1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar （转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules in lingui stic communication.8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication1.Define the terms:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonicit is concerned with all the sounds thatIt studies the speech sounds from thesounds are perceived by the hearer.3).acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person tois a standardizedthe transcription with letter-symbolsfor one sound. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries andteachingis the transcription withthe diacritics. This is thetranscription used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speechis a set of symbols which can be added to theto make finer distinctions than theletters alone清音）: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart,through without causing vibration,the sounds（浊音）: Sounds produced while the vocal cords arethe sounds in production of whichno articulatorsPhonology studies the system of sounds ofalanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to conveya collection of abstract phonetic features, it isaThe different phones which can represent aphonetic environmentsare called theenvironment and distinguish meaning, they arein phonemicrefers to the relationare allophones ofthe sameWhen two different forms are identical inone sound segment which occurs in thesame place in the strings, the two words are saidto form aare calledsuprasegmentalfeatures. The main suprasegmental features include stress, toneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by thedistinguish meaning just like phonemes.Themeaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially importantthan the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as intonation. For example, English has fourbasic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, thefall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.4、morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer whichstudies the internal structure of words and the rules by whichwords are formed.5、inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies theinflections of word-formation.6、derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is thestudy of word-formation.7、morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit oflanguage.8、free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all bythemselces or in combination with other morphemes.9、bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemeswhich cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.10、root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never standby itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must becombined with another root or an affix to form a word.11、affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.12、prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.13、suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; theymodify the meaning of the original word and in many caseschange its part of speech.14、derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing formto creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding ofaffixes to stem to form nes words.15、compounding: Like derivation, compounding is anotherpopular and important way of forming new words in English.Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.17、linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.18、sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.19、transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 20、D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.21、Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а22、syntax studies the sentence structure of language.23、Types of sentencessimple sentence, coordinate(compound) sentence[复合句]，complex sentence第五章、语义学Semantics1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.第六章语用学Pragmatics1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.第七章、历史语言学Historical linguistics1、historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2、apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3、epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4、metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5、compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6、derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7、blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8、back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9、semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10、semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11、semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12、protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.13、sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemesrelation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.1、Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.2、the speech community ：In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as members of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community.3、A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. The term is believed to have originated from the pronunciation of the English word "business" in Chinese Pidgin English.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole（克里奥尔语，混合语）.4、Bilingualism：It has been observed that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of bilingualism.5、Diglossia：The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.6、speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.7、language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.8、idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.9、standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.10、nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.11、lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.12、pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.13、Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.14、diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.15、bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.16、ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect ofa language ,often cutting across regional differences.17、sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.18、register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.1、psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2、cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3、brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4、linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5、dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6、right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7、critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction. 8、linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion 10、subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.1、language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2、telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3、holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4、acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5、learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6、language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7、positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8、negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9、contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10、interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11、formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12、instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13、integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14、acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation。
