and Cabinet are collectively accountable for their policies and actions to the Sovereign,to Parliament,to their political party,and ultimately ti the electorate. America:The U.S. President is the head of its Administration.Chosen thought a general or presidential election,the president is the most prominent figure in the United States.Although presidents are entitled to a lot of power,they also shoulder quite a heavy burden.The president heads up the executive branch of the US government.The executive branch is in charge of running the country and defending it from enemies.The president takes an oath to uphold the Constitution.The president is commanded by the Constitution to "preserve,protect and defend the Constitution of the United States"and to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed."He can issue rules,regulations and instructions which,known as executive orders,have the binding force of laws upon federal agencies.About the Political Parties,the U,K. is a multi-party system ,the two largest political parties have been the Conservative Party and the Labor Party.The U.S. is the two parties system .They are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.As we all known,Obama is elected form the Democratic Party.The merits of the presidential system: the powers of the President of the United States,President subject to the constraints of political parties is a small, independent, quickly make a political decision to improve governing performance. Its weaknesses are: the three major U.S. Power system of mutual restraint, and to contain, resulting in the consumption of some of the institutional. President no power to dissolve Congress, can only veto a bill passed by Congress Similarly, Congress can impeach the president, the use of the veto to reject the President. The advantage of the Constitutional monarchy , whether it is the institutional formation of the actual operation are relatively democratic, just, more conducive to scientific decision-making and comprehensive. But the disadvantage is that the structure or the system is easy mode, lead to bureaucratic impact of the ruling efficiency.So,I know,the political system must fit the condition of the country.。

湖南涉外经济学院外国语学院2013-2014《英语国家概况》期末小论文班级_英本1202班___ 姓名__黄爱灵__评分____________American Higher EducationAmerican education system in the United States is the world's cause of education of the most developed countries in the world. American education system as early as the founding of beginning to take shape when, after 200 years of development and gradually perfect, Formation of the primary, secondary and tertiary institutionsHigh education in the United States began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636. In the past more than 300 years, it has developed into a large enterprise with a very complex system. The higher education comprises four categories of institutions: a) the university; b) the four-year undergraduate institution----the college; c) the technical training institution; and d) the two-year community college.In America, the education system has the differentGraduate Degrees years, Bachelor’s Degree have 4 years; Master’s Degree have 1-2 years; Doctor’s Degree, ph.D (doctor of philosophy), have at least 3 years.So what are the differences between the “college” and the “university” in America? The term “college”refers to an undergraduate institution that confers the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science after four years of study or an associate degree after two years study. While a university is generally a group of colleges, each serving a special purpose: college of business, college of arts and humanities, college of education, etc. The system of higher education in the United States has three functions: teaching, research and public service. Each college or university has its own emphasis with regard to its functions. The majority of the higher educationinstitutions are located in states that have a large population.The American higher education institutions offer a wide variety of subjects, from the finearts to practical and career-oriented fields such as engineering and marketing. The United States has a variety of higher education institutions, from large comprehensive universities to small traditional liberal arts colleges. Distinctions among these institutionsare in size, level, educational quality, residential atmosphere and the time it takes to complete a degree.At the undergraduate level, students’personal preferences as to size, academic quality and location play a key role in their choice of college or university. At the graduate level, more attention is paid to the reputation of the faculty and department.However,all this effort in America’s higher education is very expensive. Some of the costs come from fees and benefactions, particularly towards research, but most have to be paid from public funds. Parents favor big expenditures on higher education;a wider public opinionfavors them for idealistic and cultural reasons, and because of the supposed value of education as an investment by society.The first universities were developed by private charitable organizations. The private universities are still very important, and most of the best-known institutions, like Harvard, Yale and Princeton, are private.Most of the principal state universities have between 10, 000 and 30, 000 students,and some have increased rapidly in the past few years. Private universities and colleges are generally smaller, and although they are more numerous than public institutions they have a smaller total number of students than those in public institutions. The private colleges vary very much in standards and reputation, from the world-famous and select to the cranky and the obscure. The best known of all is Harvard.There are also many junior colleges to which students may be admitted at the end of their high school career, providing only the first two years of university work.For the most part Americans think that there’s some advantage in attending one of the better-known private institutions, in spite of the higher cost, rather than a state university. However, testate universities are becoming increasingly important, and some of them, particularly in the Midwest have a reputation practically equal to that of the private ones. Almost every state by now has several university institutions directly under the authority of the state government.For a university student, an academic year is about nine months, usually for mid-September until early June or from late August until May. In most universities, it isdivided into either two semesters or three semesters, excluding the summer session. The students usually enjoy a “break”of one week during each semester and a 30-day winner break.Typically, an undergraduate student has to earn a certain number of “credits”(usually at least 120) in order to receive a degree at the end of four years of college. Credits are earned by attending lectures (or lab classes) and by successfully completing assignments and examinations. One credit usually equals one hour of class per week in a single course. A course may last 10 to 16 weeks, the length of a semester.Living accommodations are usually not large enough to hold all university students, though large numbers of residence halls have been built. Many students live off campus and prepare their own meals.It is common for students to work to earn their tuition and living expenses not only during vacations but also in their free time during the semester. Many colleges and universities offer work-study programs so that students can earn money while working at the school.Sports have a significant place in American university life. Football is the most popular university sports. Some universities award both football and basketball scholarships, and students admitted mainly as athletics or “jocks”receive not only free tuition but also other financial assistance.There are clubs and activities for almost every student’s interests, such as art, music, drama, debate, foreign languages, photography, volunteer work, all aimed at helping students become successful in their later life while simultaneously pursuing their hobbies.There is evidence that even incomplete university study gives a person better career prospects than none at all. So, it is accepted that the benefits of a university career are usefu l.In American, there are the best research universities such as Harvard, Yale, Princet on, Columbia and MIT in the east, as well as Stanford and Berkeley on the west coast.Except for some college sponsored by the Catholic Church, all college and universitie s in the U.S, public or private, are governed by a board of trustees composed primarily of laymen. The community college calls for education to serve the good of both the i ndividual and society. It embodies Thomas Jefferson’s belief that an education should be practical as well as liberal.Let’s look some famous universities of the United States:Harvard University, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States, is a comprehensive university. Harvard College was established in 1636 and was named for its first benefactor, John Harvard. The university has grown from nine students with a single master to an enrollment of more than 20000 degree candidates, including undergraduates, graduates and professional students in 11 principal academic units. Harvard University is known around the world for its outstanding academic achievements. The university has product more than 40 Nobel laureates. English Presidents of the United States are graduates of Harvard.Yale University was founded in1701 as the Collegiate School in Killingworth, Connecticut. In 1716, it moved to its permanent location in New Haven. Elihu Yale, a weathy British merchant, donated generously to the school, and it was renamed Yale College. In 1864, Yale College was renamed Yale University. The university is now comprised of three major academic components: Yale College (the undergraduate program), the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and 10 professional schools. Yale encompasses a wide array of research organizations, libraries, museums and administrative support offices. Approximately 12000 students attend Yale. And it embarks on a steady expansion. With strictteaching and enrollment, Yale University has a high academic standard and great prestige. Some of the world’s most famous and powerful men today are graduates of Yale, including George W. Bush, John Kerry and William F. Buckley Jr., etc.Princeton University was known as the College of New Jersey from 1746 to 1896. It is well known for its History Department, Philosophy Department, English Department, Mathematics Department and Physics Department. The Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs has been continuously training government officials. Presidents Wilson and over 80 Senates are graduates of Princeton University.Massachusetts Institutions of Technology is an institution famous for its scientific and technological training and research. Established in 1861, the institution used to be a purely technical institution. It is comprised of five schools: the School of Architecture and Planning, the School of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, the MIT Slogan Sciences, the MIT Slogan School of Management and the School of Science. While attaching importance to teaching, the institute pays great attention to theory study and applied research. Both the undergraduate and the graduates participate in cooperative research work. MIT has achieved significant success in the fields of scientific research.Education system in American obviously is different with ours, but they all aim to make more talented people to make the country better and strong, modern and developed.。

On the Rise and Fall of Great Britain.班级：学号：姓名：教授：分数：______On the Rise and Fall ofGreat Britain.中文摘要：英国，又称大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国，是由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰组成的联合王国。

它曾经在世界历史发展的漫长时期中湮没无闻，人口不过数百万，国土资源也很有限，却率先敲开通向现代世界的大门，从地理的边缘变成了世界的中心，一跃成为西方强国的领头人，并独领风骚数百年，给人类文明烙上了不可磨灭的印记。

然而到了十九世纪末期，由于美、德等国的崛起以及其他种种原因，英国逐渐失去优势,后来又在第二次世界大战中受到严重创伤，大英帝国国力日渐衰落,海外殖民地也在二战后纷纷宣告独立，大英帝国逐渐演变成一个组织松散的英联邦。

这个曾经号称“世界工厂”和“日不落帝国”的国家又逐渐衰落。

不过，英国仍然是一个在世界范围内拥有巨大影响力的政治、经济、文化和军事强国。

关键词: 英国；世界工厂；日不落帝国；衰落Abstract in English：Great Britain, also known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, is made up of England, Scotland, Wales and North Ireland. It was once little-known in the long history of the development of the world and had only several millions of people. What' more, her territorial resources were also limited. However, she is the first country to open the door to the modern world ranging from the geographical edge to the center of the world. She had once been the leading power of the western countries for hundreds of years and also branded an indelible mark on the human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise of America and German and other factors, Britain began to lose the upper hand in the international competition. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. Britain began declining and the foreign colonies began to win independence one afteranother. The Great Britain Empire became a loose federal country and Britain which was once known as the "Workshop of the World" and "the Sun-Never-Setting Empire" began declining gradually. Nevertheless, Britain is still a political, economical, cultural and military great power which has great influence on the world.Key words: the Great Britain; the Workshop of the World; the Sun-Never-Setting Empire; fall1. IntroductionBritain is an island country surrounded by the sea to the west and off the European Continent. With the decline of the feudalism and the increase of the influence of the new-born bourgeoisie, she began her capitalist development. Through the closure and foreign plunder, expansion and aggression, she completed the primitive accumulation of capital. She became the first country to undergo the industrial revolution. Soon she became the workshop of the world and had the largest colonies. Of course, she became the most powerful country in the world. However, in the late 19th century with the competition of the new industrialized countries and other factors, she began to lose the upper hand. Afterwards, she suffered great loss in the two world wars. She began to decline. The colonies laid overseas began to revolt against Britain and won independences. Great Britain has gradually evolved into a loose organization of the Commonwealth. In the modern times, she tried to recover form it, but for different reasons she still developed slowly. Now she is still one of the major developed countries, she has been reduced to be a second-class world power that is always at the America's command in international affairs.2. The rise of Great BritainAs a small country, which had been invaded by several times, how could Great Britain developed into the workshop of the world and establish the largest empire that history has ever been seen? Let's explore it together.2.1 The Industrial RevolutionThe British Industrial Revolution was a great result of the socialdevelopment in Britain. In political power, Bourgeois had more say on national affairs; in economy ,they accomplished their "primitive accumulation of capital";in ideology, they are more open; besides ,Britain was gaining the upper hand in the contest to reign supreme on the sea ,which expanded foreign market.All the factors combined to make Britain the first country to undergo the Industrial Revolution. In first, it began in the textile industry. With the expansion of market, the demand for cloth also increased. The old instrument could not meet the need o the massive production. Therefore, before long, new and large machines which could increase productivity by hundreds of times appeared. The invention of the steam engine was used to furnish power. With the new source of power, iron, steel and coal industries began to a fast development. Productions needs were largely met by a series of refinements of existing techniques in the major industries and the extensions of mechanization to the other fields, as in sewing and the marketing of boots, cutlery and nails. The expansion of production and trade promoted the transportation revolution. The convenient transport made Britain products flood the world market. The Britain bourgeoisie amassed large amounts of wealth through trade, plunder and colonization. No country was strong enough to match Britain in the 19th century. Britain raced ahead of all the other countries.The industrial revolution marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind. Since the 18th century that rate of growth had been revolutionized, as one country that after another had embarked upon an industrialization which to this day was regarded as the key to the future development of new nations. It led on a much broader expansion. The major markets, however, lay overseas, where the more advanced economies were now moving into an intensive period of industrialization. Ultimately, of course, this was to create many powerful competitors for Great Britain, but at the time her superior technology made her the workshop o the world.2.2 Foreign Plunder, Expansion and AggressionOn the 7th July, 1588, the Spanish’s Armada, the Invincible Fleet was defeated by English which made a big difference to England’s getting sea supremacy as well as paving the way for her expansion. And Elizabeth was regarded as the foundation-layer-of the British Empire. During her reign, she encouraged her citizens to sail to trade, even plunder as much as they can. If they were accused of the international crime, the Queen would deny that she had nothing to do with it, in order to avoid stigma from other nations. But if they succeed to return in triumph like respectable soldiers, she might even grant an interview to these gainers, which was considered as a noble glory. In this way, ordinary people were all inspired to voyage, bringing about the prospect of England: nearly every one became rich and the society simultaneously made big change.With flourishing economy and proficient navigation base, the expansion and aggression enjoyed an unprecedented foundation. If the land was sparsely populated, they just drove away or killed off the natives to make room for Britain colonies. In other countries, they first knocked the door open with commerce, often backed by gunboats, and then, on a certain pretext, followed it up with armed occupied about 33million square kilometers, taking one fifth of the world's total dry land. These areas ever provided raw materials or became her market. Among them, the most famous one was East India Company. All these factors enabled Britain to be the “workshop of the world”and London became the financial center of the world trade. The British Empire had climbed to her peak.2.3The Great EmpireWhen the British Empire was in its prime of life, it occupied 33million square kilometers, taking up one fifth of the world dry land. The area was about 135 times as large as Great Britain. It ruled over a population of 560 million, which was more than 10 times as large as that of Britain. What’s more, the Britain fleet controlled the main sea routes and the strategic spots along them. The British Empire was on its crest and became the most powerful andimportant country in the world. That’s “the sun never setting”Great Empire-Britain.3. The fall of Great BritainTowards the end of the 19th century, the British began to go downhill.3.1 The Two World WarsUnder the two Industrial Revolutions’ pushing, more and more countries wanted to pursuit foreign markets and raw materials. Therefore, the competition became fiercer, so did the struggle between repartition and anti-repartition. So many factors combined, the First World War broke out in 1914 and had lasted a little more than four years. As we all know, nearly every country had suffered from it except America.Although Britain was one of the victorious nations and won many new colonies from the Germans in Africa and the Pacific, she could not continue to undertake the great expenses which were used to maintain an empire huge financial expenditure. Millions of people died, and many assets were destroyed, and caused mounting debt, capital market turmoil. At the same time, nationalism in the new and old colonies are high, and the Empire and the white soldiers fought in the war that felt in strong racial discrimination were much contributed to this kind of nationalism.Economically, Britain became debtor instead of creditor country and the economy postwar suffered depression, and the most important one was that the international financial center also transferred from British London to New York. On international influence, although Britain in Paris Peace Conference kept being a leader, her economic, military strength was retrogressing. Eventually, Britain could no longer maintain her hegemonic position. The most typical sign was the Washington Naval conference, limiting Britain’s naval power, which showed that the British had to admit that she was no longer the global hegemony. On the colony, although territory increased, her control became weaker on account of large death and losses. Then independence movements of colonies had affected British profoundlyAbout ten years later, in 1929, a serious crisis started in America and soon spread to other countries. Large unemployment caused endless demonstrations and strikes which shocked the whole capitalist world. Hitler’s constant thirst for power led Europe into the Second World War from 1939 to 1945. And the Second World War witnessed the disintegration of the British Empire.Though Britain and her allies won the war with Germany being invaded and Japan being hit by two atomic bombs, Britain suffered heavy losses. Repeated bombed, her financial position was greatly weakened and had to rely on America. The independence movement of colonies caused the British lose all her colonies except Hong Kong by the year 1970.As a result, the British Empire gave way to the British Commonwealth after 1931; her membership in European Community was endorsed by a national referendum in 1975; Britain’s defence policy is now based on the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Nowadays, the British Empire doesn’t exist and is replaced by the strong America, and then Britain is a second-class developed country.3.2 Postwar BritainAfter the two World Wars, much burden was laid on her and the Great Empire had gone downhill. Britain was no longer in the leading class in the world’s economy and underwent enormous economic difficulties. She lost the privilege in the industrial technology. Its financial was greatly weakened and it had to rely on America aid for its economic reconstruction. On the other, awakened and tempered by the war, consequently, most of its colonies in the world swept a large scale of independence movement. By the year 1970, Britain had lost all its former colonies except Hong Kong. Because its economy relied heavily on foreign markets and imports of raw materials, the losses of its colonies impose a great influence on Britain. She lost expansive lands and a large amount of British population, which weakened its power and was out-competed by other countries.4. ConclusionLooking back from Britain’s rise to fall, it is not difficult for us to find that Britain can become the European most powerful country and then the strongest country is a result of its new policy, technology and expansion. The rising bourgeoisie gave rise to the end of the feudal system and ushered a new stage to come. The Industrial Revolution turned Britain into the “workshop of the worl d” and England was the world’s economic center. And after the colonial expansion, wealth flooded in Britain and the great empire on which the sun never set was established. However, as we all are concerned, one’s previous glory doesn’t guarantee her a brilliant future. When the British were resting on their laurels, the world situation changed. When other countries were researching advanced technology and developing their economy, England was unwilling to adopt new technology and new equipment, she thus lost the monopolize position in the world’s industry and sea power. After two World Wars, the Great Britain’s power declined heavily. Though she won both of two wars, she is still a loser. Many problems were emerging, economic plunge, weakened sea power, loss of foreign colonies, large unemployment, and so on. It can no longer claim to be the most powerful country in the world. However, though it had lost its landlord position, the nation as a whole was not crushed by despair, it was still a powerful country in the world but not the strongest.From the process of Great Britain, we can sum up the experience and make China develop soundly and quickly. We should attach the importance to science, innovation and education. And the policy and society system should keep pace with the time. Last but not least, one nation's rise is based on science and technology, the competition between countries is in the contest of national quality, and talent competition. In addition, every country should keep in mind to be prepared for danger in the ties of safety.Bibliography：A.C.W., Winchester. Nineteenth Century Britain 1815-1914, Harlow, Essex, UK:Longman House, 1982, PP175-181Alderman Geoffrey. Modern Britain 1700-1983, Burrell Row: Provident House, 1986, PP1-15陈德新编英美概况，西安：西安交通大学出版社，2008来安方英美概况, 河南：大象出版社，2004年, PP1-212张奎武英美概况(上)，吉林，吉林科技大学出版社，1984,PP115-129/view/3565.htm/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Northern_ Ireland//question/122668056.html。

FROM THE BRITISH EMPIRE TO THECOMMONWEALTHI.Introduction.Great Britain, also known as The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North Ireland, had once been the center of world for centuries and made great contributionto human civilization. However, in the late 19th century, with the rise ofother countries, Britain began to fall in the fierce competition among capitalist countries. Afterwards, suffering great loss in the two world wars, Britain became less powerful and thecolonies won independence one after another. The Great Britain Empire gradually transformed itself to a friendly and harmonious Commonwealth. II.Background: The Rise of The British Empire.a)Industrial Revolution and ExpansionThe British Industrial Revolution, which took place in 1700s, resulted in great development of the British society.Hand production methods could no longer meet the need of products.The newly-invented machines simplified the process of production and greatly increased the productivity.And the well-known steam engine provided new source of power, thanks to which, fast development also took place in other important fields such as transportation, steel industry and coal industry.The industrial revolution marked the beginning of a new era in the history of mankind.In 1588, the Spanish Armada was defeated by the Great Britain, which marked Great Britain’s gaining of sea supremacy, and paved the way for the expansion.During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, British citizens were encouraged to trade abroad,or even plunder and colonize through sailing. Weaker countries’ door s were first knocked open with commerce, and it was often followed by occupation and colonization backed withstrong military force.With advanced technology and broad market, bourgeoisie of Britain started their accumulation of capital, and the country started to lead theworld.b)The Sun-never-set EmpireThe British Empire became the “workshop of the world”, and London became the financial center. For over a century, it was the principal naval and imperial power, and almost unchallenged at seaand in territory. In the early 1900s, it ruled a population of over 500 million and occupied more than one fifth of the Earth’s total land ar ea.Because of its expanse around the globe, the sun could shine on at least one of its territories at any time. P eople call it “the empire on which the sun never sets”.III.Transformation to the Commonwealth.a)The Proposal of CommonwealthQueen Elizabeth II once declared that the confederation of Canada on 1st July 1867 marked “the beginning of that free association of independent states which is now known as the Commonwealth of Nations".In 1884, Lord Rosebery, while visiting Australia, described the changing British Empireas some of its colonies became moreindependentas a "Commonwealth of Nations".In 1917, a specific proposal was presented by Jan Smuts,at that time a member of the British Imperial War Cabinet, when he brought up the term "the British Commonwealth of Nations". The term first received imperial statutory recognition in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which concluded the Irish War of Independence, when the term “British Commonwealth of Nations” was substituted for “British Empire” in the wording of the oath taken by the parliament of the Irish Free State.b)Falling EmpireThe two Industrial Revolutions pushed more countries to develop bourgeoisie and look for foreign markets and raw materials.Therefore, the competition became fiercer. Newly-emerging powers, especially Germany, struggled for a repartition of market and land, while the British Empire had to fight to defend the acquired benefits.The First World War broke out in 1914 and lasted about four years, during which nearly every country suffered from it except America.Although Britain was one of the victorious nations and won many new colonies from the Germans, it could n’t afford to the great expenses for maintainingsuch a huge lions of people died, economy suffered, and Britain became a debtor, rather than creditor. At the same time, independence movements in thecolonies were running high.The empire was losing its control of the colonies. The international financial center transferred to New York. All of these deprived the Empire of its hegemonic position.c)TransformationThe Balfour Declaration, issued by the 1926 Imperial Conference, declared that the United Kingdom and the Dominions are...autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. ...The declaration accepted the fact that the dominions were having growing independence in internal and external affairs in the years after World War I, and became the basis of the Statute of Westminster 1931.The Parliament of the United Kingdom passed Statute of Westminster in 1931. It is a statutory embodiment and formalization of the principles of equality and allegiance to the Crown, which were brought up in the Balfour Declaration. Until today, the Statute of Westminster still serves as a basis of the relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown.d)Postwar ChangesAfter World War II, the situation of the world changed profoundly. Europe, a continent that had dominated the whole world for several centuries, was in ruins. The United States and Soviet Union held the super power, while Britain was left bankrupt.In this period, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations.The London Declaration was issued by the 1949 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference. It is considered a milestone in the history of the modern Commonwealth.The declaration allowed the Commonwealth to admit and retain members that were not Dominions, and it changed the name of the organization from the “British Commonwealth of Nations”to the “Commonwealth of Nations”. The dropping of the word “British” reflects the major changes.After London Declaration, the colonies gained their independence and new members from different continents joined the Commonwealth.Finally, the handover ceremony of Hong Kong in 1997 marked the end of the long decolonization process, as well as the empire.monwealth Today.The Commonwealth of Nations is an voluntary intergovernmental organization of52 independent member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.Although they acknowledge the British Monarch as the symbolic head of the Commonwealth, they have no obligation to each other and have full autonomy on their own internal and external affairs. They are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.Commonwealth countries interact with each other outside governmentwith various non-governmental organizations of different fields, such as sport, culture, education, law and charity.The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organization, resourced by Commonwealth governments. It aims to strengthen civil society in theachievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication, people-centered and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.The Commonwealth games is the third largest multi-sport event in the world.Being held every four years, the games include sports particularly popular in Commonwealth countries, such as netball and rugby sevens. The games were designed with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.V.Conclusion.History witnessed the rise and fall of the British Empire and its transformation to the Commonwealth of Nations.From the history, there’s much we can learn.The rise of the British Empire from the Industrial Revolution can help us realize the importance of science and technology. With advanced technology, a little effort can produce great achievement.The lack of ability and power to control the large area of colonies can remind us that we should pre-estimate the situation, in order that what we wouldn’t cause results that we cannot control.The self-transformation to a loose commonwealth can also enlighten us that we should always follow the historical trend and that being against the trend is not a wise option.。

Comparison of the Politics in Britain and United StatesAbstract: The system that British established in 19 century has a profound effect not only on its own country’s society developments of politics and history but also on other counties’ modern institution, politics and history. British is the mother of world capitalist constitutionalism. As a powerful capitalistic country, US’ system is also based on the British’s system and set a prefect system after some reforms. Even so, the systems of the two countries still have many differences. Both of the two countries have powerful political systems in the world.Keywords: constitution, party systems, electoral system1. Introduction: (political institution is superstructure, generally refers to the state power organs and the basic system which adapted with the social nature. "Political system, as same as the various systems of the human society, is the product of history development, branding with time and space.”) After the English bourgeois revolution, democratic politics was gradually established. The constitution was promulgated and constitutionalism was gradually be taken. Capitalism got a considerable development in Britain. Britain built the first set of the capitalist system, which is known as the source and model of Western political system.British and US political systems have the same theoretical basis: the principle of "separation of powers” and the theory of “human rights”; the concrete content includes the parliamentary system, the electoral system, the judicial system, and the political party system, etc; these are all considered to be the elements of "people's democracy", Regimes implemented the principles of separation of powers and check and balance and the "rule of law". And most fundamentally,as two typical representatives of capitalist countries’ political systems, Britain and USA have the same nature in the maintenance of bourgeois interests and the private capitalist system, the implementation of other aspects of bourgeois dictatorship. But in the specific political system level, they present different characteristics, the paper only compare British and American political system from three aspects of the Constitution, the party system, the electoral system.2. Comparison of constitutionsBritain is typical of countries with unwritten constitution, there is no unified, complete written form, and its constitutional system is extremely complex which is constituted by a variety of written and unwritten customary law, jurisprudence and constitutional practices constituted. British constitution can not be listed by one or several pieces of documents, nor strict distinct by the time, it lacks rigorous and explicit content, consistent and complete system。

Elizabeth’s worldElizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess.when she became queen of England in 1558, she inherited a weak and backward island that had been severely divided by three religious upheavals in two decades. Most of her subjects doubted the ability of a woman to lead the tattered country and anxiously waited for her to marry.But Elizabeth chose to play her role as the monarch of he realm alone.Applying her instinct,intelligence ,energy,and stubbon willfulness to the task, she would become the strongest and most beloved the island had seen in centuries. During Elizabeth’s forty-four year reigna of great success, England became one of Europe’s most powerful and sophisticated countries and a growing empire. In military strength ,exploration ,commerce ,and above all the arts .the nation experienced a golden age that changed the culture of England ,as well that of Europe and North America,forever.In November 7, 1558,Mary died of cancer .English legend has it that when lords arrived to bring Elizabeth the news ,thery found her reading a Bible under an oak tree in her garen.(The oak tree is an English symbol of the nation’s stability and duration.) Upon hearing of Mary’s death ,Elizabeth fell to her knees,anf the messengers heard her recite a werse from Psalm 118 in Latin:“This is the Lord’s doing;and it is marvelous in our eyes”As is know to everyone,“Bloody Mary”was a totally political innocent.she had left the nation in poor shape.Its military powers were diminished,the royal government was deeply indebt,poverty was widespread,and the population had become bitterlyby the rapid religious changes imposed by three monarchs in a row.No one could imagine that after a long social unrest, to be added the political chaos, religious persecution and external setbacks, the 1558 marked the great England that it was about to enter an unprecedented era.Elizabeth was a master of political science. She inherited her father's supremacist view of the monarchy, but showed great wisdom by refusing to directly antagonize Parliament. One of her first moves as queen was to support the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. And then,she began to reccorganize the Privy Council ,the board of advisors that carried out the administrative function of the government in the matters of economy ,defense,foreign policy,and law and order,and its members served as the queen’s chief advisors. Elizaeth also dimissed thirty of Mary’s councilors. she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil. No one but Elizabeth herself was to have greater power during her reign .Though Ceil began his office holding the firm belief that a woman alone could not rule England ,he would serve Elizabeth faithfully for forty years.He was a voice for caution and moderation and a valuable counterbalance to some of the dashing ,but rash ,statesmen that flocked to Elizabeth ‘s court.What’s more, Elizabeth used the varying factions (instead of being used by them, as were her siblings), playing one off another until the exhausted combatants came to her for resolution of their grievances.Almost in every country of the world, they are all facing the politicalharassment at the turn of regime. That is to say,a drastic reform of Politics is imperative.When Elizabeth ascended the throne, the fighting between the Catholic who regarded the European continent as its core and Protestants was very intense because of "Bloody Mary" who is a paranoid. Religious reform of the United Kingdom ,the British civil wars, and religious wars in Europe liked staggered reefs, full of dangerous.The one mistake being made, the United Kingdom would not be only involved into a big bloody melee of continental Europe, but also into the "civil war" between the Protestant in Scotland and the Catholic in Ireland. That was the the real challenge which shou be faced When Elizabeth tookthe throne. It was hard to imagine that she was chosen and then consolidate the middle way.That was to say, Elizabeth established the ingenious Anglican System after then, making Protestant and Catholic strike a balance On the surfaceThis Elizabethan Religious Settlement held firm throughout her reign and later evolved into today's Church of England. During a long period of time, the British were in a stable era. Few English monarchs enjoyed such political power but Elizabeth, while still maintaining the devotion of the whole of English society.As the old saying goes，“All things dying, the spirit is forever.”The one of the best judgements to a monarchy, but also from the ideological legacy of its era. Elizabeth's reign ,known as the Elizabethan era ,was during one of the more constructive periods in English history. It was famous above all for theflourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake and John Hawkins. Moreover,Bacon ,with its fun-filled language, endowed the thinking way of human beings with the "new science" and "new tools". Hobbes was "frightened premature" in the gunfire of the “Spanish Armada" and later its "Leviathan" has become one of the pioneers of modern political science.What I want to emphasizs is that at that time,under the rule of the this beautiful and lonely Queen, the United Kingdom brought the whole world entered a golden era in human beings’history.But why did such a wonderful woman live alone, never married then? I guess this is what everyone does want to know. Whether out of kindness or political intentions, every one had a desire that expected that Elizabeth would marry.It was but despite several petitions from parliament, she never did. The reasons for this choice are unknown, and they have been much debated. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and siblings.One of her mottoes was: "I see, and say nothing". This strategy, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and marital misalliances.Ever once,Elizabeth was surrounded by some radical ministers who forced her to get married,but then the whole country was totally shocked by what she said, “I can only have one, that is England”. Some psychologi sts believe that Elizabeth’s move was closely related to her painful childhood. Anyway,she was a heroine in England.Because she give up the joy of the flesh and become a completewell-being of women,jut for England.Although Elizabeth was called “Good Queen Bess” and she had so much reputation,her most important contribution were her concern for her subjects, her defense of the country, the use of a good consultant,and her help for England avoiding the economic crisis and religious wars, and whatever. However,each coin has two sides.According to what I know,historians tend to be more cautious in their assessments. They often depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity to the point where many of her subjects were relieved at her death,especially in the problems of the expedition to Spain and Portugal in 1589. Recently,there is a Intense criticism about the slave trade in Africa in Elizabethan era and her mistakes made in Ireland.At first,Queen Elizabeth put the blame on Hawkins who started to participate in such immoral trade.But Hawkins showed her the profits of his career soon after, she changed her views. She not only covered the trade of Hawkins, but also directly benefited from it, or even to provided him with ships and personnel. The support provided by the royal recognition of Queen Elizabeth on the slave trade made this trade legalized, even it made more British businessmen participate into it. On the other thing, Elizabeth did a military victory in the Irish, but not a religious and politica lvictory. That kind of extreme cruelty which meant annihilation, or one rebel, all need death.could not be erased from history.Since then,the Irish are always the problem of the Imperial bodybleeding, Pusing part- which has been extended to the contemporary Therefore, for my part, Queen Elizabeth should be criticized in some aspects not always be praised.However,she was an excellent England ruler, the Tudor dynasty founder of the Golden Age. As Queen, she had defeated Spain's all-powerful Armada, making the British Empire become the legendary founder of the Sea, letting the English Reformation in a calm and a firm advocate of national unity and executor.Her 44 years on the throne provided valuable stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.Elizabeth, women's classics, is a legend of the history of the classic human,评论，观念，各有不同做好自己那份就好。

英语国家概况期末考试英国教育体制作文The education system in the United Kingdom is known for its strong emphasis on academic excellence and a well-rounded education.英国的教育体制以强调学术卓越和全面教育而闻名。

From a young age, children in the UK are encouraged to develop a love for learning and critical thinking skills.从小，英国的孩子们就被鼓励培养对学习的热爱和批判性思维能力。

One of the unique features of the UK education system is the presence of independent schools, which are privately funded institutions that offer a high standard of education.英国教育体制的一个独特特点是私立学校的存在，这些学校是由私人资助的机构，提供高水平的教育。

These schools often have smaller class sizes, more resources, and a wider range of extracurricular activities compared to state-funded schools.与公立学校相比，这些学校通常拥有较小的班级规模、更多的资源和更广泛的课外活动。

However, access to independent schools is often limited to those who can afford the high tuition fees, leading to criticisms of elitism and inequality within the education system.然而，私立学校的学费通常较高，只有富有的家庭才能负担得起，这导致对教育体制内精英主义和不平等的批评。

英语国家概况期末论文1American and British educationThe number of people holds view that the future of the nation depends largely on education, so as the future of the children. Each country has its own education system. Most of countries try to put the national education in the first place. And most families consider the home education as part of their life. What are the country education systems? What are their purposes? How do parents do at ho me for their children’s education? The following I will talk about the formal education and family education among the United States and the United Kingdom.American Education1. Formal EducationIn the United States, education is regarded as both an individual benefit and a social necessity. There are three ideals of American education. Firstly, education is governed by state and local governments, not by the national government. Each of the 50 states has its own laws regulating education, but some laws are similar, for example, all states require young people to attend school until the age of either 16 or 18. Secondly, receive an equal education. In the other words, many people are possible to have access to as much as education as they want. This ideal is an outcome of the American’s assertions about equality among people. Thirdly, American schools tend to put more emphasis on developing critical thinking than acquiring quantities of facts. And American students are encouraged to express their own opinion in class and to think for themselves, and goal of American education is to teach c hildren how to learn and helpthem reach their maximum potential. In addition, formal education in United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education. Elementary and secondary education, which are the basis of public education, are compulsory. Classes of students are divided into twelve academic levels called grades. Before attend the first academic institution,many parents choose to enroll their children in kindergarten and, even earlier, nursery school or daycare center. After high school, part of students will go to further education—university. There are some famous universities in the United States, such as Harvard University, a comprehensive university; Yale University with a high academic standard and great prestige; Massachusetts Institute of T echnology, an institute famous for its scientific and technological training and research.2. Family EducationIt is a general perspective that every American has the right and obligation to become educated. And some are tutoring at home by their parents, instead of school teachers. American parents suggest that little children are not just a process of memorizing knowledge that already exists in books, but work to discover new information or conceive new ways to understand what is already known. In addition, parents pay much attention to children’s independence. They think that children should do many things all by themselves. If parents do that for them, they would become lazy and dependent on others. When children make mistakes, American parents would punish them, let them realize their faults and warn them not to do that again. They would not pay much attention to children’s ability to learn or to read, but teach them to understand the world.The United Kingdom Education1. Formal EducationIn the history, education in British was voluntary and many British schools were set up by the church. Now education in Britain is divided into four stages: primary, secondary, further education and higher education. The compulsory education for all children is between the ages of 5 and 16. There are two parallel school systems in Britain for primary and secondary education, the state system and the independent system. The education in the state system is provided free of charge while the independent system requires fees.Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of 5 and 16. Children begin primary school at the age of 5 and go on to secondary school at the age of 11 and stay there until 16. Free compulsory education is available for all children up to the age of 16. After that, they can choose to study for two more years in preparation for higher education and they start their university education around the age of 18. And some choose to comprehensive schools, which provide a general education. Most British universities are partially funded by central government grant. Students from poor families can receive the maintenance grant from the central government grant. Like the united states, the united kingdom has its famous universities, for instance, Oxford, the oldest university in the English-speaking world; Cambridge, which is well-known by its reputation for outstanding academic achievement. King’s College Lond on, which has a multicultural student body and an academic reputation that goes from strength to strength.2. Family EducationIn the United Kingdom, parents also pay much attention to tutor their children to be well controlled by themselves. Whenthe children do something wrong, parents would take action to correct their behavior or even punish them. There is no reason for them to get their parents’ overindulgence. Both the United States and the United Kingdom emphasize independence on Family education. Th e United Kingdom’s parents think that if they Over Indulgent their children, their children will never know what independence means. They also have a prospect that they should be responsible for the children’s future. The parents seem not to be competent a s their children couldn’t adapt the community or make contributions to the society; the common response is that parents should feel guilty as incapable of educating their children.As far as I am concerned, different countries have their own educational ways. But one in common is that all the national education systems and family education want to make the children out of boys and turn them into useful person in society. People believe that future of the nation depends largely on education, so as the future of children. The only thing we can do is to respect for cultural differences and take the essence and discard the dregs. Only in this way, children can grow up more happily and independent so that they can make great contributions to their society.。

A GUIDE TO ENGLISH-SPEAKINGCOUNTRIESWhen English jumps to life, it displays a starting quality. Nowadays, the connections among countries are increasing frequently, English is becoming more significant. After learning this course, I know more about some English-speaking countries, like Canada, Australia and New Zealand, especially the UK and America.Britain, the whole is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, in ancient Britain is known as the "day not fall", includes England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England is the largest part of Great Britain.There are many rivers in Great Britain. Among the most important rivers is the Thames, which flows into the North Sea. Its length is 336 km and it is the deepest rive in Britain. It is navigable as far as the capital of Great Britain –London. The longest river in Britain is the Severn. Its length is 354 km. London is also called foggy London as the climate of Britain is classified as temperate, with warm summer, cool winters and plentiful precipitation throughout the year.Britain also has a long history. The earliest setters include Iberians (3000BC) , the Beaker folk and Celts. But the recorded history dates from 55BC, when Julius Caesar and his roman troops invaded the island. And then through the medieval period, the industrial revolution, the colonial expansion, and the World War II, the history has been in the present day.Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy. Although the Queen is the head of state, their power is largely symbolic. The government is elected by people and governs according to British constitutional principles, and that election is held every five years. However, parliament is the law-making body of Britain. Strictly speaking, it consists of the Crown, the House of Lords and the House of Commons. TheHouse of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 651 Members of Parliament. It is in the House of Commons that the ultimate authority. Britain is divided 651constituencies. Each of the constituencies returns one member to the House of Commons. A general Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals. Britain has a number of parties, but there are only two major parties. These two parties are the Conservative Party and the Labor Party. Since 1945, either the Conservative Party or the Labor Party has held power. The party which wins sufficient seats at a General election commands a majority of Government. The leader of the majority party is appointed Prime Minister. The party which wins the second largest number of seats becomes the Official Opposition, with its own leader and shadow cabinet. The rule of Opposition is to help the formulation of policy criticizing the Government and debate with the Government. However, the monarchy is usually regarded as a separate institution because even though the Queen must consent to pass a law, that consent is given as a matter of course. Additionally, it is a capitalist country in Western Europe. Agriculture, energy production, manufacturing industry, service industry and foreign trade are current British economic characters. Since the end of WWII, service industry has a spectacular growth.Britain has a rich culture. Education in Britain is compulsory for all children between ages of 5 and 17. There are two parallel school systems in Britain for primary and secondary education, which includes the state system, where education is provided free of charge, and the independent system where fees are required. Britain’s education and academic research level is currently in the world's leading position. The world-famous education has a holy land at the university of Cambridge and Oxford University. British especially like reading newspapers, like the Times, the Guardian and the Daily Telegraph and so on.The United States is located in the central part of North America, expect Alaska and Hawaii. The country is bordered by Canada to the north, Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean t the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The coastline is 22680 kilometers. Unlike UK, major area belongs to temperate continental climate, the southern subtropical climate, while western coastal area distribution has a temperate climate with Mediterranean climate.The US is a country of the western hemisphere, comprising fifty states and several territories. Forty-eight contiguous states lie in central North America between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bounded on land by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south; Alaska is in the northwest of the continent with Canada to its east, and Hawaii is in the mid-Pacific.After Christopher Columns has discovered American, this nation was founded by thirteen colonies declaring their independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776. It adopted the current constitution, which has been amended several times subsequently on September 17, 1787. When the War of Independence was over, the US was not one unified nation as it is today. Each new state had its own government and was organized very much like an independent nation. One of the most events in America is the Civil War. American slavery existed after the first immigrants from Europe founded their settlements. In certain circumstances, slaves were treated with occasional dignity by their owners, but for the most part they were neglected and treated with severe harshness.Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from the U.S. and formed the Confederate States of America. But the south feared that the north would abolish slavery, and the north was afraid it would spread westward into the newly established states. Soon, anti-slavery leaders were becoming active and loud. Slavery effectively ended in the U.S. in the spring of 1865 when theConfederate armies surrendered. The victory can also be attributed in part to failures of Confederate transportation, materiel, and political leadership. And then the country greatly expanded in territory throughout the 19th century, acquiring further territory from the United Kingdom, as well as lands from France, Mexico, Spain, and Russia. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it became the world's sole remaining superpower, and is a declared nuclear weapons state. The United States continues to exert dominant economic, political, cultural and military influence around the globe.The United States is a federal constitutional republic with Washington DC its federal capital. The Constitution of the United States is the basic law of the land. There are two obvious characteristics in the Constituti on. One is “check and balance”, consisted of the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Each branch has powers that the others do not have and each branch has a way of counteracting and limiting any wrongful action by other branch. Another characteristic is that the Constitution specifies the respective powers of federal government and of the state government. Congress is the legislature branch of the federal government. It is law-making and the supreme legislative body of the nation. It consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives, while the executive branch consists of 15 departments and many independent agencies. According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the US shall be vested in one Supreme Court. The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 Court of appeals, 91 district courts and 3 courts of special jurisdiction. Us judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.As in Britain, a two-party system has been dominant in the United States. Today, the two major parties in America are the Democratic Party which evolved out of Thomas Jefferson’s party, formed before 1800 and the Republican Party which was formed in the 1850s by people in the states of the North and West.Curre nt American economical forms are the same as Britain’s.American society is the product of large-scale immigration and is home to a complex social structure as well as a wide array of household arrangements. The U.S. is one of the world's most ethnically and socially diverse nations.In America, education is regarded as both an individual benefit and a social necessity. It is a general view that every American should have the right and obligation to become educated. They hold the view that the future of the nation depends largely on education. Formal education in the United States consists of elementary, secondary and higher education. Elementary and secondary educations, the basis of public education, are compulsory and are divided into 12 grades. Higher education in the US began with the founding of Harvard College in 1636. As a undergraduate student, he has to earn a certain number of credits In order to receive a degree at the end of four years of college, which is similar to Chinese students. The culture of the United States is a Western culture, and has been developing since long before the United States became a country. Its chief early influence was British culture, due to colonial ties with the British that spread the English language, legal system and other cultural inheritances. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially countries from which large numbers immigrated such as Ireland, Germany, Poland, and Italy; the Native American peoples; Africa, especially the western part, from which came the ancestors of most African Americans; and young groups of immigrants. American culture also has shared influence on the cultures of its neighbors in the New World.Although American history is not so long, but it still is the super country. Let’s find out the cause together. It is said that American active, confident and brave, while British diffident, gentle andreliable. British and American detest each other, British think there is no history in America, but American think British cannot understand what future is.According to this term’s study, I know more about Britain and American. In addition, this course arise my interests in Britain and America. Nowadays, more and more people like traveling abroad. So do I. I try to find something more about these two counties.People in Britain and America are different in greeting and introduction. For British people, a handshake is the most common way of greeting, and it is customary when being introduced to someone new. When one wants to introduce oneself, one extends his or her hand for a shake and says “hello, I am…” and it is proper to say “pleases to meet you…’ as a response. For friends, the British will also hug. And if the friends have not seen each for a long time, they would kiss the cheek of the opposite sex. For America people, they greet total strangers by saying “hello’ and it is thought polite to reply. They say “have a nice day when parting” and “you are welcome” when thanked. British people are punctual persons, so it is polite to arrive on time for appointments. Being late for even a few minutes would be considered impolite.In social settings, people always say “come to see me soon’ and “drop in anytime”. But it is often necessary to call before visiting others. If one does not plan to go, it is better to accept the invitation. It is often considered polite to bring gifts like flowers, chocolate or a small thing for the host. It is an appropriate way to express ones appreciation for being invited by writing a thankful note or giving a telephone call after the visit.In most parts of Britain, the evening meal is the main meal. When one is invited for dinner, it is better for one to tell the hosthis or her dietary restrictions. Food may be served in the following ways: family style, buffet style or serving style. But in America, some families express grace before meals.In the USA, everyone takes pride in doing things by themselves, which is a spirit from their forefathers. And it is also a call of the whole society to do things like gardening, carpentry, upholstering and interior decorating all by oneself.But both British and American people love privacy. It is their right to have privacy and personal freedom. When we communicate with British or American people, don’t ask some private questions. We should remember it.At last, I want to say that this course is quite interesting and practical. I do learn something through the study. Although this course is going to end, I think we should not stop the study of western country cultures because it is useful for our other study as well. if we come to a foreign enterprise after graduation, we could know how to talk with our foreign interviewers or our bosses. When we travel aboard, we could experience local culture in a better way. To some extent, no matter what you are learning now, it must be useful in your future. Thus, I am happy I have learned something in this course.。

英语国家地理概况结业论文英语国家地理概况结课论文专业班级: 学号:姓名:2013年5月28日大国崛起之美国篇——美国如何从一个新兴国家成为霸权主义国家美国:全称美利坚合众国（United States of America），原为英国殖日民地，后因各种因素逐渐兴起而成为一个强大的国家。

那么美国是如何从一个新兴国家成为霸权主义国家呢？通过本门课程的学习，回溯历史，探寻老师的亲身经历让我们了解到美国的历史与现状。

下面就个人所学所知谈谈美国的崛起！……美洲，一个原被人遗忘的地方，当哥伦布发现新大陆时, 居住在美洲的印第安人，约有2,000万，其中有大约100万人住在现在的加拿大和美国中北部, 其余绝大部分住在现在的墨西哥和美国南部。

大约1万年前，有一批亚洲人, 移居到北美北部，这是后来的爱斯基摩人。

而最早到美洲的白种人大概是维京人。

殖民时期1607年, 一个约一百人的殖民团体因为寒冷被迫回到英国，1587年又来了91个男人17个女人，9 个孩子，在乞沙比克海滩建立了詹姆士镇，这是英国在北美所建的第一个永久性殖民地。

在以后150年中, 陆续涌来了许多的殖民者，定居于沿岸地区, 其中大部分来自英国，也有一部分来自法国、德国、荷兰、爱尔兰和其他国家. 18世纪中叶, 13个英国殖民地逐渐形成，他们在英国的最高主权下有各自的政府和议会。

这13个殖民区因气候和地理环境的差异, 造成了各地经济形态、政治制度与观念上的差别。

这就是美洲最原始的殖民地时代。

十七世纪初，英国开始向北美殖民。

最初的北美移民主要是一些失去土地的农民，生活艰苦的工人以及受宗教迫害的清教徒。

1620年，他们乘“五月花号(Mayflower)”到北美并在船上制定《五月花号公约》。

在11月21日于普利茅斯上岸，清教徒与41名自由的成年男人签署共同遵守《五月花号公约》。

内容为组织公民团体；拟订法规等。

奠定自治政府的基础。

18世纪中叶，在美洲的殖民地与英国之间, 已有了裂痕。

课程论文论文题目：On the Rise of the United States 主修学校：武汉理工大学学生姓名：侯伟龙学号： 0121011360606指导教师：邓绪新成绩：On the Rise of the United States中文摘要：美国位于北美的南方，东濒大西洋，西临太平洋，北靠加拿大，南接墨西哥。

大部分地区属于温带大陆性气候，南部属亚热带气候，西部沿海地区分布有温带海洋性气候和地中海气候。

拥有98,300,000平方公里的土地和3120,000,000的人口数量，是世界第三大国家。

它由50个州所组成，其中有两个海外州阿拉斯加和夏威夷。

美国诞生于1776年7月4日。

美国是个多文化和多民族的国家，全国有100个种族超过了一百万人。

主要的民族有美利坚民族、拉丁裔、非裔和亚裔。

美国的自然资源非常的丰富，煤、石油、天然气等矿物储量均居世界前列。

美国也是世界上最早开始重视环境保护的国家之一，在1872年联邦政府建立了黄石国家公园以保护当地环境，成为了世界上第一个国家公园。

当今美国仍在全世界的经济、政治、军事、科技等众多领域有着庞大影响力，这是他国不能与之相媲美的。

美国是资本主义混合经济，是世界第一大经济体系，国民拥有很高的生活水平，人均国民生产总值超过四万美元，居世界前列，是全球最富裕、经济最发达、生活水平最高的国家之一。

美国在1776年以前是英国的殖民地，在短短的200多年间从一个受压迫的国家发展成为了一个世界举世瞩目的国家，不得不为之赞叹。

关键词：美国；经济；发展Abstract:The United States is situated in the south of North America with the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the west, Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. Most of the regions belong to temperate continental climate, the south belongs to subtropical climate and the western coastal areas have temperate marine climate and Mediterranean climate. With 9.83 million square kilometers and about 312 million people, the United States is the third largest country in the world. The United States consists of 50 states. Alaska and Hawaii, two of the 50 states are separated from the continental of America. The United States was born on July 4, 1776.The United States, created by immigrants, is a nation of over 100 ethnic groups who have more than one million people. The main nationalities have the united nation, Latinos and African and Asian. America's natural resources are very rich with coal, petroleum and natural gas mineral reserves in the world. The United States is one of the countries which start to attach the importance of environmental protection earliest in the world. In 1872 the federal government established Yellowstone national park to protect the local environment that has become the world's first national park. Nowadays the United States is a leading economic, political, and cultural force in the world. America has a capitalist mixed economy and the largest economic system in the world. The citizens have a very high standard of living. Their per capita GNP can reach over 40 thousand dollars which ranks first in the world. It is the most advanced and well-developed country. The U.S. was British Colony before 1776, but within a short span of two hundred years it has made such significant achievements to become an eye-catching Nation from a Nation that had been oppressed. We have to applaud the Nation for their achievements.Keywords：America；economy；development1.Introduction:It’s well known that America is a very young country with only more than two hundred years history, but during the past two hundred years, it has become the most powerful country in the world. Many sociologists and economists have done a lot of research on it to analyze the contributing factors to the success, but their conclusions often vary greatly because they view the problems from different perspectives. The only indisputable factor is that the United States has a large piece of fertile land and abundant mineral sources between the two large oceans. And the two large oceans also provide a good condition for America to trade with other countries. On the other hand the immigrations have brought a large number of talented people who have made a great contribution to the development of the United States. Then I will share my view on this topic in detail in my essay.2. The Reasons of American risingThe United States has been the biggest industrial country since 1870 in the world. It has ever experienced a rapid development era of the economy. That rapid development results from many factors. First, the geographical location of the US provides a very good condition for its agricultural development and makes it become a strong country gradually. Second, the US is rich in mineral sources and fertile farm soil with moderate climate. Third, as a result of the African immigration, America has enough people to provide the labor for the development of the economy. At last, the US has many skilful workers and excellent scientists, such as Einstein. Now let’s start to analyze the process of its growing in economy step by step.2.1The immigration brought a lot of talented personSome of those immigrations had advanced knowledge in agriculture and political system and belief. These early immigrations were the pioneers for the rising of America. They laid the foundation for church and governmental authority in America. Many of the first immigrants were educated people and their knowledge contributed to their success in the New World. They brought advanced agricultural technology for the America. And they also set up schools to develop education. In summary, the early immigration has laid the foundation for American agriculture and education.2.2 The War had great influence on the country2.2.1 The First War of independenceThe United States started a large-scale independence war which ended European control of both North and South America from 1775 to 1783. The war wonindependence for the 13 states and started a new era in American history. From then on, the United States has become an independent country. American independence inspired American people greatly. Then American economy developed very fast in the 13 colonies. In general the War of Independence made a new beginning of American history.2.2.2 The second war of independenceAfter this war, the U.S. completely got rid of the British control and began a new period of rapid development .This war also made their citizens realize the importance of a strong nation government. It strengthened the feeling of national united and patriotism through this war. And Americans also turned their attentions to the development of the western part of the continent.2.2.3 The Civil WarAmerican slavery or Negro silvery existed in the southern states after the second War of Independence, while the northern states were capitalism. The contradiction between south and north became more and more intense. When Abraham Lincoln was elected president, the southern states broke away and formed a new nation, the confederate States of America. Then the Civil war broke out on April 12, 1861. After this war, the United States became a unified capitalist country. After that American economy developed much more rapidly in every field. Abolishing slave system helped to establish a unified home market and enlarged the supply of the free labor. Through this war the American people cleared away all the obstacles and determined to develop science and production further. The U.S. led the world in industry 30 years later after the war.2.2.4 The First World War brought a big chanceThe First World War marked another turning point in American history. The First World War broke out in June 1914. For the sake of that it didn’t happen in the United States. So the United States announced the neutrality on August 2, 1914. The American neutral policy was aimed at making a profit by trading arms and war materials with the warring countries. Generally the United States got a lot of benefits through this war. And because of the peaceful domestic environments, its economy also got a very rapid development.2.2.5 The Second World WarAs the First World War, the United States also got a lot of benefits in the Second World War. After the Second World War, the United States has benefited a lot from a prolonged period of unprecedented prosperity and became the strongest country in thecapitalist world. At that time, many capitalist countries were deep in debt to America. The U.S. industrial production made up about 60% of the world’s total while its exposition monopolized about 30% of the world market which made it possible for America to enjoy another period of economic prosperity.2.3 The Industrial RevolutionAmerica has taken part in the Industrial Revolution twice. During that period, the American economy developed very rapidly. After the two times Industrial Revolution, the United States has basically realized the realization of urbanization. Science and new inventions played an important role in promoting the economic development. The iron and steel industry was one of America’s basic industries. At the same time, railway construction proceeded rapidly which resulted from the steel industry. By 1920 America had already constructed more than 400000 kilometers of railroads which greatly sped up the development of economy.2.4 President Roosevelt’s “New Deal” saved the America’s economyWhen a country faced with problems, they always need a great leader to save the nation. There were many serious weaknesses in the American economy in the 1920s. In 1932, in the depth of the depression, the American people chose Franklin D. Roosevelt as their next president who promised a “new deal” to get America out of the depression. The new deal increased government interference in the nation’s economic life, strengthening the trend towards big government. It used public fund to finance a lot of government projects in order “to put people to work”. It also provided help to the unemployed, the old, the sick, and the homeless through redistribution of social wealth. The “New Deal”has produced far-reaching influence on America’s social welfare program.2.5 Natural causes2.5.1 PositionAmerica has two neighbor countries, Mexico and Canada. Both Mexico and Canada have no threat to America which provides a steady environment to develop own country. It has two long coastlines which are convenient to go on international trade. Now Canada has been America’s most important trading partners and the trade between Mexico is also climbing.2.5.2 TopographyAmerica has a large area of land, ranking No. 4 in the world .And the topography is various from place to place. America has varied geographical features with large mountains, round-topped hills, big plains, dry deserts and low-lying basins. America’srich land resources and varied geographical conditions are important contributing factors in the development of the United States. Few countries enjoy so many geographic advantages.2.5.3 Climate and weatherThe United States is mainly situated in the northern temperate zone. America has different types of climate in different areas. In New England, the temperature rarely rises above the freezing point in winter. But the several states down the Atlantic Coast from New York to Virginia in the tropical have a little higher temperature. The south eastern parts of the United States enjoy a warm climate with abundant rainfall. In a word, American climate and weather create a better environment for developing.2.5.4 Rich natural resourcesAbout 47% of America’s land areas can be used for farmland. The large area of arable land makes it easy for America to develop its agriculture and grow enough food grain to feed its people. It’s well known that water resources play an important role in a country’s development. And the United States is a comparatively rich in water resources. It totally has 12 rivers and lakes, which can be used to irrigation fields, transport goods, and furnished power. Generally speaking, America enjoys abundant water resources. The United States is also rich in mineral resources, such as coal, iron ore and oil. It also abounds in lead, copper, zinc, gold, aluminum, phosphate rock, and silver. All these natural resources have combined to provide a solid material base for American industry.2.6 The political and economic systemAs we all know, the US. Constitution divides the federal government into three outwardly separate but inwardly inter-dependent branches. They work together but check each other. This can greatly deduce the corruption of the government which indirectly promotes the development of the economy. America has a capitalist mixed economy. And there are many large private enterprises which have made a great contribution to the development of the United States.2.7 American diplomatic relations and militaryAs the globalization has begun, foreign relations also play a vital part in a country’s development and it has become more and more important. The United States of America has established diplomatic relations with most of the countries in the world, especially some developed countries. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C. and consulates around the country. This greatly strengthened the exchange of America and other countries and promoted the development of the UnitedStates.ConclusionAs we all know America is a very young nation with only 200 years history. But now it has developed from a colony to the strongest country in the world which is worthy of our China to study.There are many reasons for the American’s rising that can be divided into two main parts: internal reasons and external reasons. From my perspective the main reason is the internal reasons. On one hand the American people have tried their best to develop their country in economy, science and technology, education, policy and some other aspects. On the other hand the rich natural resources, fertile farmland and suitable climate also play a great role to the development of the United States. Another important reason is that neither the First nor the Second World War happened in the United States. What’s more, the United States has benefited a lot from the two World War. This provides a stable domestic environment for the development of the United States. And during that period the United States developed very quickly. At last the America attached great importance to the education which has brought a lot of talents. That’s why the science and technology of the United States have developed so rapidly.On the whole, America has set a good example for other countries. We can also learn from the experience of the United States to develop our own country.BibliographyAtkins, Ollie.The White Houses Rears[M]. Chicago: Playboy Press, 1977 (1):102-136. 来安方.英美概况[M].郑州: 大象出版社,1995 (1):143-171.周静琼.当代美国概况[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2003 (1):113-153.张奎武.英美概况学习与指导[Z].吉林：吉林科学技术出版社，2001 (1):21-32/wiki/United_States/view/2398.htm。

A Brief Introduction to the United KingdomⅡNorthern IrelandNorthern Ireland is the smallest of the four nations, both in area and population. It’s capital is Belfast. Though Northern Ireland is small but it is significant because of the political troubles there. There are four aspect to know about Northern Ireland. First, it is about it’s physically. It is mostly rural, with many beautiful views. There are many famous sights such as Giant’s Causeway、Ironbridge Gorge and Broughty Castle and so on.Second, it is about the political problems which are best known about it. The people of Ireland are living an ordinary life. The crime and the murder rate are very low. But in the world, the Ireland is a country which wants to be independent. So it’s international affect is very great.Third, it is about it’s active cultural life. There are many famous people, such as Seamus Heaney、Heaney won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1995. Neil Jordan won an Oscar for the “Best Original Screenplay”in 1992. Van Morrison is an internationally famous pop musician. Brian Fried is a playwright whose stageplays are acclaimed in London and Dublin. So Ireland is a cultural.Forth, it is about it’s economy problems. Two parts are the big problem. One is the troubles discouraging investment; another is it’s peripherality in relation to the UK. The cost of people is very low.HistoryThe history of Ireland is the one thing that almost everyone knows about Ireland. Ireland has been divided by a long and bloody conflict. The Queen Elizabeth became the settler from late 1905. The ingrained resentment of the British which is almost endemic in the native Irish culture is evident even today. In the 19th century, British politics became a campaign in parliament called “home--rule”. Irish political control Irish affairs. In 1916, the Easter Rising was the most spectacular event. In 1916, IRA expanded the fright. In 1920, most Catholic didn’t appeal to independent. Because English government, trying to increase it’s control of Ireland, encouraged people from Scotland and Northern England to emigrate to the north of Ireland, so the northeast part of Ireland thought of themselves as British, and wished to remain a part of the British state.The troublesThere are many trouble of Ireland1、The popular revolt by Roman Catholics.2、Counter—demonstrations by Protestants3、In 1969, British soldiers were asked to help restore order4、A campaign of bombing and shooting5、Internment6、Bloody Sunday in 19727、In 1973, an agreement was reached8、In the late 1970s and the 1980s, the conflict continued and the life went onIn 1972, 468 people were killed in Northern Ireland included 13 Catholics who had been taking part in a peaceful civil rights march. They were shot dead by British soldiers. This was a key event in streagthening Catholic opposition to the Btitish presence. This day has now been my thought as “Bloody Sunday”.Towards a SolutionFirst is The Bullet and the Ballot Box.Second, in 1985, the Anglo—Irish agreement was signed, giving the Irish a right to consultation on Northern Irish matters.Third, the Downing—Street Declaration said that British had “no selfish or strategic interest” in Northern Ireland.Forth, the IRA declared a ceasefire.The Good Friday AgreementIn January 1974, the British Prime Minister set to a power—sharing executive which involved representatives from both of the Republic and the North of Ireland as well as governance of the North.The next attempt at an all—government solution was known as the Angle—Irish Agreement of 1985. The agreement like the one before it, guaranteed the loyalist Protestant community their right to decide their future—either to join with the South, or to remain as they were.Multi—party negotiations aided this time by the intervention of the United States Senator George Mitchell, the Good Friday Agreement known also as the Belfast Agreement. This agreement assures the loyalist community that Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom and shall not cease to be so with out the consent of the majority of the people of Northern Ireland.On 28th July 2005, the Provisional IRA declared an end to it’s campaign and has since decommissioned what is thought to be all of it’s arsenal.The North of Ireland is now a quieter and more civilized place than it has been for the last thirty years.ConclusionThere is still a palpable culture up North of “telling”—that is, trying to guess without asking whether a stranger is Catholic or Protestant, a game that has a large political point, for it is not easy, with this history behind them, for a Northerner to be comfortable with someone not of his own traditions and persuasion.。

A comparative study on the structure of British and American Governments The structure of American GovernmentsThe main government of the united states is the Federal government.It has three branches:The Legislature,The Executive and The Judiciary.Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government and it consists of two houses:the Senate and the House of Representative.the senate has 100voting member.2 from each of the 50 states.a senator must be over 30 years old.the House of Representative has 435 voting members,a Representatives must be at least 25years old.Congress helps to pass laws of the UnionThere are 15 departments and many independent agencies in executive branch.the President is the chief of the executive branch,who has the power to manage national affairs and the working of the federal government.Cabinet is under the President in the administration branch,which serves the president as a presidential council.The judicial branch consists of 3 main courts:the supreme courts,the courts of appeals and the district courts.the supreme courts is the highest court of the United states.the courts of appeals is set up to share the burden of the Supreme Court.The district courts serves for local government ,and every state has its own judicial system.The structure of the British GovernmentsThe main 3 parts of the British Governments is the Legislature,the Executive and The Judiciary.Parliament is the law-making body of Britain,which is made of the Crown,the House of Lords and the House of Commons.The government is made up of the Prime Minister,the Cabinet ministers and assistants to the ministers.the prime minister is the leader of the majority party in Parliament.The Cabinet is the supreme decision-making body in the British government.the Cabinet follow the principle of collective responsibility and individual ministerial responsibility.In fact,the Prime Minister is the most powerful leader in Britain.The judicial branch is complicated in British.every district has there own legal systems.the magistrates’court deal with all criminal cases.the Crown Court deal with the more serious cases,which will go to high court or the Court of Appeal or even the supreme court。

《海外文化检索》（“英语国家概况”）课程论文写作要求一、语言及字数要求：英语，正文1500~2000字（不包含参考文献）二、选题：跟课程相关，学生自选三、时间要求： 12月27日（17周）之前上交论文。

四、写作要求：不需要摘要和关键词，但需要包括以下几个基本部分：1、题目2、各部分的小标题3、完整的正文内容4、正文有规范的引用（尤其注意不可抄袭，不可随意引用，不可将他人的创作据为己有）5、参考书目（3个以上，并且都在论文中实现引用）五、论文版面格式与打印要求1、封面：使用统一的封面（见附件格式）。

2、打印：统一使用A4纸。

3、左边装订。

4、边距：上下边距各3cm；左边距：2.5cm；右边距2cm。

5、论文字体：汉语：宋体，英语：Times New Roman。

6、页脚页码标注（居中）。

六、评分标准：满分100分。

具体包含以下4个方面内容：1) 写作要求完成情况：学生能否有效就其选定的题目进行资料查找、阅读，并且进行描述和写作，字数达到要求。

【占25%，按照完成情况打分】2) 连贯性和结构层次：学生能否将信息和要点进行组织，信息和要点之间的联系是否清晰。

【占25%，按照完成情况打分】3) 词汇的多样性和语法的准确性：学生使用的词汇是否广泛、准确、且适合写作的要求；语法结构是否多样、准确、且适合写作的要求。

【占25%，按照完成情况打分】4)论文格式：学生写作的格式是否规范，尤其是引用和参考文献部分。

【占25%，按照完成情况打分】七、抄袭惩罚论文如果有抄袭嫌疑，视抄袭严重程度进行处罚，情节严重者按0分处理。

如果未加注直接引用为自己文字，连续引用字数超过30字未加注者，即视为抄袭。

全文出现5处以上抄袭，即视为情节严重，按0分处理；全文出现3-5处抄袭，最多得分不超过20分；全文出现1-2处抄袭，最多得分不超过40分。

将别人的文字稍作修改作为己用，也应注明出处，否则等同于抄袭。

论文规范和范例Part I Questions1.Why should we write quotes in an essayBecause we should give credit to quoted authors.Whenever you use someone else’s words in an essay, you must indicate clearly that the words are not your own. You do this by using proper formatting and by using endnotes to give the original author credit. There are two basic ways to format quotations, one for short quotations and the other for long quotes.2. How to write a quote in an essay1)Select your quotations carefully and don’t use more than you need. Usequotations when accuracy or exact wording is important or when the quotation makes a powerful point. Introduce the quotations in your own words and make sure they fit smoothly into the flow of your essay.2)Use double quotation marks around a quotation when you use a direct quotationthat is less than four lines long. Don’t use quotation marks around paraphrased material (material summarized in your own words).3)Indent a quotation if it is more than four lines long. Do not use quotation marksaround indented quotations.4)Capitalize the first letter of a quote if it is a complete sentence but not if it is afragment. Put periods and commas inside quotation marks. Put colons and semicolons outside. Put question marks and exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they are part of the quotation, but put them outside the quotation marks if they refer to the sentence as a whole.5)Give endnotes to every quotation, even paraphrased quotations, at the end of theessay.Part II Essay正文字体、标题、行距、段落等格式正文全文1.5倍行距，除题目和标题外，都用Times New Roman小四号。

英语国家概况学习论文姓名：_____班级：_____学号：_____The history of the democratic political development in the United KingdomAbstract: As we know, the United Kingdom is arguably the oldest representative democracy in the world, its representative democracy originated one thousand years ago. Although the United Kingdom founded the modern political system so early, its establishment truly has experienced a very long process, some events have a significant impact on it. This long and unbroken history is still apparent in the United Kingdom's current institutions and culture. Generally speaking, the United Kingdom democratic political development is a compromise, progressive process.Key words: history; democratic political development; the United KingdomThe Monarchy and Divine Right of KingsIn the United Kingdom,the oldest institution of government is the Monarchy,this dates back to the Saxons who ruled from the 5th century AD until the Norman Conquest in 1066.The present Queen,Elizabeth II, is directly descended from King Egbert, who united England under his rule in 829. The power of the monarchy was largely derived from the ancient doctrine of the "divine right of Kings". It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving the right to rule directly from the will of God. The king is thus not subject to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or any other estate of the realm, including (in the view of some, especially in Protestant countries) the Church. According to this doctrine, only God can judge an unjust king. The doctrine implies that any attempt to depose the king or to restrict his powers runs contrary to the will of God and may constitute a sacrilegious act.The Magna CartaThe Magna Carta, or Great Charter, is a document created for the purpose of limiting the powers of the monarch and preserving the basic legal rights of all free men in England. It was made after a rebellion in 1215 against King John of England, a corrupt, absolute monarch who angered all those under the influence of his power. The Barons, rich land owners and direct vassals of the King, would no longer tolerate the abuses of power conducted under John’s reign, and demanded a change in government. John was forced to meet with them at Runnymede on June 15, 1215. There the Barons proposed the Magna Carta, a document similar to, as well as an ancestor of, the Bill of Rights. After several days of debate, the King gave in to the Barons’ demands and adopted the charter into the British s ystem of government on June 19th.The Magna Carta was eventually sent out to all of the towns and provinces of England so that all free men could see their basic legal rights. Among the rights granted by the document are a trial by jury, a punishment fitting and not excessive to the crime, and no taxation without representation. To whom these rights were granted has been heavily debated. The barons who created the Magna Carta originally intended it toprotect only the rich, upper class of the feudal system. It was reinterpreted by many leaders and politicians for years after it was created, and with each it was applied to more and more groups of people. With the interpretation of Sir Edward Coke, a 17th century British Secretary of State, the rights in the Magna Carta could even be applied to American colonists. The colonists felt that the government was violating a basic right granted them in the charter, they were being taxed without representation in Parliament. This belief led to the creation of the Declaration of Independence.The Magna Carta marked a turning point in world history. Until the 13th century in England, European rulers were absolute monarchs. With absolute rule came absolute power; these rulers had the power to do and order anything they chose. The end of absolute power in the United Kingdom came with the revolutionary Magna Carta, which established a set of laws that not even the king could violate. The same laws that applied to the lowest class of society applied to everyone, even to the royal family. The Magna Carta was a major first step toward the democracies of today, governments in which there are no monarchs but rather self governing citizens.The Bill of Rights of 1689The Bill of Rights is an Act of the Parliament of England passed on 16 December 1689. It was a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William and Mary in March 1689 (or 1688 by Old Style dating), inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. It lays down limits on the powers of the crown and sets out the rights of Parliament and rules for freedom of speech in Parliament, the requirement to regular elections to Parliament and the right to petition the monarch without fear of retribution. It reestablished the liberty of Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law, and condemned James II of England for "causing several good subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when papists were both armed and employed contrary to law".The birth of the Prime Minister and CabinetThe origins of the position are found in constitutional changes that occurred during the Revolutionary Settlement (1688–1720) and the resulting shift of political power from the Sovereign to Parliament. Although the Sovereign was not stripped of the ancient prerogative powers and legally remained the head of government, politically it gradually became necessary for him or her to govern through a Prime Minister who could command a majority in Parliament.By the 1830s the Westminster system of government (or cabinet government) had emerged; the Prime Minister had become primus inter pares or the first among equals in the Cabinet and the head of government in the United Kingdom. The political position of Prime Minister was enhanced by the development of modern political parties, the introduction of mass communication (inexpensive newspapers, radio,television and the internet), and photography. By the turn of the 20th century the modern premiership had emerged; the office had become the pre-eminent position in the constitutional hierarchy vis-a-vis the Sovereign, Parliament and Cabinet.Prior to 1902, the Prime Minister sometimes came from the House of Lords, provided that his government could form a majority in the Commons. However as the power of the aristocracy waned during the 19th century the convention developed that the Prime Minister should always sit in the lower house. As leader of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister's authority was further enhanced by the Parliament Act of 1911 which marginalised the influence of the House of Lords in the law-making process. The accretion of so much political power in one position gave rise to concerns that the office had become too "presidential", and that the Prime Minister was an "elected Monarch".The United Kingdom government todayThe Government is led by the Prime Minister, who selects all the remaining Ministers. The Prime Minister and the other most senior Ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, known as the Cabinet. The Government Ministers are all members of Parliament, and are accountable to it. The Government is dependent on Parliament to make primary legislation, which means that in practice a government must seek re-election at least every five years. The monarch selects the Prime Minister as the leader of the party most likely to command a majority in Parliament.Under the British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments.The role of the monarchy today is primarily to symbolize the tradition and unity of the United Kingdom.The Queen,however,because she is non-political, belongs to everyone. Under the terms of the Constitution her other roles are as follows: she is legally head of executive, an integral part of the legislature, head of the judiciary, commander in chief of the armed forces and "supreme governor" of the Church of England.The UK Parliament is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom (i.e., there is parliamentary sovereignty), and Government is drawn from and answerable to it. Parliament is bicameral, consisting of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. There is also a devolved Scottish Parliament and devolved Assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland, with varying degrees of legislative authority.The Constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified, being made up of constitutional conventions, statutes and other elements. This system of government, known as the Westminster system, has been adopted by other countries, especially those that were formerly parts of the British Empire.The current Prime Minister is David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, who was appointed by Queen Elizabeth II on 11 May 2010 following the UK General Election on 6 May 2010. The election failed to provide a decisive result, with the Conservatives as the biggest party within a hung parliament. A coalition government was formed on the 12th of May between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats .。

The government intervention in American economic developmentRecently we have discussed either privatization or nationalization is more important. Many students draw the conclusion that nationalization plays a more important role than privatization in the American economic. Next, I want to discuss the influence of the government intervention in American economy further.The first part, the relationship between the government intervention and the history.As we know, the American Presidential election is around the corner, With the U.S. election just days away, it has never been more important to consider what the next President must do to keep America competitive. In this time of crisis, Washington has focused on the immediate and the short term. Lost are the more basic questions we really need to worry about, what is the fundamental competitive position of the U.S. in the global economy? And what must we do to remain strong when other nations are making rapid progress? To find the answers, we should get some knowledge of the American economic history first.The modern American economy traces its roots to the questof European settlers for economic gain in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The New World then progressed from a colonial economy to a small, independent farming economy, and eventually to a highly complex industrial economy. So America starts from a free-market, and it also has been written in the law that every citizen in American has the right to pursuit happiness. In my point of view, wealth, of course, is included in the meaning of happiness. Government intervention can be original tracked back to the beginning of the country.The American economic system seemed worked very well until the economic crisis of 1929 to 1933 in America. For the sake of saving American economy, Franklin D Roosevelt, the new President of 1933, brought a large-scare reform into effect in America. Because these reform measures had characters of capitalistic improvement, this reform was called Franklin D.The New Deal administration of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was a critical watershed in the development of the welfare-warfare state in the United States. Precedents concerning public policy and ideology set during that period are still with us today. However there is much mythology and misunderstanding regarding FDR and the New Deal found in academic and popular historical accounts. We must sift throughthe volume of published works trying to ascertain the truthfulness and accuracy of these studies. Dr. Gary North recently pointed out that there exists no single critical analysis of this history, written on a scholarly academic level, which treats both domestic and foreign policies of Roosevelt’s New Deal and their consequences. While this is indeed true, there in fact exist many volumes in print which undertake to explore and explain this period. This annotated bibliographic guide is an attempt to acquaint attention with this literature regarding Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal.Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal is obviously a good example for the government intervention in American economy. Besides, there is another part to show you.The second part, the relationship between the government intervention and the economic system.The American economic system is organized around a basically private-enterprise, market-oriented economy in which consumers largely determine what shall be produced by spending their money in the marketplace for those goods and services that they want most. Private businessmen, striving to make profits, produce these goods and services in competition with other businessmen; and the profit motive, operating undercompetitive pressures, largely determines how these goods and services are produced. Thus, in the American economic system it is the demand of individual consumers, coupled with the desire of businessmen to maximize profits and the desire of individuals to maximize their incomes, both together determine what shall be produced and how resources are used to produce it. Therefore, there is a high level possibility to cause economic crisis without the government intervention.After the serious economic crisis, the Americans has learned lessons from that，therefore, government intervention plays a very important role in the American economy. Now the American economy has performed remarkably well, but our continued competitiveness has become fragile. Over the last two decades the U.S. has accounted for an incredible one-third of world economic growth. As the financial crisis hit, the rest of the American economy remained quite competitive, with many companies performing strongly in international markets. U.S. productivity growth has continued to be faster than in most other advanced economies, and exports have been the growth driver in the overall economy.In American economy, privately owned and operated businesses, including farms, produce about 85% of the totalfinal output of goods and services. People in independent professional practice, such as doctor lawyers, and accountants, produce about 3% of the total. Government units, including school districts, turn out most of the rest of the country's products and services. Government workers at national, state, and local levels come next, with approximately 21%.In addition, the government intervention has been an obvious feature not only in the socialist countries but also in the capitalist countries like American. The government can still exercise some control over the market economy through taxation, federal banking system or by other means. Generally, the role of government in American economy is to function as an additional part protecting each element of the economy from abuse, or to improve markets when they do not function effectively.外国语学院0903班李娇1801090314。