H.D.Brown《语言学习与语言教学的原则》(第3版)笔记和课后习题答案

第11章第二语言习得理论11.1 复习笔记本章要点1. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis克拉申输入假说2. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing Model麦劳林注意-处理模型3. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity Model亚利斯托克分析/自动模型本章考点1. 有关第二语言习得的理论2. 克拉申输入假说内容及缺陷3. 掌握几大第二语言习得模型本章内容索引Ⅰ. Theories1. Some theories of second language acquisition2. Adult second language acquisitionⅡ. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1. Definition2. DisagreementsⅢ. McLaughlin’s Attention-Processing ModelⅣ. Bialystok’s Analysis/Automaticity ModelⅤ. Variability ModelsⅥ. From Theory to PracticeⅦ. Intuition: The Search for RelevanceⅧ. Out On A Limb: The Ecology of Language AcquisitionⅠ. Theories（理论）1. Some theories of second language acquisition（第二语言习得理论）(1) A theory of Second language acquisition includes an understanding, in general, of what language is, what learning is, and for classroom contexts, what teaching is.第二语言习得理论大体上包括理解什么是语言，什么是学习，什么是课堂教学。

第1章语言学导论1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与特征2.The origin and the function of language语言的起源和功能3.Main branches of linguistics study语言学研究的范围和内容4.Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分本章考点：1.有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、文化传递和互换性)；语言的功能(提供信息、人际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语言)；语言的起源(神授说，人造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。

2.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。

(2)语言学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。

语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。

(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。

(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

本章内容索引：I.Definition of languageII.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Creativity4.Displacement5.Cultural Transmission6.InterchangeabilityIII.Origin of language1.The Biblical account2.The bow-wow theory3.The pooh-pooh theory4.The yo-he-ho theory5.The evolution theoryIV.Functions of languagermative function2.Interpersonal function3.Performative function4.Emotive function5.Phatic function6.Recreational function7.Metalingual functionV.Definition of linguisticsVI.Branches of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsVII.Important concepts and their distinctions1.Descriptive vs.Prescriptive2.Synchronic vs.Diachronicngue vs.Parolepetence vs.Performance5.Etic vs.Emic6.Traditional Grammar vs.Modern Grammar7.Linguistic Potential vs.Actual Linguistic BehaviorI.The definition of language(语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has revealed five essential factors of language:systematic,arbitrary,vocal,symbolic语言是人类以口头交流的任意的符号系统。

1．语言的社会功能包括什么？试作解释。

答：最基本的是信息传递功能，体现在语言上就是内容的表达。

信息传递是社会中人与人交流的基本方式，通过信息交流，人们才可以在社会中分享各自的经验感知，更好的分工协作。

语言社会功能另一个重要的方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，可称为语言的人际互动功能。

互动包括两方面，一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感态度意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。

2.语言和思维的关系。

答：（1）思维离不开语言：没有语言，思维活动不能进行；思维成果无法表达A、从认知学（认识论）角度看：语言是认知的伙伴→固定认识成果B、思维的形成过程和成果都离不开语言形成思维需要语言（词是思维的材料，语法是思维程序）——思维必须在语言材料的基础上进行，语言是思维的工具；思维成果需要通过语言表达记录下来（2）语言离不开思维A、语言是思维的工具，在运用中才有意义。

如果没有思维，无所谓交际。

B、语言中词和句子的意义是思维赋予的，层级关系，组合、聚合与逻辑思维的活动模式相合。

总之，二者相互依存，各以对方的存在为前提。

又相互适应，有思维就有语言。

3.什么是符号？语言符号与现实现象的关系。

答：所谓符号，就是指代某种事物的标记，记号，它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号。

符号包括了形式和意义两个方面的要素。

关系：现实现象包括客观现实和心理现实。

客观现实是四维时空中外在于人的所有存在，而心理现实是客观现实通过人的认知储存在人的大脑中的各种知识信息。

A．语言符号与心里现实的关系：一方面，语言表达是对心里现实的编码，心理现实是语言符号所要表达的对象；另一方面，心理现实中很大一部分是间接通过语言文字获得的，语言符号也影响着作为心理现实的大脑信息的储存方式。

B．语言符号和客观现实以心理现实为中介。

心理现实存在于客观现实与语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态，它既与客观现实互动，也与语言符号互动。

Task-Based Language TeachingDefinitionTask-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching.The relationships between TBLT and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)Task-based language teaching:• a logical development of CLT•formed part of the communicative language teaching movement from the 1980s.Eg:◎Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning ◎Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning ◎Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process•The role of tasks has received further support from some researchers in second language acquisition (SLA), who are interested in developing pedagogical applications of SLA.•Task is regarded as the potential building blocks of SLA instruction.•SLA research has focused on the strategies and cognitive processemployed by second language learners•Language learning is believed to depend on immersing students not merely in “comprehensible input” but in tasks that require them to negotiate meaning and engage in naturalistic and meaningful communication.The key assumptions of task-based instruction are summarized by Feez（1998:17) as :The focus is on process rather than procedure. Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning. Learner learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasksActivities and tasks can be either: those that learners might need to achieve in real life; those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including the previous experience of the learner, the complexity of the task, the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support availablewhat is “task” ?A task is an activity or goal that is carried out using language, such as finding a solution to a puzzle, reading a map, and giving directions,making a telephone call etc.Nunan (1989:10) offers this definition: the task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. And also have a sense of complexity.•“Task” first appeared in the vocational training practices of the 1950s. Task focus here first derived from training design concerns of military regarding new military technologies and occupational specialties of the period. Task analysis initially focus on solo psychomotor tasks for which little communication or collaboration was involved, and largely manual tasks were translated into training tasks.Task-based training identified several key areas of concern: Analysis of real world task-use situationsThe translation of those into teaching task descriptionsThe detailed design of instructional tasksThe sequencing of instructional tasks in classroom training/teaching Four major categories of team performance function in task-based instructionOrientation function:process for generating and distributing information necessary to task accomplishment to team membersOrganizational function:process necessary for members to coordinate actions necessary for performanceAdaption function:process occurring as a team members adapt their performance to each other to complete the taskMotivational function:defining team objectives and “energizing the group’ to complete the taskWhat is academic task?•The academic task is the mechanism through which the curriculum is enacted for students (Doyle 1983: 161)•Academic tasks are defined as four important dimensions:◎The products students are asked to produce◎The operations they are required to use in order to produce these products◎The cognitive operations required and resources available◎The accountability system involvedDefinition of a Task◆Prabhu: a task is “ an activities which requires learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allows teachers to control and regulate that process.”◆Crookes :a task is “ a piece of work or an activity, usually with a specified objective, undertaken as part of an educational course, at work, or used to elicit data for research.”Willis (1996) proposes six task types built on more or less traditional knowledge hierarchies.listing(列举型任务)work in groups: for a healthy lifestyle, what you should do and shouldn't do. make a list(brainstorming, fact-finding)ordering and sorting(排序与分类型任务)In the lesson of "How to make a milk shake?", disturb the main process, then rearrange them according to the actual ordercomparing (比较型任务）What things are the same at Spring Festival and Christmas Day? What things are different?problem solving(解决问题型任务)think of three low budget solutions to the problem of looking after a cat when the family is absent.sharing personal experiences(分享个人经验型任务)After students plant trees, ask them to talk about the significance of planting trees.creative tasks (创造型任务）work in groups: ask students to discuss their ideal bedroom, and make a sketch, with there be pattern.Pica, Kanagy and Falodun (1993) classify tasks according to the type of interaction that occurs in task accomplishment.Jigsaw tasks(拼图式任务)：These involve learners combining different pieces of information to form a whole.Information-gap tasks(信息差型任务)：one set of information--a complementary set of information--negotiate and find out--complete an activityProblem-solving tasks (解决问题型任务): Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive at a solution to the problem. Decision- making tasks(选择决定型任务)：Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.Opinion exchange tasks(交换观点型任务): Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not need to reach agreement. Other characteristics of tasks have also been describedone-way or two-way: whether the task involves a one-way exchange of information or two-way exchange.convergent or divergent: whether the students achieve a common goal or several different goals.collaborative or competitive: whether the students collaborate to carryout a task or compete with each other on a task.single or multiple outcomes: whether there is a single outcome or many different outcomes are possible.concrete or abstract language: whether the task involves the use of concrete language or abstract language.simple or complex processing: whether the task requires relatively simple or complex cognitive processing.simple or complex language: whether the linguistic demands of the task are relatively simple or complex.reality-based or not reality-based: whether the task mirrors a real-world activity or is a pedagogical activity not found in the real world.teacher rolesA central role of the teacher is in selecting, adapting ,and /or creating the tasks themselves and then forming these into an instructional sequence in keeping with learner needs, interests and language skill level.任务型教学的优点:1.注重真实场景下的、以明确目标为导向；它要求学生通过完成任务的学习活动来掌握真实、实用和有意义的语言。

Principles of Language Learning and TeachingAbout the author of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Principles of language learning and teaching, published in 1994, is a textbook inquiring into the theoretical foundation of language teaching. The author of the book is professor Brown who have studied second language acquisition and second language teaching for many years. He is one of the ac demic leaders in this field. About the aim of Principles of Language Learning and TeachingThe aim of this textbook is to make second language teaching more proper arranged and easy for the readers to understand. What’s more, based on the given theory the author expects the readers to formulate their own realization or theory of the question “ how to learn second language”.About the content of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Actually, when finished reading this book, you will see that this book have mostly fulfilled it’s aim .This book is well organized, it was divided into 11 chapters, among them eight are about language learning. From general to detail, from surface to deep inside, it have well shown us the theory that the main mission of teachers are to lead and help the students to learn second language, there would be no way to identify teaching without knowing about learning. The more teachers know about the rules of language learning process, the better they will do in leading language learners.About the arrangement of Principles of Language Learning and Teaching This book was arranged according to the study topics. As for the conceptions, it have expounded and discussed them in a auger-type. At first, they just lead in the concept without explain it in detail, but as the book goes, all the concepts will be described fully. For example, in the first chapter, the concept behaviorism has been lead in without detailed explain. This concept also be mentioned in chapter two. But the chapter that gives out academic evaluation of behaviorism was chapter four. The same was to many other concepts and topics in this book. The most part I appreciated is the “in the classroom”part. It’s just like a lifelike teacher who tells the teacher-to-be how to do in class as well as puts the theories into practice. This part has well shown the aim of this book, help the readers to practice. By the way, the best part to help fulfill the aim is the “topics and questions for study and discussion” part. This part puts up a few topics to lead the readers to think deeply. As long as the readers think over by themselves, they will formulate their own opinion about principles of language learning and teaching theories.ConclusionAll in all, used as a guider, this book has fulfilled it’s destiny. It has al mostly introduced the principles about language learning and teaching to it’s readers. For further study, one can just chose a topic from this book and search for detailed information as he/she interested in.。

《语言学教程》第三版胡壮麟主编配套笔记Stella 整理Chapter 1 What is language?重点：design features of language ;Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:① The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.② The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③ The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西② Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Creativity（创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.)④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.The above 6 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字② Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤ Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?重点：some important distinctions in linguistics[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.Process of linguistic study: observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. [B] The scope of linguistics普通语言学General linguistics: the study of language as a whole语音学Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)音韵学Phonology:is essentially the description of the systems and patterns语音of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)形态学Morphology:the study of the way in which are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form句法学Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 语义学Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 抽象语用学Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use使用情境社会语言学Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. DescriptiveThey represent two different types of linguistic study.规定式Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used. （how they ought to be）描写式Descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.（how things are）② Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ‗state‘ of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development–for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological音韵学的, grammatical语法的and semantic语义学terms.T he description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; thedescription of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. Most grammars are synchronic. That is, they try to give a description of how a language is used at the present day. Diachronic study may recall to us the changes a language has undergone, for example, what phonological, grammatical and semantic changes have taken place from Old English period to the present day English.③ Speech and writing语言和言语Spoken language is primary, not the written1)Historically, speech is prior to writing.2)Genetically, children learn to speak before they are able to write.3）Functionally, spoken form is more important than written form in language use.④ Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)--―father of modern linguistics‖.现代语言学之父现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语。

第2章第一语言习得2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Theories of first language acquisition 第一语言习得的理论2. Competence and performance 语言能力与语言表现本章考点：1. 第一语言习得的理论：行为主义，先天主义，功能主义；2. 相关概念：语言能力与语言表现，语言理解与语言产出；3. 相关议题：先天还是后天，普遍规律，系统性与差异性，语言和思想，模仿。

本章内容索引：Ⅰ. Approaches1. Behavioristic approaches2. The Nativist approach3. Functional approachesⅡ. Concepts1. Competence and performance2. Comprehension and productionⅢ. Topics1. Nature and nurture2. Universals3. Systematicity and variability4. Language and thought5. ImitationⅠ. Approaches（理论）1. Behavioristic approaches（行为主义理论）The behavioristic approach focuses on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior and the relationships or associations between those responses and events in the world surrounding them.行为主义理论关注语言行为的即时的显而易见的方面，以及这些反应和周围事件之间的关联。

(1) Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior（斯金纳言语行为理论）Skinner’s theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism (in this case, a human being) emits a response, or operant (a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained (learned) by reinforcement (for example, a positive verbal or nonverbal response for another person). According to Skinner, verbal behavior, like other behavior, is controlled by its consequences.斯金纳的言语行为理论是他对操作条件学习理论的扩充。

《语⾔教学的流派》笔记（最新整理）第三章The oral approach and situational language teachingThe oral approach (situational language teaching) is a grammar-based method inwhich principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teachingpoints are presented and practiced through meaningful situation-based activities.⼀、Background1. Two of the leaders were Harold palmer and A.S.Hornby.2. Vocabulary control3. Grammar control⼆、The Oral Approach and Situational Language TeachingThe main characteristics of the approach were as follows:1. Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally.2. The target language is the language of the classroom.3. New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.4. Vocabulary selection procedures are followed to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.5. Items of grammar are graded by their complexity.6. Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.三、Approach1、Theory of languagea type of British “structuralism”.○1One distinctive feature: structures must be linked to situations in which they could be used○2Language was viewed as purposeful activity related to goals and situations in the real world.○32、Theory of learninga type of behaviorist habit-learning theory(three processes in learning a language)(1). Language learning as habit formation(2).An inductive approach is used to the teaching of grammar(3).The same processed are thought to occur both in child language learning and in second language learning.四、Design1、Objectives:(1). Practical command of the four basic skills of language(2). Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial.(3). Automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns is fundamental.(4). Writing derives from speech.2、The syllabus(1) A structural syllabus—a list of the basic structures and sentence patterns(2) Situation: the manner of presenting and practicing sentence patterns3、Types of learning and teaching activities(1) SLT employs a situational approach to presenting new sentence patterns and a drill-based manner to practicing the new sentence patterns(2) Situation: the use of concrete objects, pictures and realia, which together with actions and gestures(3) Practice techniques: guided repetition, substitution activities, pair practice4、Learner roles(1) Listen, repeat and responds to questions and commands(2) Have no control over the content of learning5、Teacher rolesThreefold: a model、a skillful manipulator、on the lookout for errorsThe teacher is essential to the success of the method.6、The role of instructional materials(1)Textbook: contains organized lessons(2)Visual aids: consists of wall charts, flashcards, pictures, stick figuresThe teacher is expected to be the master of his textbook.五、ProcedureAim: to move from controlled to freer practice of structures and from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing.The teaching of a structure: four partsPronunciationRevision ( to prepare for new work if necessary)Presentation of new structure or vocabularyOral practice (drilling)Reading of material on the new structure, or written exercisesThe sequence of activities:Listening practiceChoral imitationIndividual imitationIsolationBuilding up to a new modelElicitationSubstitution drillingQuestion-answer drillingCorrection第四章The Audiolingual MethodIt is a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes theteaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialoguesand drills. (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) oftenmakes use of contrastive analysis. The audiolingual method was prominent inthe 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used inmany other parts of the world.⼀、BackgroundThe combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audiolingual Method.⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageStructural linguistics (1950s): a reaction to traditional grammarThe primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.2、Theory of learningBehavioral psychology: stimulus-response chainsLearning principles:1. Foreign language learning is basically a process of mechanical habit formation.2. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned in the target language are presented in sporken form before they are seen in written form.3. Analogy provides a better foundation for language learning than analysis. Hence the approach to the teaching of grammar is essentially inductive rather than deductive.4.The meaning of word can be learned in a linguistic and cultural context and not in isolation.三、Design1、ObjectivesShort-range objectives：Listening comprehension、accurate pronunciation, reading comprehension and production of correct sentences in writing.Long-range objectives ：To develop in the students the same types of abilities that native speakers have2、The syllabusA linguistic syllabus: phonology, morphology, and syntax of the languageA lexical syllabus of basic vocabularyLanguage skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesDialoguesDrills --Various kinds of drills : repetition, inflection, replacement…4、Learner rolesOrganisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responsesa reactive role, have little control5、Teachers rolesCentral and activeModels the target languageControls the direction and pace of learningMonitors and corrects the learners’ performance6、The role of instructional materialsTextbookTape recorders and audiovisual equipment四、Procedure1、The process of teaching involves extensive oral instruction2、The procedures the teacher should adopt ( Brook)3、In a typical audiolingual lesson the following procedures will be observed:a. Recognition;b. Imitation and repetitionc. Patterns drill:d. Follow-up activities五、The decline of Audiolingualism1、Criticism on two fronts: the theoretical foundations（both in language and language learning）and the practical results fell short of expectation.2、the theoretical attack: Noam Chomsky’s theory of transformational grammar情境法与听说法的异同There are many similarities between situational language teaching and audiolingualism.1. The order in which language skills are introduced2. Focus on accuracy through drill and practice in the basic structures3. Sectence patterns of the target languageHowever, situational language teaching was a development of the earlier Direct Method and does not have the strong ties to linguistic and behavioral psychology that characterize audiolingualism. The similarities of the two methods reflect similar views about the nature of language and of language learning, through these views were in fact development from quite different traditions.第五章Communicative Language Teaching⼜称：功能—意念法（The Functional-Notional Approach ）The CLT is an approach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizesthat the goal of language learning is communicative competence. Teachingmaterials used with the Communicative approach often teach the language neededto express and understand different kinds of functions. The approach follows aNational syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication to getinformation, and using language for social interaction with other people.⼀、BackgroundThe origins of the CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating from the late 1960s.In the late sixties, the current SLT was questioned.British applied linguistics began to emphasize the fundamental dimension of language teaching at that time- the functional and communicative potential of language. Scholars argued for focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structures.⼆、Approachlanguage as communication三、Design1、ObjectivesPiepho’s discussion (general objectives)1.an integrative and content level(language as a means of expression)2.an linguistic and instrumental level(language as a semiotic system and an object of learning)3.an affective level of interpersonal relationships and conduct(language as a means of expressing values and judgments about oneself and others.)4.a level of individual learning needs(remedial learning based on error analysis)5.a general educational level of extra-linguistic goals(language learning within the school curriculum) No defined particular objectives2、The syllabusNotional syllabus which specified the semantic-grammatical categories and the categories of communicative function that learners need to express.3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesClassroom activities are unlimited.Littlewood (functional communication activities and social interaction activities)1. Functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain languageskills and functions, but which involve communication, and2. Social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialoguesand role plays4、Learner roles①a negotiator②a communicator③a contributor④an independent learner5、Teacher roles①a facilitator of the communication②an independent participant within the learning-teaching group③Need analyst (formally and informally)④Counselor⑤Group process manager6、The role of instructional materialsText-based materialsTask-based materialsRealia 实物教具四、ProcedureDescription of typical classroom procedures used in a lesson based on CLT principles is not feasible.Conclusion:Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. It appeared at a time when British language was ready for a paradigm shift. CLT appealed to those who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, one in which the interactive processes of communication received priority. Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, some of the claims of CLT are being looked at more critically.第六章Total Physical ResponseTotal Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordinationof speech and action. This method of learning was developed by James Asher, aprofessor of psychology at San Jose State University, California.⼀、Background1、the “trace theory” of memory in psychology2、developmental psychology：child first language acquisition3、humanistic psychology: the role of affective factors4、Comprehension Approach5、a tradition: the use of physical actions to teach a foreign language at an introductory level⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagestructuralist or grammar-based views of languagedetailed cognitive map (abstractions and nonabstractions)the central role of comprehension in language learninglanguage can be internalized as wholes or chunks2、Theory of learningReminiscent of the views of behavioral psychology: a stimulus-response viewLearning hypotheses ( to facilitate or inhibit foreign language learning ) According to Asher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:1. Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes.2. Listening should develop before speaking.3. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.4. Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns.三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to teach oral proficiency at a beginning levelSpecific instructional objectives are not elaborated.2、The syllabus:Be inferred from an analysis of the exercise types employed in TPR classesA sentence-based syllabusA fixed number of items be introduced at a timeAttention to both the global meaning of language and the finer details of its organization3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesImperative drills are the major classroom activity.Role plays：center on everyday situationSlide presentationsReading and writing activities4、Learner rolesA primary role : listener and performerHave little influence over the contentMonitor and evaluate their own progress5、Teacher rolesActive and direct roleWell prepared and well organizedTeachers follow the example of parents giving feedbackCautions: illusion of simplicity; having too narrow a tolerance for errors6、The role of instructional materialsNo basic text, materials and realia play an increasing role in later learning stages. Student kits that focus on specific situations (supporting materials)四、ProcedureAsher’s account of a course:ReviewNew commandsRole reversalReading and writingConclusion:Total Physical Response has enjoyed some popularity because of its support by thosewho emphasize the role of comprehension in second language acquisition.It represents a useful techniques and is compatible with other approaches to teaching.4.Traits 1. It uses psychomotor systems to teach.2. It support kinesthetic learning style, which is good for those who need to be active in the class.3. Command forms used to convey information.4. It works well with mixed-ability classes.5. It is very memorable, and it really helps students to remember phrases or words.6. It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class.7. It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.第七章The Silent WayIt is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by Gattegno which makesuse of gesture, mime, visual aids, wall charts, and in particular Cuisiniere rods(wooden sticks of different lengths and colors) that the teacher uses to help thestudents to talk. The method takes its name from the relative silence of the teacherusing these techniques.⼀、BackgroundThe premise of the Silent WayThe learning hypothesesLearning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates. (discovery learning)Learning is facilitated by accompanying physical objects.Learning is facilitated by problem solving.⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageGattegno views language as a substitute for experience.By the "spirit" of the language Gattegno is referring to the way each language isComposed of phonological and suprasegmentalA structural approachVocabulary as a central dimension2、Theory of learningSurrenderArtificial approachThe self of the learnerLearning to learn三、Design1、ObjectivesThe general objectives: to give beginning level students oral and aural facilityAn immediate objectives: to provide the learner with a basic practical knowledge of the grammar of the language Teach learners how to learn a language2、The syllabusa basically structural syllabusvocabulary3、Types of learning and teaching activitiessimple linguistic tasksresponses to commands, questions and visual cues4、Learner rolesLearners are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility.Learners exert a strong influence over each other’s learning.Playing varying roles5、Teacher rolesTeacher silence is the most demanding aspect of the Silent Way.To teach, to test, to get out of the wayCreate an environmentTeacher likes the complete dramatist.6、The role of instructional materialsThe pronunciation chartsThe colored cuisenaire rodsThe vocabulary or word chartsOther materials四、ProcedureA standard formatPractice of the sounds (using the pronunciation charts)Practice of sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary (using the rods and charts)A sample lessonConclusion:The actual practices of the Silent Way are much less revolutionary than might be expected. The innovations derive from the manner in which classroom activities are organized, the indirect role the teacher is required to assume in directing and monitoring learner performance, the responsibility placed upon learners, and the materials used.第⼋章Community Language LearningIt is a method of second and foreign language teaching developed by Charles Curran. CLL is an application of counseling learning(咨询学习法)to second andforeign language teaching and learning. It uses techniques developed in groupcounseling to help people with psychological and emotional problems. The methodmakes use of group learning in small or large groups. These groups are the“Community”. The method places emphasis on the learners’ personal feelings andtheir reactions to language learning. Learners say things which they want to talkabout, in their native language. The teacher (known as “Counselor”) translatesthe learners’ sentences into the foreign language, and the learner then repeats thisto other members of the group.⼀、Background1、Rogerian counseling2、Humanistic techniques：the whole person3、Language alternation⼆、Approach1、Theory of languageTraditional structuralist positionLanguage as social processThe interactional view of language: interaction between equals, interaction between unequals2、Theory of learningContracted with traditional views (a putative learning view, the behavioral view)The whole-person learning (five stages)Consensual validationS(secure)A(attention and aggression)R(retention and reflection)D(discrimination)the personal commitments三、Design1、ObjectivesExplicit linguistic or communicative objectives are not defined.Teacher transfers knowledge and proficiency to the learner.Goal: attaining near-native like mastery of the target languageSpecific objectives are not addressed.2、The syllabusNo conventional language syllabusTopic-based courseTeacher’s responsibility3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCombines innovative learning tasks and activities with conventional ones.Translation, Group Work, Recording, Transcription, Analysis, Reflection and observation, Listening, Free conversation4、Learner rolesmembers of a communitybecome counselors to other learnersFive stages5、Teacher rolesCounselorSpecific teacher roles are keyed to the five development stages.providing a safe environmentNote two “asides” in the discussion of learning security.6、The role of instructional materialsA textbook is not considered a necessary component.Materials may be developed by the teacher as the course develops.the use of teaching machines四、Procedure1、 classical CLL and personal interpretations of it2、 the description of some typical activities in CLL classed3、 a protocol of what a first day’s CLL class coveredConclusion:Community Language Learning is the most responsive of the methods we have reviewed in terms of its sensitivity to learner communication intent. It places unusual demands on language teachers. Critics of Community Language Learning question many aspects of CLL. Supporters of CLL emphasize the positive benefits of a method that centered on the learner and stresses the humanistic side of language learning.Question for discussion:社团学习法把语⾔学习过程⽐作是咨询过程，你们觉得这个⽐喻合适吗？为什么？第九章The Natural ApproachIt is a term for an approach proposed by Terrell, to develop teaching principleswhich(a) emphasize natural communication rather than formal grammar study(b) are tolerant of learners’ errors(c) emphasize the informal acquisition of language rules.⼀、Background1、Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen2、The Natural Approach and traditional approaches3、The Natural Approach and the Natural Method⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagecommunication as the primary function of languagegive little attention to a theory of languageThe importance of vocabulary is stressed.view language learning as mastery of structures by stages (I+1)a view of language consists of lexical items, structure, and messages2 Theory of learning: Krashen’s language acquisition theoryThe Acquisition/Learning hypothesisThe monitor hypothesisThe natural order hypothesisThe input hypothesisThe affective filter hypothesis三、Design1、ObjectivesExpectationSpecific objectives depend upon learner needs and the skill and level being taught.It is important to communicate to learners what they can expect of a course as well as what they should not expect.2、The syllabusTwo points of view to approach course organizationContent selection3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesCommand-based activitiesDirect Method activitiesSituation-based practice of structures and patternsGroup-work activitiesthe characteristics of the Natural Approach4、Learner rolesa processor of comprehensible inputLearners’ roles change according to their stages of linguistic development.Learner have four kinds of responsibilities.5、Teacher rolesThree central rolesa. the primary source of comprehensible inputb. create a classroom atmospherec. choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities6、The role of instructional materialsthe primary goal of materialsthe primary aim of materialsother recommended materialsgames四、ProcedureThe Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities freely from various method sources.ExamplesConclusion:The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal setting. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.Question for discussion:⾃然法的⾃然之处在哪⾥？创新之处⼜在哪⾥？第⼗章SuggostopediaSuggestopedia/Lozanov Method (暗⽰法/罗扎诺夫法)It is a method of foreign-language teaching developed by the Bulgarian Lozanov. It makes use of dialogues, situations and translation to present andpractise language, and in particular, makes use of music, visual images, andrelaxation exercises to make learning more comfortable and effective.⼀、Background1、Suggestology2、the most conspicuous characteristics of Suggestopedia3、Soviet psychology4、mental states5、the centrality of music and musical rhythm to learning⼆、Approach1、Theory of languagelexis is centralwhole meaningful texta language to be its vocabulary and the grammar rules for organizing vocabulary2、Theory of learninga desuggestive-suggestive sensesix principal theoretical components:authority, infantilization, double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, concertpseudo-passivenessthe type of musicthe rate of presentation of material to be learned within the rhythmic pattern三、Design1、Objectivesdeliver advanced conversational proficiency quicklyincreased access to understanding and creative solutions of problems2、The syllabuscourse descriptiontime durationeach unitthe whole course3、Types of learning and teaching activitiesimitation, question and answer, role playlistening activities4Learner rolesThe mental state of the learner is critical to success. mind-alteringinfantilization5、Teacher rolesthe primary role of the teacherexpected teacher behaviorsneeds three to six months training in acting, singing, and psychotherapeutic techniques6 The role of instructional materialsDirect support materials: text and tapeIndirect support materials: classroom fixtures and music四、ProcedureBancroft’s description: a four-hour language class has three distinct parts.The first part: an oral review sectionThe second part: new material is presented and discussedThe third part: the séance or concert sessionConclusion:Suggestopedia has probably received both the most enthusiastic and the most critical response of any of the so-called new methods. It is not productive to further belabor the science/nonscience, date/double-talk issues and instead try to identify andvalidate those techniques from Suggestopedia that appear effective and that harmonize with other successful techniques in the language teaching inventory.Question for discussion;暗⽰法强调⾳乐的作⽤，那么⾳乐在外语学习过程中究竟起了怎样的作⽤？谈谈你们的看法。

第8章对比分析、中介语和错误分析8.1 复习笔记本章要点1. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 对比分析假说2. Error Analysis 错误分析本章考点1. 对比分析假说的定义和四个步骤；2. 难度等级的六个层级特点；3. 对比分析理论的强势说和弱势说；4. 错误分析理论、失误与错误的区分、错误来源及如何对待和纠正。

本章内容索引Ⅰ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）1. Definition2. Four different proceduresⅡ. Hierarchy of Difficulty1. Definition2. Different levels3. ShortcomingsⅢ. Moderating the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis1. Strong version of the CAH2. Weak version of the CAH3. Moderate version of the CAHⅣ. Markedness and Universal Grammar1. Markedness Differential Hypothesis2. Universal grammar (UG)3. InterlanguageⅤ. Error Analysis1. Definition2. Mistakes and Errors3. Errors in Error Analysis4. Identifying and Describing Errors5. Stages of Interlanguage Development6. Sources of ErrorⅥ. Communication StrategiesⅦ. In the Classroom: Error Correction1. Error correction2. Error treatmentⅠ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）（对比分析假说）1. Definition（定义）The CAH claimed that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second language system, and that a scientific, structural analysis of the two languages in question would yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter.对比分析假说认为第二语言习得的根本障碍是第一语言对第二语言存在着干扰，因此，对两种语言从结构上进行科学的对比分析可以帮助语言学家利用语言之间的差异性预测学习者在第二语言学习过程中可能遇到的困难。

第4章人类学习4.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Four different learning theories 四种学习理论2. Systematic Forgetting 系统性遗忘3. Gagnés taxonomy of learning types加涅对学习类型的分类本章考点：1. 四种学习理论：古典行为主义、操作条件反射、有意义学习、人本主义心理学；2. 八类学习方式：信号式、刺激-反应式、连锁式、言语联结式、辨别式、概念式、原理式、解决问题式；3. 相关概念：迁移、干扰、泛化，归纳推理、演绎推理，智力。

本章内容索引：Ⅰ. Learning theories1. Classical Behaviorism2. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning3. Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory4. Rogers’s Humanistic PsychologyⅡ. Types of learning1. Signal learning2. Stimulus-response learning3. Chaining4. Verbal association5. Multiple discrimination6. Concept learning7. Principle learning8. Problem solvingⅢ. Considerations1. Transfer, Interference, and Overgeneralization2. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning3. IntelligenceⅠ. Learning theories（学习理论）1. Classical Behaviorism（古典行为主义）Pavlov believed that the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses. He conducted the classical experiment and found that a previously neutral stimulus had acquired the power to elicit a response that was originally elicited by another stimulus.巴甫洛夫认为学习过程是由刺激与反应之间的连结组成的。

第9章交际能力9.1 复习笔记本章要点1. Communicative Competence 交际能力2. Language Functions 语言功能3. Discourse Analysis 话语分析本章考点1. 理解交际能力下的次能力；2. 理解语言的七个功能并能一一对应，实例分析；3. 话语分析的几大要素：会话原则，话轮转换，文体等；4. 非语言交际的几种形式及注意事项；5. 交际语言教学特点。

本章内容索引Ⅰ. On Defining Communicative Competence1. Definition2. Distinction3. Four subcategories4. Strategic competenceⅡ. PragmaticsⅢ. Language FunctionsⅣ. Discourse Analysis1. C onversational “maxims”2. Turn-taking3. Topic shifting and avoidance4. Styles(1) oratorical, or “frozen”(2) deliberative, or formal(3) consultative(4) casual(5) intimate5. Registers6. Language and Gender7. Nonverbal Communication(1) Gesture and Body Language(2) Eye Contact(3) Proxemics(4) Artifacts(5) Kinesthetic Dimensions(6) Olfactory DimensionsⅤ. Communicative Language TeachingⅥ. Notional-Functional SyllabusesⅠ. On Defining Communicative Competence（定义交际能力）1. Definition（定义）The term “communicative competence” was coined by Dell Hymes. Communicative competence is that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts.“交际能力”这个词由海姆斯提出，是指一个人能够传递、解释信息以及在特定环境下与人交流信息的能力。

浅谈交互教学认知三原则摘要：多年来，在中国外语教学课堂中，以教师为中心的传统教学模式长期居于主导地位。

教师是课堂的主宰者，学生则处于被动地位，主动性没有得到充分发挥，而以学习者为中心的交互式教学模式受到越来越广泛的欢迎。

笔者通过对交互教学认知原则中的三原则：有意义学习原则，期待奖励原则，激发内在动机原则的概念和相关理论分析，提出一些对课堂教学的启示，探讨如何有效提高学生学习效率，激发学生学习动机，发挥学生在英语学习中的主体作用。

1.有意义学习原则1.1 定义在20世纪60年代，美国著名认知派心理学家奥苏贝尔提出了有意义学习理论，又称认知同化理论。

在该理论中，奥苏贝尔根据学习材料和学习者原有知识的联系，把学习分为机械学习和有意义学习两类。

他认为，在有意义学习过程中，新知识能被学习者认知结构中的已有知识同化，通过此方式，学习者能够产生较为持久的记忆，获得更好的学习效果。

奥苏贝尔认为有意义学习条件有三个：首先，学习者必须具有有意义学习的心向；其次，学习材料本身具有逻辑意义；最后，学习者的认知结构中必须有同化新知识的原有的适当观念。

1.2英语课堂中有意义学习的现状传统英语课堂并没有真正让学生做到有意义学习，以教师为中心的传统教学模式依旧使学生处于机械的学习状态下。

英语语言学习是一个复杂的过程，其中很多方面都涉及到记忆。

但有些教师在课堂上过度重视对单词，短语和句型的过度训练，不但花费了课堂上学生大量的宝贵时间，还易于使学生产生厌倦情绪，课堂上的过度训练和重复将导致机械学习和死记硬背，实践证明有意义学习比死记硬背产生更长时间和更持久的记忆效果。

1.3对课堂教学的启示课堂教学要多引发学生注意力和激发学生的兴趣，调动学生学习的主动性，教师可以努力使课堂教学形式多元化，利用诸如多媒体、巧妙设问、创设情境、分组竞赛等多种形式，充分调动学生的积极性和主动性。

2.期待奖励原则斯金纳的强化理论证明了奖励对动物和人类行为的作用，事实上，我们做的任何事都是受到意图或目的的驱动。

第8章对比分析、中介语和错误分析8.1 复习笔记本章要点1. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 对比分析假说2. Error Analysis 错误分析本章考点1. 对比分析假说的定义和四个步骤；2. 难度等级的六个层级特点；3. 对比分析理论的强势说和弱势说；4. 错误分析理论、失误与错误的区分、错误来源及如何对待和纠正。

本章内容索引Ⅰ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）1. Definition2. Four different proceduresⅡ. Hierarchy of Difficulty1. Definition2. Different levels3. ShortcomingsⅢ. Moderating the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis1. Strong version of the CAH2. Weak version of the CAH3. Moderate version of the CAHⅣ. Markedness and Universal Grammar1. Markedness Differential Hypothesis2. Universal grammar (UG)3. InterlanguageⅤ. Error Analysis1. Definition2. Mistakes and Errors3. Errors in Error Analysis4. Identifying and Describing Errors5. Stages of Interlanguage Development6. Sources of ErrorⅥ. Communication StrategiesⅦ. In the Classroom: Error Correction1. Error correction2. Error treatmentⅠ. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis（CAH）（对比分析假说）1. Definition（定义）The CAH claimed that the principal barrier to second language acquisition is the interference of the first language system with the second language system, and that a scientific, structural analysis of the two languages in question would yield a taxonomy of linguistic contrasts between them which in turn would enable the linguist to predict the difficulties a learner would encounter.对比分析假说认为第二语言习得的根本障碍是第一语言对第二语言存在着干扰，因此，对两种语言从结构上进行科学的对比分析可以帮助语言学家利用语言之间的差异性预测学习者在第二语言学习过程中可能遇到的困难。

如何把布朗的教学原则应用于英语教学美国旧金山大学语言学院院长布朗（H. Douglas Brown）撰写的《根据原理教学：交互式语言教学》，以简单通俗的语言为广大外语教师从理论和实践两方面提出了许多切实可行的教学指导。

书中提出了指导第二语言教学的12条教学原则，值得我国的英语教师学习并应用于课堂教学。

Brown的12条教学原则分为三大类：认知类、情感类、语言类，涵盖了认知心理学、教育学、社会心理学、语言学等多个学科的理论。

分开来看有的教学原则并不是Brown最先提出，但Brown首次站在整合这些学科的基础上，就第二语言学习提炼出这12条教学原则，并建议第二语言教师根据这些原则设计组织课堂教学。

对我国的英语教师来说，在不断重复的教学工作中可能会遇到许多问题和迷茫，不妨试着从这12条教学原则中寻找解决问题的答案，可能会豁然开朗。

下面谈谈如何把这些原则应用于英语课堂教学。

一、如何把认知类教学原则应用于课堂教学认知类教学原则包括：（1）自动化;（2）意义学习;（3）期待奖励;（4）激发内在动机;（5）策略投资。

自动化指教师通过在课堂上使用英语、引导学生使用英语，使学生不知不觉地将知识内化于心。

有经验的教师会有计划地把想让学生掌握的知识高频率地在课堂上使用出来，学生听的用的频率高，自然就学会了。

比如，教师上课开始就学生的出勤情况经常询问who is late for class？Who didn’t come today？等等，并要求学生用英语回答，一段时间后，学生使用absent， be late for就像使用母语一样自然。

这个例子里，教师以沟通交流为目的进行教学，并没有刻意强调要学生背诵be late for 这个介词结构，完全通过高频使用使学生掌握，这也是Brown努力倡导的基于意义的学习。

更重要的是，通过意义学习学到的知识会比单纯的死记硬背会在学生脑海中保存更长久。

学生学习都有内在动机和外在动机，共同促进激发学生的学习动力，外在动机是指来自外部的动力，如奖金、排名、害怕惩罚等等。