argument 逻辑错误模板

分析每一句话的问题，不能漏掉一句话！！！常见讨论点1、X→YX可能是员工表现提高、销售增加等Y可能是increase profit等等E.g. 人口出生率下降→入学率下降2、错误类比A采取某项措施有效（或不好）→B采取这项措施也有效（或不好）N年前采取某项措施有效→现在也有效3、因果倒置（causal relationship）E.g. 员工睡眠时间短→绩效提高。

实际上可能是员工忙所以没时间睡觉4、样本容量小，或不具有普适性5、（A是B的原因）因为发现了B，所以AB的原因中有A，也可能有CDE，A只是一个原因，而且所占比重可能很小。

6、national趋势→某个地区的趋势每个地方都有独特性7、一个地方的政策推广的别的地方（1）有没有证据表明这个地方是成功的？（2）就是这个地方成功，别的地方未必适用。

8、房价显著下降→房价低可能房价超级高，显著下降后还是超级高不管是assumption，question还是evidence，一定要指出：（1）一旦假设不成立会如何如何（2）问题的回答是A将如何如何，回答是B又如何如何（3）这些证据到底会加强还是削弱论断？具体怎么加强削弱的？由此可见，argument的篇幅都是从上面这几点来的。

光指出逻辑错误，举两个反例，ETS绝对会用superficial形容你。

另外，再提醒大家一点，也就是我之前询问过的：题库中有9道alternative explanation题（出生顺序、人造黄油、两栖动物减少等等），不要根据逐个逻辑错误分开解释，要给出一个完整的解释，一次性解释所有现象！evidence类Write a response in which you discuss what specific evidence is needed to evaluate the argument and explain how the evidence would weaken or strengthen the argument.It might seem logical, at the first glance/sight, to agree with the argument in Dr. Kar p’s articlethat children in Tertia actually are raised by their biological parents (and perhaps even,by implication, that an observation-centered approach to anthropological study isnot as valid as an interview-centered one).However, in order to fully evaluate this argument, we need a significant amount of additional evidence. The argument could end up being much weaker than it seems, or it might actually be quite valid.In order to make that determination, we need to know more then analyze what we learn.The first piece of evidence that we would need in order to evaluate Dr. Karp’s claimsis information about whether or not Tertia and the surrounding island group havechanged significantly in the past 20 years. Dr. Field conducted his observational study20 years ago, and it is possible that Tertia has changed significantly since then. Forexample, if we had evidence that in the intervening years Westerners had settled onthe island and they introduced a more typical Western-style family structure, it wouldcertai nly weaken Dr. Karp’s argument. In that case, the original study could have beenaccurate, and Dr. Karp’s study could be correct, as well, though his conclusion that Dr.Field’s method is ineffective would be seriously weakened.Another piece of evidence that might help us evaluate this claim involves the exactlocations where Dr. Karp’s interviews took place. According to this article, Dr. Karp andhis graduate students conducted interviews of “children living in the group of islandsthat includes Tertia.” If w e were to learn that they never interviewed a single Tertianchild, it would significantly weaken the conclusion. It could turn out to be the case, forexample, that children on Tertia are raised communally, whereas children on otherislands nearby are raised by their biological parents.In order to fully evaluate this article, we would also need to learn more about theinterview questions that Dr. Karp’s team used. What exactly did they ask? We don’tknow, nor do we know what the children’s responses actually were. What did they sayabout their biological parents? The mere fact that they speak more frequently abouttheir biological parents than they do about other adults does not mean that they areraised by their biological parents. It would significantly undermi ne Dr. Karp’s argument if it turned out that the children said things like howmuch they missed their parents orhow their parents had left them in a communal environment. Without knowing WHATthe children said, it is hard to accept Dr. Karp’s conclusion.It is slightly more difficult to discuss the evidence we might need in order to evaluate the more interesting claims in Dr. Karp’s article, namely his extension of theresults of his study to a conclusion that interview-centered methods are inherentlymore valid than observational-centered approaches. In order to fully evaluate thisclaim, in fact, we would need to look at many more examples of interview-based andobservation-based anthropological studies and we would also need to look intodifferent study designs. Perhaps Dr. Field did not conduct an effective observationalstudy, but other observational approaches could be effective. In order to make suchgrandiose claims, Dr. Karp really needs a lot of additional evidence (ideally a meta-analysis of hundreds of anthropological studies).Clearly, then, we need to have additional evidence in order to get a more complete understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of Dr. Karp’s article. We need to know about Tertia and the surrounding islands, whether or not they have changed over the past 20 years. We also need to know about study design (Dr. Karp’s and Dr. Field’s). And we really need a lot more information if we want to extend the results of a study about one island culture to all anthropological fieldwork.question类Write a response in which you discuss what questions would need to be answered in order to decide whether the recommendation is likely to have the predicted result. Be sure to explain how the answers to these questions would help to evaluate the recommendation.The author argues that all colleges and universities should adopt honor codes because the experience of Groveton shows that it can dramatically lower cheating among students. It might seem logical at first glance, however, there are some questions need to be answered to ensure the conclusion is cogent. The argument could end up being weaker than it seems, or it might be quite valid. In order to make the determination, we need to know more then analyze what we learn.First, the amount of cheating decreases year by year according to the report. But the reliability of this report is questionable. As we can see, in honor code mechanism, student reciprocal monitoring replaces teacher monitoring. It is reasonable to believe that a lot of students wouldnot notify faculties when they suspect cheating happens because there are tight relationships among students and most of them would not like to do anything to harm the relationship. If a student suspect a school mate cheated and reported, he or she cannot help thinking that the school mate would later find out the person who reported it, which would definitely leads to an end of their friendship. In addition, the school mate may notify others that the student is not loyal, which means the student has a great chance to be hard maintaining friendship with others.Second, as the survey shows, most students in Groveton said that they would be less like to cheat with an honor code. We cannot be sure that the students are honest when they answered the questions.What's more, even if honor code mechanism does play an important role in decreasing cheating in Groveton, we cannot lead to a conclusion that all colleges and universities should adopt honor codes merely because it works well in Groveton. Every college or university has its own characteristics, the solution should fit in it. The colleges and universities that are similar to Groveton can adopt honor codes, but those that are quite different from it should consider the suitability before they take actions. Maybe the quality of students of some colleges and universities differs a lot from students of Groveton, and they tend to cheat more under honor codes since the monitoring of teachers decreases.To summarize, to make a conclusion that honor codes works well, we should find out the true reasons that lead to a decrease in cheating, and we should make sure that the colleges and universities suit that mechanism before adopt it.assumption类Write a response in which you examine the stated and/or unstated assumptions of the argument. Be sure to explain how the argument depends on these assumptions and what the implications are for the argument if the assumptions prove unwarranted.While it may be true that the Mason City government ought to devote more money toriverside recreational facilities,this author’s argument does not make a cogent case for increased resources based on river use. It is easy to understand why city residentswould want a cleaner river,but this argument is rife with holes and assumptions, and thus, not strong enough to lead to increased funding.Citing surveys of city residents, the author reports city resident’s love of watersports. It is not clear, however, the scope and validity of that survey. For example, thesurvey could have asked residents if they prefer using the river for water sports orwould like to see a hydroelectric dam built, which may have swayed residents towardriver sports. The sample may not have been representative of city residents, askingonly those residents who live upon the river. The survey may have been 10 pages long,with 2 questions dedicated to river sports. We just do not know. Unless the survey isfully representative, valid, and reliable, it cannot be used to effectively back theauthor’s argument.Additionally, the author implies that residents do not use the river for swimming,boating, and fishing, despite their professed interest, because the water is polluted andsmelly. While a polluted, smelly river would likely cut down on river sports, a concreteconnection between the resident’s lack of river use and the river’s current state is noteffectively made. Though there have been complaints, we do not know if there havebeen numerous complaints from a wide range of people, or perhaps from one or twoindividuals who made numerous complaints. To strengthen his/her argument, theauthor would benefit from implementing a normed survey asking a wide range ofresidents why they do not currently use the river.Building upon the implication that residen ts do not use the river due to the qualityof the river’s water and the smell, the author suggests that a river clean up will resultin increased river usage. If the river’s water quality and smell result from problemswhich can be cleaned, this may be true. For example, if the decreased water qualityand aroma is caused by pollution by factories along the river, this conceivably could beremedied. But if the quality and aroma results from the natural mineral deposits in thewater or surrounding rock, this may not be true. There are some bodies of water which emit a strong smell of sulphur due to the geography of the area. This is not something likely to be affected by a clean-up. Consequently, a river clean up may have no impactupon river usage. Regardless of whe ther the river’s quality is able to be improved ornot, the author does not effectively show a connection between water quality and riverusage.A clean, beautiful, safe river often adds to a city’s property values, leads to increasedtourism and revenue from those who come to take advantage of the river, and a betteroverall quality of life for residents. For these reasons, city government may decide toinvest in improving riverside recreational facilities. However, this author’s argument isnot likely signific antly persuade the city government to allocate increased funding.explanation类Write a response in which you discuss one or more alternative explanations that could rival the proposed explanation and explain how your explanation(s) can plausibly account for the facts presented in the argument.Alternative explanation并没有要求讨论作者前面的解释是否可靠，相反它要求的是在知道前面一系列的facts（如第一胎的猴子cortisol高）的情况下，如何用其他的、不同于题目给出的理论（即birth effect影响stimulation）来解释这些facts，并论述理由。

1.N ature’s Way 论断：在Plainsville开店会赚钱。

·赚钱的前提是收益高出成本，论断没有提供关于在此地开店的成本计算问题·那些参加健身活动的人不一定关心饮食健康，所以不必然地成为他们的顾客。

·就算他们关心饮食健康，那么当地相同商家没有被考虑进去，竞争以及品牌忠实度的问题·他们在关心健康的地区赢利的原因没有说，健康也许不是他们的卖点，而是其它的东西结论：论断仅凭一个似是而非的经验和该地的一些表面现象就匆忙做出结论，缺乏说服力。

在投资前，该机构应该做充分的市场调查，准确找出自己的优势，并分析当地投资环境、竞争对手、消费习惯等问题。

2.D eerhaven Acres homeowners 论断：统一外观就能提高地价·这是他人经验，尽管离得近，但是否适用于该地很可疑。

论断没有就两地间在交通、功用以及住户特点等问题比较异同。

做出结论显得匆促。

·他地区地价提高并不一定是因为统一了外观。

七年可发生很多变化，交通，商业区，社区内部设施提高了。

论断显得片面(undue/one-handed)。

·地价要提高得有更多人愿意住进来。

统一外观抹杀个性，会引人反感。

且不论统一的外观能不能得到所有人满意，这种做法本身有强制性。

论断危险。

结论：论断没有提供两地的异同，以及他地区统一外观后的七年里的变化就匆忙做出决定，必招致起住户的反对。

他们应该做更多的调查研究，最主要的是听取住户的意见，以保证最起码不会有人因此而搬出去。

w firms in the city of Megalopolis 论断：大公司向毕业生提供更多福利、激励并减少工作时间，就能吸引毕业生前来工作。

该论断的前提是与小公司相比，大公司虽然有高工资但不能提供高的工作满意度，从而失去了毕业生。

·论断的前提可疑。

即进大公司工作的毕业生少了15%是否是毕业生选择的问题，而不是大公司在录用时的问题。

Argument 第二种类型错误因果错误错误推理源头:1 两件事情总是一起出现(关联性)2 两件事情的出现有时间先后性(时间性)如: 经济危机是大学生找不到工作的原因.( 有关联, 经济危机出现时往往不好找工作, 但除了经济环境不好之外还涉及到许多其他原因可能导致找不到工作, 比如专业, 行业现状, 个人性格, 运气等)如: 逻辑不好是不能当上新东方GRE 老师的原因.(有关联, 但当不上新东方GRE老师未必一定是由于逻辑不好而导致的, 比如新东方不缺GRE老师等)例题分析3 法学院毕业生就业倾向与大型事务所就业人员数量下降未必有因果关系. (比如职位有限)19. 乐队在Megalopolis的成功可能与Ad Lib的广告活动无因果关系. (比如DR乐队的歌曲最近又变的流行, 又比如DR乐队的某位歌手最近的媒体曝光率很高, 吸引了潜在的观众)26. 钢铁城市高中的乐队获得的三次地区奖项未必一定和谢德, 音乐指挥, 有必然的因果关系. (比如前人的基础和帮助使得谢德一上任时乐队就获得了奖项, 又或者乐队的获奖和演奏者的节目表演有更大的关系, 又或者是由于器械的改善而使得乐队获奖)攻击策略: 指出关联关系未必是因果关系, 同时必须给出别的潜在原因来驳斥题目中的信息不是结果出现的原因)1 The author attempts to establish a causal correlation between the fact that A…and the claim that…B. this argument is unacceptable if there isno compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events.2 The author fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. The author fails to convince us that A contributes to B.The author provides no convincing/compelling/persuasive/we ll-reasoned evidence that A is the reason for B.3 Moreover, the author has not shown any correlation, let alone/not tomention a cause-and-effect relationship between A and B.4 In short, without ruling out the possible explanations for B(result), sb cannot/fails to justifiably conclude that A is the cause of /reason for B.5. The fact that …might be explained by a large variety of reasons/factors.6. I can not accept the fact that A is responsible for B.7. A correlation between A and B doesnot necessarily infer a causal relation. It is entirely possible that there are some other important factors contributing to B, such as …..8. While a high correlation is a piece of strong evidence of a causal relationship, it is in itself not sufficient; therefore, the author has to account for some other possible facts like …9. a direct correlation between A and B does not necessarily prove that the former causes the latter.10. Lacking evidence to confirm this assumption, it is entirely impossible that A is the reason of B11. Since the article fails to account for this alternative explanation for B, the article’s author cannot make any sound conclusion that A is accredited as the reason of B.题号3, 19, 26, 142, 156, 173, 220, 224,第三种逻辑错误过去推将来错误推理源头:1 认为过去的经验会带来现在或未来的必然推论2 认为现在的肯定不会改变如: 冯导的贺岁电影在过去五年间一直位居票房榜首, 那么相信明年的票房榜首一定是冯氏电影.( 冯导电影过去好, 但是未来未必好, 因为可能人们的审美习惯会变, 大家也许看腻了老优的台词, 看腻了冯女郎的妖娆, 和大团圆的结尾而去选择别的电影, 同时冯导的竞争者陈导, 张导有可能拍出更好的电影, 做出更好的宣传, 请出更大的腕儿, 那冯导的电影过去的优势未必可以保持到将来.如: 观众现在喜欢小沈阳, 未来一定也会喜欢么?(杨仔的山寨版? 小长春? 小西安?)例:1 Plainsville的居民现在的喜好和习惯在将来可能改变.161 第一次的居民读书习惯调查和第二次的读书习惯调查之间的时间差不清楚, 导致由现在的调查结论去推断以前的调查结果一定不是真实的是错误的.1 The past experience is not the mere fact which can definitely lead to the certain future results. For example, ….. If the author fails to substantiate the assumption, then the predictableconsequence would be more unconvincing.2. During a sufficiently long interim period, …will have changed. Therefore, what is predicted, based on the previous experience, is definitely not the case.3 The author’s projection also ignores the possibility that…will change/increase/decrease in the future days. Without taking into account these possibilities, the authorcannot render his conclusion convincing by stating that …(作者结论).4 The author’s inference that …was …in the past will also be …in the future rests on poor assumption that…题号236, 208, 161, 1第四种逻辑错误错误类比错误推理源头A事物和B事物具有某种相似特征,那么他们在其他方面也一定相似. 如: 最近北京的一项调查表示大学生的信用卡还款率很低, 很多银行都限制了给大学生发放信用卡, 那么西安地区的银行也应该限制本市的大学生信用卡发放.如: 最近北京的电影院推出了看电影送可乐的活动, 结果使得北京的电影院的票房收入出现了大幅度的飙升, 那么西安地区的电影院也应该推出送可乐的活动来提高上座率.例题19. Ad Lib的推广成功在Megalpolis 的成功未必会在其他地方成功.152. 在Tria照搬Badia的例子未必成功.156. 其他公司未必会像MEGA一样从DKCKENS的课程中受益.1, it is entirely possible that the experiences/measures/policy in A would not suffice to ensure similar result in B—due to the some other facts existing on the scene.2. the author assumes without justification that the background conditions in A have remained the same in B in that the author ignored that many implicit factors keepchanging at different time and at different locations.3. The mere fact that case A is scant/insufficient evidence that case B by following A’s example.4. the argument by analogy is wholly/thoroughly/entirely unconvincing for the author ignores the possibility that the specific conditions in either case vary a great deal, like…5. The autho r unfairly assumes thatthe result of case A applies specifically to case B.6. A threshold problem with the argument is that it assumes that what happens in A will also take place in B.题号214, 210, 168, 162, 160, 155, 152, 19第五种逻辑错误整体规律用于个体错误推理源头整体的特征一定也可以适用于个人如: 整个新东方的男教师的收入是高于女教师的, 那么周湘作为一个女人一定挣钱挣的比周围的…少.?如: 全国现在都对山寨文化产品很感兴趣, 所以西安地区应该寻找山寨名人来拍摄一部电视剧或电影.例题23 对于双收入家庭饮食习惯的全国性调查结果不一定适用于Bay City的情况.148 全国性的选举行为倾向并不一定说明MANROE镇的居民也会这么投票选举.驳斥方法: 证明个体的特殊性1 The nationwide study showingthat…does not necessarily apply to …(个体名称). It is quite possible that…2 The author unfairly assumes that the nationwide tendency applies specifically to个体名称. Lacking evidence that个体名称reflects this general tendency,it is entirely possible that 具体论据题号23, 148第六种逻辑错误单个事例说明整体错误推理源头个体性的特征使用与整体如: 叶问获得了巨大的成功, 所以所有爱国的由甄子丹主演的电影都会获得成功.如: 南二环的新东方外语学校招生人数还不错, 受益颇丰, 所以其他人要开外语学校也应该在南二环附近.驳斥方法: 证明个体的独特性不能延展到整个整体上.1 it is unlikely to say that case A can be repeated elsewhere in that it is not supposed to be the representative of all cases and there are somedistinctive features in each case.2. Even if…(sample A 是有道理的)this single/individual/specific sample is insufficient to draw any general conclusion about….(整体结论)题号19, 150, 176第七种逻辑错误忽视其他因素(几乎都有)1 The argument overlooks the strongpossibility that (factor one) is not the only factor affecting 结果. Other factors might include….2. Without considering and ruling out these and other factors that might have served to结果,the author cannot justifiably conclude that 结果3. A problem with the argument is that it assumes that 已给因素are the only significant factors affecting 结果. Common sense and experience tell us this is not the case, and a variety of other factors, such as A, B and C, alsoplay major roles.4. t he article fails to consider any other course of action that might help 结果. Perhaps by doing A and doing B can the same goal be achieved.题号236, 224, 221, 168, 162, 160, 156, 150, 19, 18, 11第八种逻辑错误非此即彼错误错误逻辑源头思维过于简单, 把本来具有多种解释的事件简单化为只有两种对立选择的可能.如: 调查发现许多想出国读研究生的同学不想去考GMAT了, 所以他们一定会选择GRE, 那么GRE课程的开设就非常必要了.例题148 Monroe 居民反对布朗的减税方案未必就说明他们一定支持Green的增税方案.The argument suffers from “either-or” reasoning. Based on the fact that A, the author unfairly concludes that B.However, the author overlooks the possibility that other factors or conditions may exist and function in this event/argument.题号148第九种逻辑错误非充要条件逻辑错误源头如: 吃饭是活着的充分条件.例题19. Ad Lib的广告宣传对于乐队在其他地区的成功可能不是必要的. 192. 合并政府只是消除混乱的必要条件而不是充分条件. Although…A might be necessary to B…….overlooks the possibility that A will not in itself suffice to B第十种逻辑错误大杂烩自相矛盾192 The editorial seems to make two irreconcilable claims. One is that the merger will result in the elimination of certain duplicative jobs; the other is that no current municipal employee will become unemployed as a result of the merger.比例与总量混淆23, 203, 214赢利问题赢利涉及的成本支出收入.In short, without more information about supply, demand, and production costs, it is impossible to determine whether the company can earn a profit from…23, 176忽视其他因素11, 18, 19, 150, 156, 160, 162, 168, 221, 224, 236GRE argument的结尾写法1 in conclusion, the recommendation the author made relies on certain doubtful assumptions that render it unconvincing as it stands. To bolster the recommendation, …must provide clear and compelling evidence that…(前文的逻辑批判论据简述)2 in sum, the argument i s logically flawed and therefore unconvincing as it claims. To strengthen it the…must either modify the evidence or list more compelling data such as…(前文…)3 in a summary, …cannot justify his or her recommendation that…(结论重述) on the basis of the scant evidence provided in theargument/editorial/memorandum.4 in conclusion, the recommendation/assumption/suggest ion/presumption is not well-reasoned and well-supported. To convince me that ….(结论重述) …needs/needed to provide clearer statistical evidence that (论据重述)…Meanwhile, tobetter evaluate the recommendation, I would be informed of more information with reference to …(论据重述)5 in conclusion, … fails to convince me that …(结论重述). To strengthen the argument, …should account for all other potential factors like…(论据重述). And undoubtedly, more statistical information concerned/involved, to better assess the conclusion, is needed. …(论据重述)6 in sum, the scant evidence the …cites/quotes is the fairly loose and weak evidence to support his conclusion that…. To better assess the argument the author should….(具体论据)7 in sum, the argument is weak on several grounds./in several facets. First, …(论据重述). Second, …(论据重述). Third, …(论据重述)8 in conclusion, the assertionthat …(结论) isuntenable/unconvincing/indefensible in light of a variety of alternativeexplanations ignored. For example, …(论据重述). Therefore, such evidence, if listed by the … as the tangible evidence, would be most appropriate to bolster the assumption.。

Argument 逻辑错误参考句式1.Survey类A.The statistical figurequoted in theargument is obviouslynot so representativebecause the authorfails to offer theabsolute numberof…/because theauthor fails to offer therelative percentage ofthe number…B.The respondents appeared in the survey, namely the representatives of the group investigated, are not the required group/sample/samplin g concerning the conclusion/assumption because the author ignores the fact that…AWPC.Additionally, the time and the place in whichthe survey isconducted are notclearly demonstratedby the author.Meanwhile, whetherthe survey isconducted randomly isstill a puzzle.2.充分条件类错误A.Because of the lack ofthe reasonableevidence like…, thecondition regarded asthe sufficiency leadingto the outcome is obviously groundless.B.Even though the sufficient condition the author gives as….is necessary to result in the fact that…, the author still excludes some other factors like ….. Only when such factors are holistically considered in this argument can the conclusion bepersuasively drawn. 3.The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that ____ and the claim that ____.It is highly possible that other factors contribute to __B__.Based on the fact that __A__ on ccurred after __B__, the editor infers that __B__ should be responsible for __A__.However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that the earlier development caused the later one. ….the real reasonsWithout ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between __A__ and __B__ upon which the editor’s recommendation depends.4.范围变化A.A threshold problem involves the definition of A . The arguer fails to define this critical term.C. 由大变小The problem with this argument lies in the assumption the author draws that the nationwide situation equally and effectively applies to the every specific location(like…). Actually, this is not the case because of the following reasons involved. …D.E. Obviously, the author’s/arguer’s assumption/conclusion, based/depended/relied/est ablished on the given facts about the advantages/disadvantages of…, is groundless/one-sided/unpersuasive/unconvincing because he ignores/loses his sight of the relevant disadvantages/advantages included in this circumstance. …(merits/demerits,positive/negative effects, pro-side/con-side)The author’s/arguer’s assumption that by…..will the…be profitable/earn great profits is definitely groundless/unconvincingbecause, as the common sense goes, whether profits can be gained is determined by the balance between revenue and cost. However, not only does the author fail to offer the sufficient evidence about the revenue but also the cost required in operation and development is not included. …5.The author claims that 将来, because 过去/现在.This assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time./things invariably change/alter over extended period of time and within different context.8. false analogy…..The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between __A__ and __B__. The analogyfalsely depends upon the assumption that the similarity between A and B lies in the fact that…./this false analogy is drawn by the arguer because …However, it is entirely possible that A and B are distinct in many respects. For example, …/however, the common sense tells that there exists large difference between A and B in manyspecific aspects. For instance, ….11. all-any-anything …However, it is highly possible that some exception/some other optional cases may be considered in this circumstance. To be specific, …。

1，论据不足，没有具体数据. 2，过分简单得出结论，忽略多种原因. 3, 因果关系错误.模板1.In this argument, the author concludes that______. At first glance, the author’s reasoning seems to be appealing, while clearly examining the author’s reasoning, we may find that it is unconvincing. Th e argument contains several facets that are questionable.First of all, the author’s evidences are insufficient to support the conclusion. Obviously, author does not provide enough information on the subjects of the survey/poll.But we are told nothing about the way the poll was conducted and how well it represented the public opinionsIf the [respondents] only stand for a tiny proportion of the whole [group], we should not be so sure about the conclusion that [the whole group…]It was only carried out in Sun City, but the arguer applies its result to all the company’s markets while doesn’t show us whether Sun City is a representative market of the whole markets.The study revealed, on average, only a small statistical correlation betweenOne specific example can not generate the general conclusion. Therefore,facing such limited evidence, the conclusion is unwarranted.Secondly, the author makes an oversimplified analogy between___ and___. In most instances, this is an unwarranted assumption for the simple reason that things rarely remain the same over extended periods of time/from place to place. As we know, many factors should be taken into the consideration, such as demographics of the population, geographical and physical terrain of the two different areas. _______.In addition, the author commits “after this, and therefore because of this” fallacy. The causal relationship between the cause of _____ and the effect _____ is unwarranted.Even if … has been proved as a result of … , whi ch is, of course, an unwarranted assumption, it does not follow that …This is a fallacious reasoning unless the author can provide persuasive evidences to rule out any other possibilities.To sum up, the conclusion lacks of credibility. Regardless of who the author is, he or she has overlooked or chosen to ignore many aspects of his or her conclusion. To strengthen the conclusion, the author should give more evidences about the above-mentioned possibilities.模板2.In this argument, the arguer advocates that [main idea]. Although this argument might seem reasonable at first glance, it is in fact ill-conceived. The reasons are stated as follows.In the first place, the arguer assumes that [fallacy 1]. Although this is entirely possible, the arguer offers no evidence to substantiate this crucial assumption. It is very likely that [reason 1]. An appropriate example is not very far to seek. [example 1]. The arguer's reasoning is definitely flawed unless the arguer can convince me that these and other possible scenarios are unlikely.In the second place, the arguer assumes that [fallacy 2]. Nevertheless, there is no guarantee that it is necessarily the case, and the arguer does not supply any evidence to confirm this assumption. It is quitepossible that [reason 2]. To illustrate this point clearly, let us take a look at the following representative example. [example 2]. Without accounting for and ruling out these and other alternative explanations, the arguer cannot bolster the recommendation.The last but not the least important, even if the evidence turns out to support the foregoing assumptions, the arguer just simply assumes that [fallacy 2] and neither any conclusive scientific evidence nor any anecdotal evidence is provided to affirm this assumption. It is reasonableto doubt that what the arguer assumes will not happen in reality. It is just as possible that [reason 3]. For example, [example 3].To reach the cited conclusion, the arguer must explain either why none of these alternatives is available or why none of them is able to sustain.To sum up, the arguer’s argument mentioned above is not based on valid evidence or sound reasoning, neither of which is dispensable for a conclusive argument. In order to draw a better conclusion, the arguer should reason more convincingly, cite some evidence that is more persuasive, and take every possible consideration into account.呃。

A r g u m e n t22(20个常见逻辑错误与攻击方法)1.开头段：In this argument…reaches the conclusion that…The basis for thisrecommendation is the expectation that…An additional reason given in support of this recommendation is that…While this argument has some merit, there are a few assumption that deserve attention. (At first glance, the author’s appears to besomewhat convincing, but further reflection reveals that it is based on somedubious assumptions.)2.结尾段：In sum, the arguer fails to validate (the conclusion) that…To solidify the argument, the arguer should supply more concrete evidence to demonstrate that…In addition, the arguer would have to rule out the above-mentioned possibility that mayundermine the arguer’s claim(conclusion).3.选择性样本：信号词：A、名词单复数B、表示整体和部分的词C、表示多、少的词D、表示范围的词“多不够多，少不够少，大不够大，小不够小。

”（比例高，绝对数字低。

）In the first place, the author provides no evidence to support the claim that…as a whole…The example cited, while suggestive of these trends, is insufficient towarrant their truth because there is no reasons to believe that data drawn fromthis…is representative of the entire country. For example, if …it would clearly be unrepresentative. The reason for this is obvious.4.样本的数目即代表性的问题：信号词：A、表示变化的词B、程度adv.C、数字First, the conclusion that…is based on too small a sample to be reliable. The only evidence offered in support of this conclusion is the fact that…Unless it can be shown that…is typical of all…the fact that it experienced…is no ground forconcluding that all…will experience similar results.5.调查对象是否被暗示或误导了：A、回答皆谎言B、叙事不可信The survey methodology might be problematic in two respects. First, we are not informed whether the survey required that respondents choose there…preference between alternatives. If it did, then the results might distort the preferences of the respondents, who might very well refer a…choice not provided for in the survey.Secondly, we are not informed whether survey responses were anonymous oreven confidential. In the event, the survey results would be unreliable for thepurpose of drawing any conclusions about…preferences, let alone about how to improve…6.调查人员是否中立且公正：The memo provides no evidence that the reports from…are reliable. The managers might have fabricated the reports so that…7.统计数据是否被精确表述：To begin with, the statistics are intended to support the main claim that… But these statistics are vague and oversimplified, and thus may distort… Forexample … Moreover … Finally, the poll indicates that…but fails to indicate.8.回应者是否具有代表性：People who are interested in the subject in the survey are more likely than others to completed and return their questionnaires.9.调查是否具有时效性：10.充分性：信号词：A、by doing…will/wouldB、if…will/couldC、to…need…In the second place, the author assumes that…is all that is required for…While…is an important element is determining…it is hardly the only elementrequired. Other factors are equally important. In the case of…factors suchas…plays a significant role in determining…11.必要性：(在题目当中找替代)信号词：A、unlessB、withoutC、onlyD、must12.充要条件：信号词：A、in order toB、toC、shouldOne problem with the argument is its implication that the proposed change is the only way…can… Common sense tells me that there are other such ways——…or … to list just a few. The author must explain either why none of these options are available or why they would fail to… Otherwise, I cannot accept that theproposed change is necessary.Furthermore, the author assumes that the proposed…would suffice to bring about the desired increase. However, if it turns out that…was due to a combination of factors, some of which remain unchanged in the future, a mere…might have no stimulating impact on…13.先后发生比不然是因果关系：（“after this, therefore because of this”）将简单的关系混淆为因果A、找other reasonsB、if notFirst of all, the author assumes that…caused…as well as… The line of reasoning is that because…before…the former event caused the latter. But this is fallacious reasoning unless other possible causal explanations have been considered andruled out. For example, perhaps… Or perhaps… Yet another possibility is that…Therefore, any decision aimed at addressing the problems of…must be based on more thorough investigation to gather sufficient data in order to narrow down and locate the actual cause of the problem.14.同时发生也不必然是因果关系To begin with, the author’s solution to the problem rests on the claim that…are the cause of… However, the evidence offered is insufficient to support this claim.A mere positive correlation between…does not necessarily prove a causalrelationship, in addition, all other prospective causes of…must be ruled out. As it stands, the author’s solution to the problem is based upon an oversimplifiedanalysis of the issue.15.偷换概念：（批判方法：the other part）To begin with, we must establish the meaning of the vague concept… If the term is synonymous with…then the statistics cited would strongly support the argument.But, normally… Thus, for the speaker the term…must essentially carry the same meaning as…16.考虑问题不全面：（解决问题conclusion）First, the author assumes that… This assumption is never supported with any data or projections. Moreover, the assumption fails to take into account cost increases and inefficiency that could result from… For instance, … In short, this assumption must be supported with a thorough cost-benefit analysis of…versus otherpossible…strategies.17.过去的状况在现在和将来都不变：（暂时VS永久）信号词：表示过去发生和现在发生的词With respect to the argument’s penultimate conclusion——that…——the chair assumes that in the future, there will continue to be sufficient… However, a recent one-year increase is insufficient evidence itself to convince me that this trend will continue, … Moreover, should this trend actually reverse, then adoptingthe…proposal might result in a decrease in…which might very well have anegative impact on the…overall… in turn, …18.现在的状况在将来都不变：（隐含错误，配合批结论）The argument’s claim that…relies on the assumption that…will continue toremain… However, … passing… will no longer… for whatever reason. For that matter,… Thus, the argument’s proponent must supply better evidence——perhaps by way of a…survey and a…economic forecast——of a sufficientdemand in…for… Otherwise, the author cannot persuade me that…would be…19.错误类比：（方法other aspects）It is highly doubtful that the facts drawn from…industry are applicableto…industry. Differences between the two industries clearly outweigh thesimilarities, thus making the analogy highly less than valid. For example,…allaffect…but are virtually absent in…industry. Problems such as these mightpresent insurmountable obstacles that prevent…in the future.20,完整比较或选择性比较：To begin with, the assumption here is that… However, we are not given enough information about the study to be sure that this comparison is reliable. Forexample, … it only reports that… If…then no basis exists for comparing… In addition, the articles does not indicate whether… If not, then again no basis exists for the comparison.21.非此即彼类错误信号词：either…or…方法：both A and B，找A与B的替换词来改进In addition, the author assumes that…are mutually exclusive alternatives.However, the author provides no reason for imposing an either/orchoice. …both…and…might produce better results. Moreover, if the author is wrong in the assumption that…are the only possible causes of the problem, then the most effective solution might include a complex of policy changes——for example, …。

The argument开头段的思路：第一句指出原论证的结构或主张第二句指出原论证的论据第三句指出原论证的重要假设最后指出原论证犯有逻辑错误正文：一段一个方面，注意句型结尾：结论，对如何加强提出建议。

开头段模式：1．In this argument, the arguer recommend (conclude) that…2．This recommendation is based on the result (evidence; fact) of th e survey that…3．In addition, the arguer assumes this…4．A careful examination would review how groundless the argument (conclusion) i s…对于文中涉及数字的黄金句型：1．The survey on which the argument relies lacks credibility and therefore does not lend strong support to what the arguer assumes.2．The statistical evidence on which the argument depends is so vague (unreprese ntative) that it does not validate the auger’s assumption (claim).对于正文有用的句型：1．The argument rests on the unfounded(unconvincing,unreasonable,gratuitous, groundless,unwarranted)assumption that…2．The arguer fails to take Into account other possible factors that might (lend to, result in)…3．The arguer ignores other relevant factors concerning +名词结构4．The arguer fails to convince us that (sb of)…5．The evidence provided in this argument is not sufficient to validate the assumpt ion that…黄金句型1．The arguer fails to provide solid (any, sufficient, concrete) evidence to prove tha t …/to support the assumption that…/to validate the assumption that …/quarantine t he conclusion that…2．Another point worth concerning is that the arguer fails to take into account… 3．The reasoning that …is open to doubt /unreliable/problematic.4．Another assumption in short of legitimacy is the causal of relationship between A&B./…is that /the claim that…5．The fact that …says little (nothing) about…对于正文的分析以及结尾模式：1．采取推测法，推测有可能的例证，反例，推测作者论证可导致的其他结论。

Argument逻辑错误分类魏震整理版1. Loose generalizationsDrawing conclusions about groups of people on the basis of stereotypes (陈词滥调).Example: French people are more romantic.2. Hasty generalizations －草率结论Arriving at a conclusion without enough evidence.Example: Asian-American students are better in math.3. Circular ReasoningRestating in different words what has already been stated.Example: Dieting is hard because it requires consuming fewer calories. ？4. Single cause-effect －假性因果Claiming that only one event caused another when there may be no real connection.Example: When I sat down at the computer it stopped working, so I must have done something wrong.5. Slippery Slope ？Assumes a chain of cause-effect relationships with very suspect connections.Example: Because I failed my exam, my parents were mad, I lost my wallet, my car wouldn't start, and I got fired.6. Non Sequitur －<拉>[逻]不合逻辑的推论，不根据前提推导的推论The first part of the idea does not relate to the other.Example: I did well in school because I always wore nice clothes.7. Either/Or －Affirming a Disjunct (选言枝) (Fallacy of Propositional Logic)Suggesting only two alternatives when the issue may be much more complex.Example: America--love it or leave it!8. False Authority －迷信权威，偶像崇拜Draws attention away from the evidence and leans on the popularity of someone who may have little knowledge of the issue or product.Example: Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be.9. Ad Hominem －从个人偏好出发，非逻辑或理性的Attacking the person instead of the ideas. －个人人身攻击Example: Don't vote for Jerry Brown; he's a left-wing fanatic, a throwback to the 60s who meditates and eats health foods.10. Bandwagon Thinking －流行思想，时髦想法Claiming that most people agree so it must be right.Example: I wouldn't have cheated on my income taxes, but everyone else does, so why shouldn't I? ？11. Stacking the deck －暗中布局，作弊Giving a slanted view of the issue by focusing only on one side. －只关注一面，而给出一个歪曲的观点Example: I deserve to get an A in the class because I like the teacher, work hard, and attend class.12. Appeal to Emotion －以情欺人Exploiting the audience's feeling in order to get them on your side.Example: I believe I deserve a scholarship because I am an orphan who grew up in a dysfunctional foster family.13. Ignoring the question －忽略问题(的症结所在)Changing the topic before it is really considered －偷换概念(命题)Example: The criminal won't say where he was on the night of the crime, but he does remember being teased relentlessly as a child.14. Trivial objections －斤斤计较Can be similar to ad hominem in that it focuses on things unimportant to the issue at hand.Example: I think Ross Perot would make a terrible president. His ears are huge.。

英语考试作文【高分必备】GRE写作Argument部分的6种逻辑错误汇总新GRE写作包括Argument和Issue两部分，这两部分都比较重视逻辑思维，而这恰恰是中国学生容易错的地方。

今天给大家整理了新GRE写作Argument部分常犯的7种逻辑错误，希望小伙伴儿们在平时的备战练习中注意避免这些问题。

1、结论无据(gratuitous assumption)The author falsely depends on gratuitousassumption that.... However, no evidence is stated in the argument to supportthis assumption. In fact, this is not necessarily the case. For example, it ismore likely that.... Therefore, this argument is unwarranted without ruling outsuch possibility.2、无因果联系The author commits a fallacy of causaloversimplification. The line of the reasoning is that because A occurred beforeB, the former event is responsiblefor the latter. (The author uses thepositive correlation between A and B to establish causality. However, the factthatA coincides withB does not necessarily prove that A causedB.) But thisis fallacious reasoning unless other possible causal explanations have beenconsidered and ruled out. For example, perhaps C is the cause of these eventsor perhaps B is caused by D.3、样本不足(insufficient-sample)The evidence the author provides isinsufficient to support the conclusion drawn from it. One example is logicallyunsounded to establish a general conclusion (The statistics from only a fewrecent years are not necessarily a good indicator of future trends), unless itcan be shown that A1 is representative of all A.4、二者择一(Either-Orchoice)The author assumes that AA and BB aremutually exclusive alternatives and there is no room for a middle ground.However, the author provides no reason for imposing an either-or choice. Commonsense tells us that adjusting both AA and BB might produce better results.5、错误类比(based on a false analogy )The argument rests on the assumptionthat A isanalogous to B in all respects. This assumption is weak, sincealthough there are points of comparison between A and B, there is muchdissimilarity as well. For example, A..., however, B.... Thus, it is likelymuch more difficult for B to do....6、时地全等(all thingsare equal)The author commits the fallacy of “all things are equal”. The fact thathappened two years ago is not a sound evidence to draw a conclusion that....The author assumes without justification that the background conditions haveremained the same at different times or at different locations. However, it isnot clear in this argument whether the current conditions at AA are the same asthey used to be two years ago. Thus it is impossible to conclude that....TIPS：GRE写作两部分权重相同由于AA的写作不牵涉自己观点的展开，只须指出作者逻辑上的漏洞，因此在经过训练以后，写起来并不困难;而AI的写作需要自己展开自己设立的观点，不但需要逻辑上的洞察能力，还需要论证观点的能力，语言组织的能力，因此对于中国考生来讲比较困难，难以短期内有较大提高。

Argument 模板句1.开头：Merely based on unfounded assumption and dubious/suspicious evidence ,thestatement draws a conclusion that______. To substantiate/support the conclusion ,the arguer points out the evidence that _______ .In addition , he indicates that ______ .Furthermore ,he cites the result survey in support of this recommendation .At first glance ,the author’s argument appears to be somewhat convincing , but further reflection reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument.( In my opinion of view , this argument suffers from_______ logical flaws .)The argument is well-presented ,but not thoroughly well-reasoned . By making a comparison of the region of Forestville , the town with the higher speed limit and therefor automobile accidents, with the region of Elmsford , an area of a lower speed limit and subsequently fewer accidents , the argument for reducing F’s speed limits in order to decrease accidents seems logical. ______开始攻击信件类的开头：In this letter a committee of D homeowners recommend that in order to enhance D property values homeowners should follow certain restrictions concerning their homes’exterior appearance . To support this recommendation the committee points out that in the seven years since B adopted similar restrictions property values there have risen .This argument rests on a series of unsubstantiated assumptions , and is therefore unpersuasive as it stands . While it may be true that the M government ought to devote more money to riversiderecreationalfacilities , this author’s argument does not make a cogent case for increased resources based on river use .It is easy to understand why city residents would want a cleaner river ,but this argument is rife with holes and assumptions , and thus ,not strong enough to lead to increased funding.2.各类逻辑错误的攻击语言(1)调查类错误Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of ______and did so randomly across the entire spectrum ,the survey results are not reliable to gauge____ generally . The number of respondents/samples in itself does not endure representativeness .For example ,if the sample included only _______, then the results would no doubt suggest_____/ Or if _____, would account for only a little percentage ,which would render the result of the survey meaningless. (2)充分必要条件Sufficient evidencea.The argument assumes too hastily that ___will necessarily result in the behavior that theargument predicts .Perhaps ，_____.Moreover ______/b.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B .Necessary evidenceThe editor’s recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A caused B . However ,common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one .A myriad of other factors ,including _____or ____,might just as likely be the cause of B .To be specific , ____/Without ruling out these and other possible causes ,the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by________ can _____-.(3)因果类错误The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that____ and the claim that ____ .This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling evidence to support the connection between these two events .Perhaps ,for example ,______results from ____.The argument observed a correlation between A and B, then concludes that the former is the cause of the latter .However ,the argument fails to rule out other possible explanation for B. For example ,_______ . Any of these factors might lead to B .Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B .(4)范围变化错误个体——整体The argument resets on the assumption that 个体案例代替整体情况.If this is not the case , then it is entirely possible that 在另一个地方，上述个体案例的结果不会发生相同的情况.Thus ,lacking more marketing information about ____nationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memo’s recommendation.整体——个体One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide statistics about _____applies equally to 个体成员. Yet this might not be the case ,for a variety of possible reasons .Perhaps ______;or perhaps _____.Without ruling out such possibilities , the author cannot justifiably conclude that ______.(5)外推类错误The author claims that ____,because_____.The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained the same at different time .The assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time .There are likely all kinds of difference between A and B . For example ,A______;however ,B_____. Any of these scenarios ,if true ,would serve to undermine the claim that _____.(6)FA错误The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between A and B . The analogy falsely depends on the assumption that ____in both A and B are similar .However ,it is entirely possible that A与B 存在很大的不同.In short ,without accounting for important possible differences between A and B, the arguer cannot reasonably prove the proposed method will help A_____.(7)非此即彼(either –or)Even assuming A is not the reason for the B , the author falsely assumes that the B must be attributable to C. This “either _ or “argument is fallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of the B . For example ,其他原因.3.结尾段To sum up ,this arguer fails to substantiate its claim that __, because the evidence cited in the analysis do not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains .To make the argument more convincing ,the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to _____.Additionally ,he would have to demonstrate that-____/ Therefore ,if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable .In conclusion ,the letter’s author fails to adequately support the recommendation for a school-sponsored mandatory driving course .To strengthen the argument ,the author mustprovide dear evidence that Centerville High School students caused the accidents in question ,and that a mandatory driving course would have prevented them .To better evaluate the argument , I would need more effectiveness of a mandatory school-sponsored course compared to that of the two private courses .。

Argument 逻辑错误参考句式1.Survey类A.The statistical figure quoted in the argument isobviously not so representative because the authorfails to offer the absolute number of…/because theauthor fails to offer the relative percentage of thenumber…B.The respondents appeared in the survey, namely therepresentatives of the group investigated, are notthe required group concerning theconclusion/assumption because the author ignoresthe fact that…C.Additionally, the time and the place in which thesurvey is conducted are not clearly demonstrated bythe author. Meanwhile, whether the survey isconducted randomly is still a puzzle.2.充分条件类错误A.Because of the lack of the reasonable evidence like…,the condition regarded as the sufficiency leading tothe outcome is obviously groundless.B.Even thought the sufficient condition the authorgives as….is necessary to result in the fact that…, theauthor still excludes some other factors like ….. Onlywhen such factors are holistically considered in thisargument can the conclusion be persuasively drawn.3.The arguer fails to establish the causal relationshipbetween the fact that ____ and the claim that ____.It is highly possible that other factors contribute to __B__.Based on the fact that __A__ occurred after __B__, the editor infers that __B__ should be responsible for __A__. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that the earlier development caused the later one.….the real reasonsWithout ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between __A__ and __B__ upon which the editor’s recommendation depends.4.范围变化A.A threshold problem involves the definition of A .The arguer fails to define this critical term.C. 由大变小The problem with this argument lies in the assumption the author draws that the nationwide situation equally and effectively applies to the every specific location (like…). Actually,this is not the case because of the following reasons involved. …D.E. Obviously, the author’s/arguer’s assumption/conclusion, based/depended/relied/established on the given facts about the advantages/disadvantages of…, is groundless/one-sided/unpersuasive/unconvincing because he ignores/loses his sight of the relevant disadvantages/advantages included in this circumstance.…The author’s/arguer’s assumption that by…..will the…be profitable/earn great profits is definitely groundless/unconvincing because, as the common sense goes, whether profits can be gained is determined by the balance between revenue and cost. However, not only does the author fail to offer the sufficient evidence about the revenue but also the cost required in operation and development is not included. …5.The author claim that 将来, because 过去/现在. This assumption is unwarranted because things rarely remain the same over extended period of time./things invariably change/alter over extended period of time and within different context.8. false analogy…..The arguer’s recommendation relies on what might be a poor analogy between __A__ and __B__. The analogy falsely depends upon the assumption that the similarity between A and B lies in the fact that…./this false analogy is drawn by the arguer because …However, it is entirely possible that A and B are distinct in many respects. For example, …/however, the common sense tells that there exists large difference betweenA andB in many specific aspects. For instance, ….11. all-any-anything…However, it is highly possible that some exception/some other optional cases may be considered in this circumstance. To be specific, …。

调查总无效调查的意义：a.样本数量不具代表性，应包含样本总量和样本占总体比例两个关键数据。

b.调查过程必须针对性很强，不能有推广。

Eg:吃...暂时导致不了小病，但并不能说从长远上不得更严重的疾病。

调查结果的完整性:调查结果是否把需要的东西都摆出来了。

Eg:限速之后主公路车祸减少。

（非主公路呢？）调查的时间:采样时间是否足够长eg:修路后，一周内车祸增加（质疑采样时间过短。

）攻击关键词：respondent,many,several，...years ago,past,future等。

通用句：The argument does not indicate who conducted the poll,who responded,or how the poll was conducted.Until these questions are answered, the survey results are worthless as evidence for public opinion about....调查的时效:这个大家肯定都清楚。

Eg:原始人在采用石器作为生产工具后，劳动生产力大幅提高，所以我们也应该采用时期进行生产劳动。

模糊数据：So many,several,...percentage等被调查者是否坦言（小错误...算了吧。

）分析总不全因果将时间上的同时或先后混淆为因果：Eg:A地经济不景气，谁谁谁来了之后经济复苏。

（跟他的政策可能根本没关系）函数关系（混淆相关性和因果性）：y=a+b+c——已知a变化后，y也跟着变化，即a为y的原因（攻击点有二：1.a与y只是相关，无因果，y变化a也会随着变2.忽略了b,c的作用）假设无证据假设（即结论所依赖的假设无根据）：每顿饭少吃一个人就能减肥（可以多吃几顿啊....我就经常这样...(*^__^*)嘻嘻……）假设判断标准：eg:判断一个经济复苏政策是否应该实施，只看其能否刺激经济是否增长。

逻辑错误与经典句型：1）无理假设·It is unreasonable/ unwarranted to assume that…·The arguer takes for granted and without justification that…·The argument depends on a questionable assumption that…2）证据缺失或不足·It does not take into account that possibility that…·The arguer fails to rule out the possibility that…·The arguer fails to provide any sufficient evidence to support the assumption that…·The arguer ignores/neglects other relevant factors concerning…3）数据错误·The statistical evidence of the survey upon which the argument relies is too vague to be informative.·Lacking more specific information about base amount, it is impossible to assess the reliability of the survey’s results or to make an informed recommendation.·From the survey quoted in the argument, however, we find no sign of such procedure for random sampling, and have good reasons to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect the general ____ as a whole.·The statistical result of the survey lacks credibility and therefore does not lend strong support to the arguer’s assumption.4）因果无关·Only relying on photographs does not guarantee that they are left-handed.·Using left hand in writing does not mean that one is left-handed·The fact that________does not justify the assertion that_______·The arguer relies on incorrect/irrelevant data.·The fact that___ does not necessarily ensure/imply that____.5）急于概括·The argument assumes that what is true of group of people taken collectively is also true of any individual within that group.·The arguer assumes that what is true of a group as a whole is necessarily true of each member of that group.·The arguer attempts to extract a general principle from a specific case.·___ draws a hasty conclusion, based on inadequate evidence about____·The argument uses a few exceptional cases as the basis for a claim about what is true in general.·The argument attributes a characteristic of an individual member of a group to the group as a whole.6）模糊概念·It does not mean that it is relatively lower by a national standard.·What if the price in the year before last year was excessively high, then even if it declined sharply last year, it was still possibly much higher than other places. ·There is no hard evidence to prove that the reform will reduce costs given that the readings are not available.·A few complaints about low water pressure has already proved that the consequence of the reform might be grave.·The survey concerning the situation of the first floor to the fifth floor does not cover that of the floors above the fifth while low water pressure might be an acute problem. ·Any further linkage of these two phenomena requires more evidence and is not justified by the data so far available.·Comprehensive analysis is necessary to identify the actual cause of_____·The argument simply equates A with B, which is unwarranted.7）错误类比·If the ocean is destined to breach the dike, then let all its bitter waters pour into my soul.·The argument fails to take into account possible differences between A and B that are relevant to______.·However, the problem is that the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.8）非此即彼·The author is presenting a false dilemma by imposing an either-or choice/fallacy between two courses of action that need not be mutually exclusive.论证方式：·例证法: for instance, for example·假设法: suppose, is it because·推测法: it is likely that…。

英语考试作文
GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析实例讲解驳论文正确写法思路
GRE写作中ARGUMENT是两种题型中相对更容易得分的题型，不少中国考生拿到4分以上的GRE写作成绩也往往离不开ARGUMENT部分更高的得分。

所以GRE写作想要提分，从ARGUMENT入手来提升显然是一条更为便捷的快车道。

下面就结合GRE 写作ARGUMENT写法实例来分析作文高分写法套路。

GRE写作ARGUMENT5大常见逻辑错误分析
想要写好GRE写作的ARGUMENT作文，考生首先要对ARGUMENT作文题目中存在的常见逻辑错误漏洞攻击点有比较全面清晰的认识，以下5种逻辑问题几乎每道GRE写作ARGUMENT的题目中都存在：
基本概念常识出错
虽然GRE考试本身出于公平的原则并没有对各类学科的高深专业知识提出要求，但考生还是需要具备一定的相关基础常识，比如GRE考试中经常涉及的社会、文化、经济、科技等常见主题的基本概念，都应该有所了解。

因为GRE作文中，常常会出现一些涉及这些
基本知识的逻辑漏洞。

如果考生能够对这些知识有所了解，就能在文章题目中发现。

此内容出自韦晓亮老师编著《GRE作文大讲堂——方法、素材、题目剖析》，敲出来是为了方便帮助大家杀G之用。

同时向大家推荐此书，它应该会对作文复习有不小的帮助。

Argument逻辑错误攻击模版攻击无效调查模版句（规模、数量、方式、时间等）这类错误最常见也十分简单。

应该做到对survey/study/report/poll等字眼很敏感，一看到这些单词就一定说明它有问题，在分析argument题目时要养成这样“良好”的习惯。

请按照如下模版操作攻击采访对象模版句Model1a）To begin with,the validity of the survey is doubtful.b）Lacking information about the number of employees surveyed and the number of respondents, it is impossible to access the validity of the resuls.c）For example, if 200 employees were surveyed but only 2 responded, the conclusion that…would be highly suspect.d）Because the argument offers no evidence that would rule out these interpretations, the results of the survey are insufficient to support the conclusion.Model2a)The poll cited by the author is too vague to be informative/reliable.b)The claim dose not indicate who conducted the poll, who responded, or how the poll wasconducted.c)Until these questions are answered, the results are worthless as evidence for…Model3a)We are not informed that how many people were surveyed but did not responded. If, forinstance 500 subjects were studied, but no more than 50 echoed, the conclusion would be highly susceptable.b)The author fails to point out that when the survey was conducted. If the change is very recent,it is possible that insufficient data have been gleaned to draw such a conclusion, an unconvincing one.c)The author fails to point out that how the survey was conducted. If who conducted it bythemselves, and the question is…, it is obvious that if… Or if these questions were leading, people might echo with expected answers, thus the results would be greatly unconvincing.攻击样本不足模版句Model1The evidence that the author provides is insufficient to support the conclusion drawn form it.(One example is rarely sufficient to establish a general conclusion.) Unless it can be shown that A1 is representative of A, the conclusion… is completely unwarranted. In fact in face of such limited evidence, it is fallacious to draw any conclusion at all.Model2Samples for the survey should be statistically reliable. Unfortunately, from the survey we find little sign of such procedures for sampling, thus doubting whether the respondents constitute a sufficiently large sample so as to be representative of the overall population of the nation.攻击随机性模版句Model1Since the arguer makes a claim about…, in general, samples for the survey should be able to represent all.... However, from the survey quoted in this argument, we find no sign of such procedures for random samplings, and have good reasons to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect the general altitude of… as a whole.Model2Form the survey we find little sign of such procedures for random sampling, thus doubting whether the respondents are representative of the overall population of the nation. If the subjects are only limited to a certain city or geographic region, the results of the survey will be unconvincing.攻击无理假设模版句Model1a)The author assumes that… will…,/A is necessary to B.b)However, this is not necessarily the case, /no evidence is stated in the argument to support thisassumption.c)It is possible that…../Perhaps….Model2a)The author falsely depends on gratuitous assumption that…b)In fact/Actually, this is not necessarily the case..c)For example, it is most likely that +…d)Therefore, this argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.攻击因果关系模版句Model1a)The author commits the “After Of This, Therefore, Because Of This” fallacy.b)The author assumes that A caused B.c)The line of the reasoning is that because A before B, the former event causes the latter.d)But this is fallacious reasoning unless other possible causal explanations have been consideredand ruled out.e)For example, perhaps A1 is the cause of these events or perhaps B is caused by A2Model2a)The author uses the statistical relationship//positive correlation between A and B to establishcausality.b)However, the fact that A coincides with B does not necessarily prove that A causes.c)There may be other factors that could have caused B/contributed to B.d)Such as A1, A2, and A3.Model3a)The author fails to establish a causal relationship between the fact A and the claim B.b)This argument is unacceptable if there is no compelling evidence to support the connectionbetween these two events.c)Perhaps, for example,…Model4The author attempts to establish a causal/positive relationship between the fact that…and the claim that…between two matters…and…. This argument, nonetheless, is based on an oversimplified analysis of the cause of…and the presumptuous correlation accordingly is unacceptable. Actually, it is equally possible that… or it is possible that…. Without ruling out such alternative explanation(s) the author can not convince me that… necessarily results in…攻击错误类比模版句Model1a)The reason/argument rests on the assumption that A is analogous to/similar to B in allrespects.b)This assumption is weak, since although there are points of comparison between A and B,there are many dissimilarities as well.Model2a)The author also commits the fallacy of “all things are equal”.b)The fact that happened two years ago is not a sound evidence to draw a conclusion that….c)The author assumes without justification that the background conditions have remained thesame at different times or at different locations.d)However, it is not clear in this argument whether the current conditions at A are the same asthey used to be two years ago.e)Thus it is impossible to conclude that….攻击急于概括模版句Model1There is no thorough lost-benefit analysis in the argument. If the increase of cost overweighs that of benefits… will fall in trouble of losing rather than gaining money. Also, the author neglects the fact of competition.Model2The author commit a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if…, it does not follow that…It is highly possible other factors may have contributed to… For instance, … Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning… Unless…, which is unknown for this argument, there is guarantee that…Without ruling out these and other possible factors, the author cannot confidently conclude that…攻击言行不一模版句比如一些承诺、倾向性行为。

第一类错误：没有考虑其它原因（它因法）展开1：The arguer unfairly(gratuitously) assumes that (原命题中作者提供的原因) is the key factor that contributes to (原命题中的某种结果).简短形式：（1）However, any one of a myriad of other factors—such as (它因)—might have been responsible for (原命题中的某种结果).(2) However, (原命题中的某种结果) might have been due instead to (它因)(3) Lacking evidence to the contrary, (原命题中的某种结果) might have been dueinstead to (它因)Without ruling out all other reasons why (原命题中的某种结果),the argumentthat(结论) is dubious at best.完全形式：（1）Suppose that(导致上述结果的主体可能进行的其他行为)，all of which might have been responsible for (原命题中的某种结果).Thus, only concerning the (原命题中作者提供的原因), may mislead (主体)to neglect other aspects that may be the true reasonscontributing to the (原命题中的某种结果).(2)Perhaps,(它因1). Or perhaps (它因2)展开2：correlation, link 和causal relationship 的差异A direct correlation between … and …does not necessarily prove that the formercauses the latter. While a high correlation is strong evidence of a causalrelationship, in itself it is not sufficient. The author must also account forall other possible factors leading to … such as ….展开3：颠倒因果To begin with, it is possible that the arguer confused the cause and effect by concluding that children on the breakfast plan were less likely to be absentfrom and late for school because they took part in the program. After all, thebreakfast were made available at school, so only those who always went to schoolearly could regale on the breakfast. Without accounting for this possibility,the argument might be totally unjustified.展开4：作者无端假设其他相关因素均不变The argument assumes all other factors affecting … have remained constant since ….第二类错误：与调查有关的错误1> A thresh-hold problem with the argument involves the study process. The study results arereliable only if all other factors that might affect incidence of heart attack and the level of cholesterol remained invariable during the study , and if the sample of this study was sufficient in size and representative of the overall group of people worldwide. Without evidence of the study’methodological and statistical reliability, the speaker’s conclusion based on the study is unjustifiable.2>The methodology of the first survey might be problematic in two aspects: First, we are notinform the exact number of the respondents and if those respondents were selected randomly.Lacking evidence to the contrary, it is entirely possible that the respondents only accountfor a small proportion of the overall population of students and that they have been chosen designedly. Nor are we informed whether survey responses were anonymous or even confidential.If they were not, then the respondents might have distorted their true preference due to girls’ coy nature. Either scenario, if true, would cast serious doubt on the arguer’s conclusion based on this survey.3>To begin with, the author provides no evidence that the study’s results are statisticallyreliable. In order to establish a strong correlation between dietary iron and heart disease, the study’s sample must be sufficient in size and representative of the over population of heart-disease victims. Lacking evidence of a sufficiently representative sample, the author cannot justifiably rely on the study to draw any conclusion whatsoever.4>Two final problems with the argument involve the experimental process. The experiment’sresults are reliable only if all other factors that might affect sleep patterns remained constant during the three-week period, and if the number of experimental subjects is statistically reliable. Without evidence of the experiment’s methodological and statistical reliability, the speaker’s conclusion is unjustifiable.5>Secondly, the author fails to indicate when the statistics showing this nationwide tendencywere collected. The longer the time between the collection of these statistics and the election, the greater possibility that the tendency has changed over this time span, and the less justifiable the author’s reliance on these statistics to support the claim that…第三类错误：False Analogy1>行业间的 False AnalogyThe arguer simply assumes that industrial1 and industrial2 perform many similar functions, but he does not provide any evidence that their functions are indeed comparable. As we known, the…of industrial1 and those of industrial2 differ conspicuously. Therefore, even though (industrial1’s success) , there is no guarantee that (industrial2’s success)./ Without accounting for these and other possible dissimilarities, the arguer cannot assumes that what resulted in (industrial1’s success) would bring out the same result in (industrial2’s success).2>地域间的 False AnalogyNor can the manager justify … on the basis of …’success. Or perhaps… . Or perhaps….In short, the manager cannot defend the recommendation on the basis of what might be a false analogy between two….It is entirely possible that similar(same) actions would be ineffective in… due to the…differences between… and ….Without accounting for such differences any analogy between the two… is premature, and any conclusion based on that analogy is unjustifiable.第四类错误：证据不足1>The mere fact that … is scant evidence that …2>The mere fact that … hardly suffices to infer that…3>The mere fact that …is not necessarily indicate that …4>The arguer assumes too hastily, on the basis of … , that …第五类错误：信息时效性问题1>时间太长To begin with, Walsh’s prior rate of placing laid-off XYZ employees is not necessarily a reliable indicator of what that rate would be now. Perhaps, the placement rate 8 years ago was due to general economic downturn or some other factors beyond Walsh’s control. For that matter, perhaps the rate was relative high among all placement service during that time period.2>时间太短Perhaps not enough time has passed to determine the effectiveness of this change in reducing the accident rate.3>数据来源单一Besides, a single years’s statistics hardly suffices to draw any general conclusion. Last year might have been exceptional—due to some unusually event that is unlikely to reoccur, such as … .第六类错误：没有全面权衡利弊Profitability is a function of both revenue and expense. Thus, it is entirely possible that the …(列举可能的costs), might render the … unprofitable despite its popularity. Without weighing revenue against expenses the argument’s conclusion is premature at best.第七类错误：局部推整体或整体推局部1>整体推局部The nationwide trends that(study showing that) …would lend credible support for the argument only if local residents(fans) typify residents(fans) nationwide.2>以小推大Even I were to concede that …this single sample is insufficient to draw any general conclusion about …. Without additional samples from diverse geographic locations , I cannot accept the author’s sweeping generalization about …第八类错误：论断中出现“should”或是“best”等绝对化词语1>Finally, in concluding that DR must hire Ad Lib in order to ensure similar success throughout the country, the manager assumes that Ad Lib’s services are both necessary and sufficient for this purpose.Yet the manager has not provide any evidence to substantiate either assumption. Lacking evidence to the contrary,it is just as likely that some other ad agency would be equally or more effective. Even if Ad Lib’s service are necessary to achieve the manager’s goal, it is entirely possible that Ad Lib’s service would not suffices to ensure similar success elsewhere—due to the sort of factors mentioned above that might have contributed to the M success but would not come into play in other cities.2>Without weighing the proposal against alternative methods by which the … could achievethe desired goal either, the author cannot confidently asserts that his proposal would be the optimal choice for …第九类错误：差异概念(缺少关键定义)1>Also, the memo unfairly equates the speed with which one finds a job with job-seeking success.Common sense, however, informs me that the effective of a job search depends not only on how quickly one finds a job, but also on compensation, benefits, location, and type of work.2> A threshold problem involves the definition of insomnia. The speaker fails to define thiscritical definition. If insomnia is defined as an inability to fall asleep, then how soundly or long a person sleeps, or how tired a person feels after sleep , is irrelevant to whether the person suffers from insomnia. In short, without a clear definition of insomnia it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.第十类错误：结论的可行性问题。

***开头段Merely based on the unfounded assumption and dubious evidence, the statement draws a conclusion that 结论.In support of the conclusion, the author pointes out that 论据1.To justify this conclusion, the arguer cites that 论据2.Furthermore, he indicates that 论据3.In addition, he cites the result of a (recent) survey in support of his recommendation. At first glance, this argument seems to be somewhat convincing, nonetheless, further reflection reveals that it omits amount of vital concerning that should have been addressed in the statement.As far as I concerned, this argument suffers from at least three logical flaws.***论述段1. First and foremost, the threshold problem with this argument is that 反驳点1.…………Therefore, this argument is unwarranted without ruling out such possibility.2. Another fundamental problem pointed worth considering which serious weakens the logic of this argument is that 反驳点2.…………Lacking evidence that 反驳点2的证明, the arguer’s conclusion that 结论is unjustified.3. Before I come to my final judgment, it is necessary to indicate another flaw involved in the argument, 反驳点3.…………In short, without better evidence that 反驳点3的证明, the author cannot justifiablely draw any conclusion about 结论.***结尾段To sum up, the author fail to substantiate his claim that 结论, because the evidence cited here could not led strong support to what the arguer maintains.To make this argument more appealing, the author should have to offer more information with regard to建议.Therefore, if the argument hand included the given factors discussed about, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable.◆无理假设unwarranted assumptionThe author falsely depends on unwarranted assumption that错误的假设.In fact, it is not a necessary case. The mere fact hardly suffices to prove由错误的假设引出的结果. For example, it is highly possible that造成该结果的其它可能原因.Even if the author can substantiate all of the foregoing assumption, his assertion that 由错误的假设引出的结果is still unreasonable, because he unfairly equates目前未知的情况with 目前已知的情况.◆概念差异The author simply equates A with B.Even assuming B是对的, it is nevertheless impossible to assess the author’s broader contention that A也是对的◆无效调查The argument relies on a survey调查的内容, however, the survey cited here is toovague to be informative.The arguer provides no assurance that the survey on which the argument depends is statistically reliable.#样本数量Unless the surveyor sampled a sufficient number of 样本and did so randomly across the entire样本spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge调查结果. Moreover, the number of samples not ensure represent the overall group. For example, if the samples includes不合适的样本, or if 样本没有代表意义, the number of respondents would account for only a little percentage.#参与者诚实，调查者无倾向We are not informed whether the survey responses are anonymous or even confidential, what is more, there is no assurance that the survey not required people who anticipated choose their preference between alternative.#总数和比例The argument tells us that a great number of 样本, nevertheless, the arguer fails to indicate the percentage of支持其结论的样本.The argument tells us that more than ** percent支持其结论. Nevertheless, it fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of 样本.◆错误类比 false analogyThe arguer’s recommendation relies on a poor analogy between 一个情况and 另一个情况.This analogy falsely depends on the assumption that情况in both 一个and 另一个are similar.However, it is entirely possible that 其它造成已知情况的可能原因1.In addition, 其它造成已知情况的可能原因2, without accounting far some essential difference between一个情况and 另一个情况.The author can not prove that the method will also help 另一个情况.To strength this argument, instead of relying on a dubious analogy, the argument should provide evidence, perhaps by way of a survey or a pilot program at另一个的目前实际情况, so that this method will lead to the success of 论者期望达到的目标.◆急于概括 hasty generalizationThe auger commits a fallacy of hasty generalization.Even if 作者所讲的假设是成立的, which is, of course, an unwarranted assumption, it does not follow that作者所期待的结果.It is highly possible that other factors may have contribution to 结果, that作者认为正确的未必是唯一的.Besides, the arguer does not provide any solid information concerning 论据中的疑点. Unless其它可能的原因which is unknown from this argument, there is no guarantee that结论.Without ruling out this and other possible factors that given rise to 目前的情况, the author cannot confidently conclude that结论◆因果关系简单化 causal oversimplizationThe author’s recommendation depends on the assumption that on factors other than作者认为正确的原因caused 结果.However, commonsense informs me that these factors, including 其它可能的原因1 or 其它可能的原因2, might just as likely be the cause of 结果.Without ruling out these and other possible factors, the author cannot justifiablely conclude that only by doing 作者认为正确的方法◆两难处境 false dilemmaBy concluding that sb should do 一项措施or should do另一项与之矛盾的措施, the author commits a fallacy of false dilemma.The author assumes that 一种解决方案and 另一种解决方案are only available solution to the problem.However, it is possible that other proposal might also contribute to this problem.For example, 其他可能的解决方案.If so, just doing 一种解决方案or另一种解决方案would not solve the problem.◆Profit 类_____ (company)will not possibly earn a substantial profit by 作者认为正确的措施. The author provides no information about the cost involved in作者认为正确的措施.If so, then the costs of 作者认为正确的措施might prevent _____ (company) from earning a profit.In short, without more information about supply、demand、and production costs, without weighting revenue against expenses the author’s notion is premature at best.◆外推类The author claims that 结果, because 作者认为正确的原因.The argument assumes without justified that the background conditions have remained (will remain) the same at different time.The assumption is unwarranted because thing rarely remain the same over the extended periods of the time.There are likely all kinds of differences between 一种情况and 另一种情况.For example,可能影响结果的因素.Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the author’s claim that结论.。

34，72，79，88，105，114，126，129，133，145，153，154，211，227，23223, Confusing concurrence with causality:同时发生不为因果The most important problem is the underlying assumption that it is ...that resulted in ... The author only points out that the two events occurred during the same period, however, we all know that merely a coincidence of two events could not sufficiently demonstrate a causal relationship between them. (many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )Many other factors could also lead to ... which might include ... Without ruling out such factors, we could not be convinced that ...is the actual cause of ...1，53，59，60，72，75，90，91，101，105，129，142，153，173，23824, Post hoc, ergo propter hoc:前后发生不为因果The author concludes that ...is responsible for ... the assumption is based on the mere fact that ...occurred after ...however, the sequence of the two events, in itself, does not sufficiently prove that the former caused the later one.(many other factors could also lead to the result/the author should conduct controlled study to demonstrate the causal relationship )...might has resulted from other factors, such as ...Without ruling out these possible scenarios, the author could not establish a causal relationship between ...and ...2，9，16，25，30，92，99，102，110，119，123，170，180，195，205，215，218，230，237，239，242证据25, Insufficient evidence:证据不足The author claims that...by showing that....however, but this piece of information in itself is far from sufficient to demonstrate the assumption that...Although (the information provided by the author) may has some relation with ... (we need more critical important information about the case studied. ) More solid evidence are needed before we could be convinced that ...5，6，7，14，18，23，24，27，29，31，33，36，37，40，44，46，47，52，54，56，57，58，61，67，69，70，73，74，81，93，94，110，111，115，117，130，131，136，138，143，148，150，155，157，165，171，179，190，193，198，201，202，204，211，213，223，231，236，237，238，241Failing to consider the credibility of the evidence:46，47，66，72，76，88，118，136，151，176，22626, Unwarranted assumption/credibility of the evidence:无证据假设，攻击背景The assumption that ...is open to doubt, since the author does not provide any single evidence to substantiate the assumption. (many other possibilities might render the assumption suspect. )Given other possibilities about... the author could not hastily assumes that...6，8，11，12，13，14，15，17，21，22，23，25，28，33，50，53，56，62，64，66，67，74，75，78，83，84，86，87，88，89，90，91，92，95，100，101，102，104，105，108，110，112，113，114，118，120，121，122，125，126，127，128，129，130，132，134，136，137，140，142，144，145，146，148，151，152，156，157，160，161，163，164，169，170，172，174，177，178，179，181，191，192，194，195，19 7，202，204，205，206，208，210，212，216，218，219，221，222，223，225，228，231，235，236，239，24227, Definition critique:对某一专用名词没有解释，比如药One problem involves the definition of ...The author fails to give a clear definition of ... thus we could not evaluate if... (the definition might be different from what we commonly consider the term to be )As we commonly accept, ually means ... Therefore, if ...is defined as ... then ... is irrelevant to (the author’s conclusion)In one word, without a clear definition of ... it is impossible to assess the strength of the argument.53，72，81，91，105，141，153，167，179，195，196，211，219，223，226，239。