All sessions take place on both Mondays and Wednesdays (18-1)Week 1-3 (No lessons)Week 4 Introduction to the course: English Grammar (syllabus, teaching plan, description of assessment, self-introduction) / Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy // Sentence structureWeek 5 Subject-verb Concord (I), (II)Week 6 Noun and noun phrase // Genitive nounWeek 7 (Sports meeting 27th, Oct.)Week 8 Determiners (I), (II)Week 9 Pronoun (I), (II) //Verb and Verb Phrase // Tense and aspect (I), (II)Week 10 Verb and Verb Phrase // Tense and aspect (I), (II)Week 11 Means of expressing future time / Passive voice (I), (II)Week 12 Subjunctive mood / Auxiliaries (I), (II)Week 13 Infinitive (I), (II), / -ing participle, / -ed participleWeek 14 Adjective and adjective phrase / adverb and adverb phrase / Comparison and comparative construction / preposition and prepositonal phraseWeek 15 Statement, question, command, exclamation / Existential sentence / It-pattern / CoordinationWeek 16 Subordination (I), (II) / Relative clause/ conditional sentence / direct and indirect speechWeek 17 Modification / substituion / ellipsisWeek 18 Postponement, fronting and inversion / From sentence to textWeek 19-20 Testing WeeksOutline for each weekWeek 4 Introduction to the course: English Grammar (syllabus, teaching plan, description of assessment, self-introduction) / Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy // Sentence structure1. Introduction: Grammatical Hierarchy (Introduction Section)Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each ran is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than onegrammatical unit while the morphem is the minimum or the lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents—the morphemes.0.1 MerphemesThe morphese is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheses fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morpheses.1) Free morphemes2) Bound morphemes3) Allomorphs0.2 WordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways:1) Classification in terms of word-formation2) Classification in terms of grammatical function0.3 PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of word organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1) The noun phrase2) The verb phrase3) The adjective phrase4) The adverb phrase5) The preepositonal phrase0.4 ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than more phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.2) Simple and complex clauses3) Main and subordinate clauses4) Finite and non-finite clauses5) Verbless clauses0.5 SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by its and perform a communicative function.1) Full and minor sentences2) Simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences2. Sentence structure (Lecture 1)Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 Clause elementAs has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject +predicate‖. That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrase; it is a group of phrases organized into a con struction of ―subject +predicate‖.1) Subject and predicate2) Two ways of sentence analysis1.2 Basic clause types and their transformation and expansionIn terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be classified into seven types. Innumberable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1) Basic clause types2) Transformation and expansion of basic clause typesThe basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded levels, and these larger units can again be expanded throughWeek 5 Subject-verb Concord (I), (II)Lecture 2: Subject-verb Concord (I)By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number.2.1 Guiding principlesThere are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity.1) Grammatical concordThe principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is plural, the verb should take the plural form; if, on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, eg:Both boys have their own merits.Every girl comes on time.Much effort is wasted.Difficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with the other two principles: principle of notional concord and principle of proximity.2) Notional concordThe principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, eg:The government have asked the country to decide by a vote.Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me.3) ProximityThe principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, eg:Either my brothers or my father is coming.No one except his own supporters agree with him.Neither Julia nor I am going.Note that grammatical concord is the basic principle, but when the subject is realized by a collective noun, a coordinate form or an2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in –sThere are quite a few nouns that end in –s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.1) Disease and game names ending in –sNames of disease ending in –s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few such names (as measles and rickets) which can be used either as singular or as plural.Game anmes ending in –s are generally used as singular with the exception of cards which is usually treated as plural.2) Subject names ending in –icsNames of subjects ending in –ics are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names. Compare:Acoustics is the science of sound.The acoustics in the new concert hall are faultless.Economics is a required course for all the students.The economics of the project are still being considered.3) Geographical names ending in –sGeographical names such as the names of archipelagos, mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, eg:The Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.The Straits of Gibraltar have not lost their strategic importance.In early January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953.4) Other nouns ending in –sNames for things made of two parts such as scissors, pincers, etc are usually used as plural. But when they are preceded by such unit nouns as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.Nouns usually taking plural endings such as archives, arms and clothes are generally used as plural with the exception of whereabouts, dramatics, etc which may be treated either as plural or as singular.Nouns ending in –ing such as clippings, diggings, etc are generally used as plural with the exception of tidings which can be used both ways.There are also nouns such as barracks and headquarters whose singular and plural number share the same form. These nouns are2.3 Problems of concord with collective nouns as subjectCollective nouns are singular in form but plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated by usage.1) Collective nouns usually used as pluralThese include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.:The Chinese people are a great people.Domestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.2) Collective nouns usually used as singularThese include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.:All the merchandise has arrived undamaged.All the machinery in the factory is made in China.3) Collective nouns used either as plural or as singularThere are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a specific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If, on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:The anti-crime committee is to make its report tomorrow.The committee are divided in opinion about this problem.That group of soldiers is a top-notch fighting unit.That group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.4) A committee of, etc + plural nounWhen a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, eg.:A committee of finve men and three women is to consider the matter.The board of directors is responsible for the management of the company.Lecture 3: Subject-verb Concord (II)This lecture deals with problems of concord with a coordinate construction, a quantitative expression, or a nominal clause as subject.3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subjectThe following rules are to be observed in the case of a coordinate subject.1) Coordination with ―and‖ or ―both … and‖Coordination by ―and‖ or ―both … and‖ is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons / things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing. Compare:Both Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar Lake.Rain, hail and wind have caused an estimated $ 200,000,000 damage to crops and liverstock.The secretary and treasurer was absent from the meeting.Ham and eggs is a good breakfast.2) Coordination with ―or‖ / ―either … or‖, ―nor‖ / ―neither … nor‖, ―not only … but also‖Here the problem of concord is generally deal with according to the principle of proximity. But in informal style, items coordinated by ―neither … nor‖ or ―not only … but also‖ can sometimes be regarded as plural, eg:My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Neither the players nor the coach was / (were) overconfident.Not only the switches but also the old wiring has / (have) been changed.3.2 Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subjectQuantitative expresssions fall into two categories: definite and indefinite.1) Concond with expression of definite quantity as subject2) Concorn with expression of indefinite quantity as subject3.3 Other problems of subject-vern concordThere are other problems of subject-verb concord that are worth mentioning.1) Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subjectWhen the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb usually takes the singular form. Bu t when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both … and, a plural verb is required.2) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subjectWhen subject is a non-finite clause, the verb of the main clause usually takes the singualr form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause takes the singualr form when the subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subect refers to separate things.3) Subject-verb concord in relative clausesIn the construction of ―one of + plural noun + relative clause‖, the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. Sometimes, especially in British English, in order to lay emphasis on ―one‖, the verb can be also take the singular for m. When ―one”is proceded by ―the‖ or ―the only‖, the verb can only be singular.4) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentencesIn cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in that- / who-clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause. There is one point that should be noted: When the focal element is ―I‖, the verb TO BE in the follo wing who- / that-clause usually agrees whti ―I‖ in both person and number; if, on the other hand, the focal element is ―me‖ instead of ―I‖, the verb TO BE in the following who- / that-clause should take the third person singular number.5) Subject-verb concord in existential sentencesIn existential sentences, subject-verb concord is generally determined by the numb er of the ―notional subject‖, but in informal style, expecially in spoken language, the verb often agrees with the ―formal subject‖ and takes the singular form, even thoug h the notional subject is plural. When the notionaly subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural.Week 6 Noun and noun phrase // Genitive nounLecture 4 Noun and Noun PhraseAs has been pointed out, the noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. It is the noun head that determines the way the noun phrase is organized.4.1 Classification of nouns and function of noun phrases1) Classification of nounsNouns can be classified according to word formation, lexical meaning and grammatical form.a) Simple, compound and derivative nounsAccording to word formation, nouns can be divided into simple, compound and derivative nouns. A simple noun is a noun that contains only one free morpheme (e.g. man, chair, land, faith). A compound noun is a noun that is composed of two or more morphemes (mostly free morphemes) (eg: armchair, farmland, seaside, roommate). A derivative noun is a noun that comes from a verb, an adjective or a simple noun with affix (prefix, or suffix, eg.: arrangement, greatness, patriotism, forget-me-not).b) Proper and common nounsAccording to lexical meaning, nouns fall into two major categories: proper nouns and common nouns. A proper noun is a name used for a particular person, place or thing, and spelt with a capital initial letter (eg: Anderson, Britain, The New York Times). A common noun is a name common to a class of people, things or abstract ideas. Common nouns can be further classified into individual, collective, material, and abstract nouns (eg: boy, tiger, family, team, water, air, honesty, glory).c) Count and noncount nounsAccording to grammatical form, noun can be divided into two classes: count nouns and noncount nouns. A count noun (or countable noun) is a noun that has a plural and which can collocate with numbers and with such determiners as a(No, many, few, these, those, several. etc. (eg: a car, two cars, many cars, several cars). A noncount noun (or uncountable noun) is a noun that cannot go with the above-mentioned words (eg: bread, furniture, merchandise).2) Function of noun phrasesThe noun phrase can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicate verb:Children at play seldom remember what time it is. (Subject)That was an attractive little black chair. (Subject complement)In the hall I saw some extremely valuable pictures. (object)They elected him chairman of the board. (object complement)Mr Brown, director of the coal mine, should be responsible for the accident. (appositive)Teachers should be concerned about the students’ moral culture. (prepositional complementation)He returned last night. (adverbial)A photo is taken each time this button is pushed. (conjunction)(Keys to 4A: 1. description 2.arrangement 3.attendance 4.peculiarity 5.expectation 6.argument 7.dependence 8.originality 9.exaggeration 10.measurement 11.purity 12.persistence 13.extension 14.statement 15.generosity 16.entrance 17.loneliness 18.forgetfulness 19.happiness 20.seriousness)4.2 Number forms of nounsNumber is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1) Regular and irregular pluralIndividual nouns are all countable and therefore have singular and plural forms. The singular form of an individual noun, which shares the same form as the base of the word, can take such determiners as a(n) and one (eg: a/ one desk, an / one article).The plural form of an individual noun can be regular or irregular. The regular plural is formed by adding –s or –es tho the base,ending of the noun (eg: tooth—teeth, man—men, mouse—mice, child—children, ox—oxen).irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French. The plural forms of these borrowed words are known as ―foreign plurals‖, eg:basis—bases, criterion—criteria, stratum—strata, alumnus—alumniSome borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English plural, eg:medium—media—mediumsindex—indices—indexesformula—formulae—formulascurriculum—curricula—curriculumsFor some nouns, their singular and plural number share the same form, eg:A deer—ten dear, one fish—several fish, a Japanese—a group of Japanese, an aircraft—a hundred aircraft2) Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouna) Number forms of the collective nounSome collective nouns are countable, some are not. Countable collective nouns behave just like individual nouns. An uncountable collective noun has no plural form. If we want to count the number, we will have to use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective (eg: a piece of furniture, two articles of equipment)b) Number forms of the material nounMaterial nouns are generally uncountable and have no plural forms. But there are some such items that cen be used either uncountably or countably. When used to mean the material itself, they are uncountable, but when used in other senses, for example, two coffees in the sense of ― two cupfuls of coffee‖, they are countable, behaving just like individual nouns.. There are als o material nouns that can take plural endings, for example, sands/w aters in the sense of ―large expanse of sand or water‖ and foods/fruits in the sense of ―a variety of food or fruit‖; these nouns, though ending in –s, remain uncountable.c) Number forms of the abstract nounAbstr5act nouns are mostly uncountable. They cannot take such determiners as a(n)/ one or plural forms. But there are a few abstract nouns (eg: a victory—two victories) that are countable like individual nouns. There are also abstract nouns that have plural endings but which are uncountbale.In the case of some abstract nouns, the mere addition of a plural ending has the effect of changing the meaning of the base.We meet once a year to exchange our teaching experience. (经验)We told each other our experiences in foreign countries.（经历）d) Number forms of the proper nounProper nouns are unique reference and therefore have no plural forms, except for such proper names as the United States, the Philipines, the Netherlands, etc which are themselves plural in form. When a proper noun takes a plural endings, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, eg:Have you invited the Browns?There are two Miss Smiths/Misses Smith in our class.4.3 PartitivesPartitives, also called unit nouns, are commonly used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated mass. Both count and noncount nouns can enter partitive constructions. With plural count nouns, partitive constructions can denote the idea of ―a group‖, ―a pack‖, etc. With noncount nouns, such constructions can achieve countability. Partitives fall into the following categories:1) General partitives2) Partitives related to the shape of things3) Partitives related to volume4) Partitives related the state of action5) Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks, etc.Week 7 (Sports meeting, 27th, Oct. Friday)Week 8 Determiners (I), (II) // Pronoun (I), (II)Lecture 6Determiner (I)Words that precede any premodifying adjectives in a noun phrase and which denote such referential meanings as specific reference, generic reference, definite quantity or indefinite quantity are referred to as determiners.Determiners, as a class of words, include: articles (definite article, indefinite article, zero article), possessive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers.The head of a noun phrase limits the choice of determiners, and when more than one determiner occurs in the noun phrase, there is the problem of word order between determiners.6.1 Collocations between determiners and nounsThe choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three classes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural count2) Determiners with singular count nouns only3) Determiners with plural count nouns only4) Determiners with noncount nouns only5) Determiners with singulars and plural count nouns only6) Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only7) Determiners with plural and noncount nouns only6.2 Collocations between determinersAs has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun phrase contains more than one determiner.1) Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminersAccording to their potential position, determiners fall into three subclasses: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.2) Word order of three subclasses of determinersWhen a noun phrase contains all three subclas ses of determiners, their normal order is ―predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer(s)‖:All the four studentsAll these last few daysBoth his two sisters6.3 A comparative study of some determiner usage1)many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of2)(a) few, (a) little3)some, any4)all, both, every, each, either, either, neither, anyII. Lecture 7Determiners (II) ArticlesEnglish has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article. As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article—the zero article. It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles—the definite, the indefinite, and the zero article.7.1 Generic and specific referenceIn discussing the use of articles, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.1) Generic referenceWhen we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any member representative of a class of people or things. All the three forms of article (the, a(n), and zero) can be used generically to refer to the member of a class as a whole.2) Specific referenceSpecific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a class of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the class. Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.3) Anaphoric, cataphoric and situational referenceDefinite specific reference can be anaphoric, cataphoric, or situa tional. The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖. When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖. The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖. Eg.He ordered a book some time ago. The book has now arrived.His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.Catephoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference. The word cataphoric means ―pointing forward‖. When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the article and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is cataphoric reference. The cataphoric use of the definite artic le is called ―cataphoric THE‖. Eg.Is this the train for Shanghai?This is the place where I first met her.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer or on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear. Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero. Eg.What’s on the radio?How’s the cough today?Shut the door, please.common nouns, but also because there are too many exceptions to the rules guiding the use of articles. As a matter of fact, the choice of an article in quite a few idiomatic expressions is just a matter of usage which is difficult or even impossible to explain in terms of a few grammatical rules. The following is a brief description of the use of articles with different classes of noun.1) article in use with proper noun2) article in use with common noun3) other uses of articlesWeek 9 Pronoun (I), (II)Lecture 8Pronouns (I)Pronouns are a varied closed-calss words with nominal function. English has a developed pronoun system, comprising personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflective pronouns, reciprocal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, relative pronouns, and indefinite pronouns. The present lecture will deal with the concord of pronouns (and corresponding determiners) with their antecedents in number, gender and person.8.1 Pronoun concord in numberPersonal pronouns, possessive pronouns, reflective pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms. The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I / we, he /they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy / boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is to say, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Here are a few points that merit our attention.1) Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any- compounds as antecedentWhen the antecedent is compound such as everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, the pronoun and the corresponding determiner usually follow the principle of grammatical concord and take the singular form. But in informal style, they can follow the principle of notional concord and take the plural form, esp. when the antecedent is everybody or everyone. Note that with everything, something, anything and nothing, the pronoun and corresponding determiner can only take the singular form.Anybody can attend the meeting if he is interested.Everybody talked at the top of his voice.Everyone was clapping their hands.Anything on the table can be thrown away, can’t it?。
