戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing system is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused byseparation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physicalproperties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of t he same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in thesame position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black ‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words canbe added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, PWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and sta tes.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designat ed by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although in flection is very helpful in determining a word‘s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thu s, a word‘s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (PP)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Suchstructures are called coordination structures.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically mark a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)zs1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term fo r any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.T: Should Mike know w hether the train might be late? (√)F: Might Mike should know whether the train be late? (×)。
