文献综述要求：
1). 文献综述所用文字---- 英语；
2). 文献综述的字数------ 不少于1500字；
3). 文献综述的参考文献篇数不得少于10篇,其中英语原版文献2-3篇；
4). 文献综述要求中心明确,有逻辑性,前后连贯,而不是将各种摘录放在一起；
建议各位老师让学生在写文献综述前先写一份大致的提纲，帮助他们理清自己的思路.
文献综述的写法及范文
文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文，它是科学文献的一种。
文献综述是反映当前某一领域中某分支学科或重要专题的最新进展、学术见解和建议，它往往能反映出有关问题的新动态、新趋势、新水平、新原理和新技术等等。
要求同学们学写综述，至少有以下好处：①通过搜集文献资料过程，可进一步熟悉文献的查找方法和资料的积累方法；在查找的过程中同时也扩大了知识面；②查找文献资料、写文献综述是进行科研的第一步，因此学习文献综述的撰写也是为今后科研活动打基础的过程；③通过综述的写作过程，能提高归纳、分析、综合能力，有利于独立工作能力和科研能力的提高；④文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，可难可易，可根据自己的能力和兴趣自由选题。
文献综述与“读书报告”、“文献复习”、“研究进展”等有相似的地方，它们都是从某一方面的专题研究论文或报告中归纳出来的。
但是，文献综述既不像“读书报告”“文献复习”那样，单纯把一级文献客观地归纳报告，也不像“研究进展”那样只讲科学进程，其特点是“综”，“综”是要求对文献资料进行综合分析、归纳整理，使材料更精练明确、更有逻辑层次；“述”就是要求对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述。
总之，文献综述是作者对某一方面问题的历史背景、前人工作、争论焦点、研究现状和发展前景等内容进行评论的科学性论文。
写文献综述一般经过以下几个阶段：即选题，搜集阅读文献资料、拟定提纲（包括归纳、整理、分析）和成文。
一、选题和搜集阅读文献
撰写文献综述通常出于某种需要，如为某学术会议的专题、从事某项科研、为某方面积累文献资料等等，所以，文献综述的选题，作者一般是明确的，不像科研课题选题那么困难。
文献综述选题范围广，题目可大可小，大到一个领域、一个学科，小到一个方法、一个理论，可根据自己的需要而定，初次撰写文献综述的同学所选题目宜小些，这样查阅文献的数量相对较小，撰写时易于归纳整理，否则，题目选得过大，查阅文献花费的时间太多，而且归纳整理困难，最后写出的综述大题小作或是文不对题。
选定题目后，则要围绕题目进行搜集与文题有关的文献。
搜集文献要求越全越好，最常用的方法是用检索法。
搜集好与文题有关的参考文献后，就要对这些参考文献进行阅读、归纳、整理，如何从这些文献中选出具有代表性、科学性和可靠性大的单篇研究文献十分重要，从某种意义上讲，所阅读和选择的文献的质量高低，直接影响文献综述的水平。
因此在阅读文献时，要写好“读书笔记”、“读书心得”和做好“文献摘录卡片”。
有自己的语言写下阅读时得到的启示、体会和想法，将文献的精髓摘录下来，不仅为撰写综述时提供有用的资料，而且对于训练自己的表达能力，阅读水平都有好处，特别是将文献整理成文献摘录卡片，对撰写综述极为有利。
二、格式与写法
文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述，其格式多样，但总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。
撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲，再根据提纲进行撰写工作。
1.前言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。
2.主题部分，是综述的主体，其写法多样，没有固定的格式。
可按年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用那一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。
3. 总结部分，与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，对所综述的主题有研究的作者，最好能提出自己的见解。
4. 参考文献虽然放在文末，但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。
因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据，而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。
因此，应认真对待。
参考文献的编排应条目清楚，查找方便，内容准确无误。
三、注意事项
由于文献综述的特点，致使它的写作既不同于“读书笔记”“读书报告”，也不同于一般的科研论文。
因此，在撰写文献综述时应注意以下几个问题：
⒈搜集文献应尽量全。
掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好多综述的，甚至写出的文章根本不成为综述。
⒉注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。
在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。
⒊引用文献要忠实文献内容。
由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。
⒋参考文献不能省略。
有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。
总之，一篇好的文献综述，应有较完整的文献资料，有评论分析，并能准确地反映主题内容。
参考范文1
Distance Learning Literature Review
Nellie Deutsch
This paper will summarize two articles on distance learning and give the author's views on the benefits and obstacles of implementing distance-learning in a junior and high school learning environment.
Jeannette McDonald, in her article: Is "As good as fact-to-face" as good as it gets? (2002), raises a very important question as to whether "[the] goal [of online learning should be] to meet existing standards of traditional education" (McDonald, 2002) or "has distance learning, and especially online education opened the door to enhanced strategies in teaching and learning" (McDonald, 2002)? Online learning may just be "doing different things" (McDonald, 2002). What are these different things? Jeannette McDonald claims that "distance education can be a frontier for new methods of communication giving rise to innovative teaching and learning practices that may not be possible in traditional, place-bound education" (2002). The article discusses both the positive and "potential negative impacts of online education"
(McDonald, 2002).
There are many benefits to using online distance learning environments. Online education is available "anyplace, anytime [for] global communities of learners based on shared interests (McDonald, 2002). Jeannette McDonald claims that "online education [with its] group-based instruction [and] computer mediated communication (CMC) provides an opportunity for new development and understanding in teaching and learning" (2002). CMC encourages "collaborative learning [by not providing] cues regarding appearance, race, gender, education, or social status bestowing a sort of anonymity to participants" (McDonald, 2002). Distance also "permits the expression of emotion (both positive and negative) and promotes discussion that normally would be inhibited. [Yet, this same] text-based [positive aspect of online learning], makes online education more cumbersome and therefore takes more time than face-to-face learning. [In addition,] the sheer bulk of messages can be overwhelming" (McDonald, 2002). The learner only has the written text and no other "non-verbal" (McDonald, 2002) cues. This may confuse the learner and cause "misunderstanding" (McDonald, 2002). The article lists the "seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education" (McDonald, 2004) published in 1987 by the American Association of Higher Education Bulletin. Jeannette McDonald claims that "online education has the potential to achiever all of these practices" (2002). There is a need for quality and standards for distance learning. "In April 2000, the institute of Higher Education Policy produced a study with 24 benchmarks for the success in Internet-based distance education" (The Institute for Higher Education Policy, 2000).
Although Jeannette McDonald feels that there are "biases against distance learning programs" (2002), her recommendation is "to take advantage of the potential of online education [by striving] to understand the technology and how it affects human communication and interaction" (2002).
"In the road to dotcalm in education" (2004), Mark David Milliron deals with a very progressive i dea that suggests educators "slow … down from [their] busy lives… to be free to focus first on connecting with learners and connecting them to learning… before [they] end up feeling like [they] are no longer using technology, but are being used by it" (Milliron, 2004). He compares education to a highway where educators are faced with many "road hazards". Mark Milliron claims that "looking for road hazards on a journey takes concentration [which] is not often practiced by those with a need for speed or those caught up in their competitive drives" (2004). He gives examples of how ridiculous people are becoming when they "strive to stay connected [to cell phones and e-mails at the price of] deep personal connections with [their] family members and friends" (Milliron, 2004). He quotes Dr. Edward Hallowell, who ironically states "how many electronic connections we have today, yet how hard it is for us to form authentic and deep personal connections" (Milliron, 2004). Mark Milliron gives an excellent comparison of how technology has blinded people when he says that they are becoming "more and more like Pavlov's dogs: at the ding of incoming e-mails they stop what they're doing, salivate, and rush to the screen" (2004). There is pressure to keep up with the times as well as "a cost-of-entry issue
regarding technology in education. Without a certain level of technology services and learning options, many students will not consider attending [a certain] institution" (Milliron, 2004). Mark Milliron claims that "any technology has to prove that it will ultimately improve or expand learning" (2004). This will come about if educators "slow down, look around, and get on the road to DotCalm- a place [to] thoughtfully engage and explore all aspects of technology, good, bad, or indifferent; …a place with mindful focus on the people and passions that make life worth living" (Milliron, 2004).
The author of this paper has been trying to implement distance learning in both junior and high school environments for the past year. The school has added a platform called "Britannica" to make online learning possible in case of emergency or a teacher's strike. The students are not willing to take the time to go in and look up homework assignments and other online learning activities. The author keeps reminding students to add their e-mail addresses to the form but they are unwilling to cooperate. The process is very slow with little results. Some teachers have made these online lessons compulsory for their students. ESL students shy away from online classes. They have expressed fear of having their work viewed by others. Every student has to login to the school site but within a classroom, everyone who takes the class can view the other's work. ESL students don't see the advantage of learning by sharing. Should online learning be an issue of control or should students be convinced of its value as an authentic learning tool? Fear and a threatening environment don't enhance learning according to brain-based learning research. "How students 'feel' about a learning situation determines the amount of attention they devote to it"(Sousa, 1998). "Positive emotions ensure that learning will be retained" (Lackney, 2002). It's very important to discuss with students how they feel about technology and online learning so that they feel good about what they are doing. The author feels that the process of implementing online distance learning is a slow and delicate one. Change will eventually come about but it will take time. As Mark Milliron has said "[let's not let] new technology … get in the way of learning" (2004). Let's calm down as we "focus first on connecting with learners [and only then begin] connecting them to learning" (Milliron, 2004).
References
Lackney, J. A. (1998). 12 design principles based on brain-based learning research. Design share: The international forum for innovative schools. Retrieved February 21, 2004, from
McDonald, J. (2002, August). Is "as good as face-to-face" as good as it gets? Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. 6 (2), 10-15. Retrieved February 14, 2004 from
Milliron, M. D. (2004, February). The road to dotcalm in education. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks. 8 (1), 80-91. Retrieved February 14, 2004, from Sousa, D. A. (1998, December 16). Is the fuss about brain research justified? Education Week [Online], 18(16), 52.
The Institute for Higher Education Policy. (2000, April). Quality on the line:
Benchmarks for success in Internet-based distance education. 1-45. Retrieved February 21, 2004, from
范文2
LANGUAGE AND GENDER: A brief Literature Review
Here is an example of a Literature review, on the subject of Language & Gender. It was written by Alastair Pennycook, as an example for his students.
TASK: 1. Work out
•the comparison the writer establishes in the review
•the sequence to his review (why that sequence?)
•what the writer's own perspective is
2. Note
•the use the writer makes of each of the sources he refers to
•how, in his language particularly, he avoids a "black and white", right/wrong type of judgment of the positions he reviews
LANGUAGE AND GENDER: A brief Literature Review
With the general growth of feminist work in many academic fields, it is hardly surprising that the relationship between language and gender has attracted considerable attention in recent years. In an attempt to go beyond "folk linguistic" assumptions about how men and women use language (the assumption that women are "talkative", for example), studies have focused on anything from different syntactical, phonological or lexical uses of language to aspects of conversation analysis, such as topic nomination and control, interruptions and other interact ional features. While some research has focused only on the description of differences, other work has sought to show how linguistic differences both reflect and reproduce social difference. Accordingly, Coates (1988) suggests that research on language and gender can be divided into studies that focus on dominance and those that focus on difference.
Much of the earlier work emphasized dominance. Lakoff's (1975) pioneering work suggested that women's speech typically displayed a range of features, such as tag questions, which marked it as inferior and weak. Thus, she argued that the type of subordinate speech learned by a young girl "will later be an excuse others use to keep her in a demeaning position, to refuse to treat her seriously as a human being" (1975, . While there are clearly some problems with Lakoff's work - her analysis was not based on empirical research, for example, and the automatic equation of subordinate with `weak' is problematic - the emphasis on dominance has understandably remained at the Centre of much of this work. Research has shown how men nominated topics more, interrupted more often, held the floor for longer, and so on (see, for example, Zimmerman and West, 1975). The chief focus of this approach, then, has been to show how patterns of interaction between men and
women reflect the dominant position of men in society.
Some studies, however, have taken a different approach by looking not so much at power in mixed-sex interactions as at how same-sex groups produce certain types of interaction. In a typical study of this type, Maltz and Borker (1982) developed lists of what they described as men's and women's features of language. They argued that these norms of interaction were acquired in same-sex groups rather than mixed-sex groups and that the issue is therefore one of (sub-)cultural miscommunication rather than social inequality. Much of this research has focused on comparisons between, for example, the competitive conversational style of men and the cooperative conversational style of women.
While some of the more popular work of this type, such as Tannen (1987), lacks a critical dimension, the emphasis on difference has nevertheless been valuable in fostering research into gender subgroup interactions and in emphasizing the need to see women's language use not only as ‘subordinate’ but also as a significant subcultural domain.
Although Coates' (1988) distinction is clearly a useful one, it also seems evident that these two approaches are by no means mutually exclusive. While it is important on the one hand, therefore, not to operate with a simplistic version of power and to consider language and gender only in mixed-group dynamics, it is also important not to treat women's linguistic behaviour as if it existed outside social relations of power. As Cameron, McAlinden and O'Leary (1988) ask, "Can it be coincidence that men are aggressive and hierarchically-organized conversationalists, whereas women are expected to provide conversational support?" . Clearly, there is scope here for a great deal more research that
is based on empirical data of men's and women's speech;
operates with a complex understanding of power and gender relationships (so that women's silence, for example, can be seen both as a site of oppression and as a site of possible resistance);
looks specifically at the contexts of language use, rather than assuming broad gendered differences;
involves more work by men on language and gender, since attempts to understand male uses of language in terms of difference have been few (thus running the danger of constructing men's speech as the ‘norm’ and women's speech as ‘different’);
aims not only to describe and explain but also to change language and social relationships.
References
Cameron, D., F. McAlinden and K. O'Leary (1988). "Lakoff in context: the social and linguistic
function of tag questions." In J. Coates and D. Cameron (op. cit.). pp.
74-93.
Coates, J. and D. Cameron (Eds.) (1988) Women in their speech communities. Harlow: Longman.
Coates, J. (1988). Chapter 6: "Introduction." In J. Coates and D. Cameron (op. cit.)
pp. 63-73.
Lakoff, R. (1975) Language and Woman's Place. New York: Harper and Row Maltz, . and . Borker (1982). "A cultural approach to male-female miscommunication."
In J. Gumperz (Ed.), Language and social identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge .
Tannen, D. (1987). That's not what I meant. London: Dent.
Zimmerman, D. & C. West (1975) "Sex roles, interruptions and silences in conversation" In B. Thorne & N. Henley (Eds.) Language and sex: difference and dominance. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House
范文3
《边城》与《沉船》的诗意世界比较
一、引言
人们完全可能为了极为不同的理由去比较不同国家地域的作品——或者是它们不可抗拒的艺术魅力，或者仅仅为了作品对于你的思考能力的挑战。
而我对《边城》和《沉船》的诗意比较是两者兼而有之。
这两部小说的确是有它们的魅力，它们的语言是如此的优美，展现的人们是何等的善良……如此等等都是我对这两部小说感兴趣的地方，而且，在小说中构建的人性世界里，沈从文和泰戈尔流露的信念和理想义有一定的不同，这就是比较文学上的同中异、异中同的层次，也是我比较它们的目的和意义所在。
二、课题所涉及的问题和国内外研究的现状及分析
对于沈从文的作品，长期以来都是评论的热点所在，评论著作颇多，尤其是对《边城》的评判。
有学者认为：《边城》是一部乡土小说，是一部湘西神话创作的作品，有散文的特色，“总有一天人们会承认他是第一个用现代散文来创作地方神话色彩小说的作家”(《沈从文与中国寓言》金介甫)，也有人给他的小说冠以“田园牧歌”的名称，而且引申为隐喻了中国形象，指陈中国的地域风情。
“当《边城》牧歌的图式指向一个文化隐喻，诗意的中国形象就诞生了。
”(刘洪涛《边城：牧歌与中国形象》载《文学评论》2002年第一期)。
研究最多的，也是成果最丰的就是关丁《边城》中涉及的现代性问题，这里仅举一个例子，“沈从文存在的意义，除了审美以外，他选择中国传统文化的另一种资源(老子)而建立的与欧洲浪漫主义暗合的白然哲学精神，对以工具理性为特征的中国现代性选择，应当是一种补充利丰富。
”(杨联芬《沈从文的反现代性》载《中国现代文学丛刊》2003年第一期)。
另外，有学者指出沈从文和鲁迅对于改造国民性有很大的贡献，具体到沈从文，就是他对民族性的改造(湘曲是苗、汉、土家族三个民族混居的地方)。
“他在湘西世界中寄寓的经由城市世界与湘西世界的反复对照而显示的改造民族性格的思想，正属于中国现代文学的基本主题之一，也是现代中国思想史的重大命题。
”(赵同《沈从文构筑的“湘砖世界”》载《文学评论》1986年第六期)，“他所寻觅的是存在于前现代文明中的具有人类共有价值的文化因子，并希望让他笔下人物的正直和热情，保留些本质在年青人的血里或梦里，以实现民族品德的重造。
”(凌宁《沈从文创作思想价值论》载《文学评论》2003年第一期)。
这是就个体小说置于世界
当下环境中进行关照的研究成果，尽管是单纯从个体小说山发，但是其中对于小说散文化倾向以及在小说中展露出来的沈从文试图构筑希腊小庙供奉人性这两点是十分首肯的，且其中有相当多的评判。
因此对我的论文是一个很好的参照。
至于在比较文学领域里，有将《边城》同《喧嚣与骚动》进行比较的，得出的结论是：现代文明对地域传统文化的侵袭从而引起的生存与生活的二元对立。
最近，北京大学学者吴晓东提出将《边城》和《百年孤独》进行对比，认为这样比比较《边城》同《喧嚣与骚动》更有意思。
同时也指出“边城”被强势民族包围而展现的一种“长期压迫而又富于幻想和敏感的少数民族在心软里的那一股沉忧隐痛，有一种少数民族的孤独感。
”，而“马孔多”也是拉丁美洲在全球语境下被包围的一个孤岛，是一个孤立人陆的隐喻象征。
同时也发现两者都有神话的品质(吴晓东《从卡夫卡到昆德拉》)……但无论是单纯的个体分析还是同外国小说的比较，都少不了对沈从文梦想的建构——希腊小庙的一些评论。
(这些评论的角度和深度都可以作为我论文的参考，这在前面也已经提到)，正是这一点——希腊小庙里供奉的人性就是我将它同泰戈尔《沉船》进行比较的联结点所在。
泰戈尔在《沉船》展现的世界无疑是一个好人世界，人人善良，个个淳朴，即使是有少数“坏”人，也只是让你感到可怜和可厌而绝不致于可恨和可恶。
在这部小说中，泰戈尔要展露的就是他的理想和向往：人人皆善。
这和泰戈尔主张的恬静、淡泊的生活，提倡彼此相爱互助，视人类为整体观的博爱思想是一致的。
无庸质疑，他主张的人性善和沈从文对湘辑世界的情绪记忆中的人性美是相似的。
而且泰戈尔的文笔之美是举世公认的，他的抒情话语同沈从文的散文化的语言同样具有很大的诱惑力，对读者在阅读视觉甚至心理期待上都是一种满足，这也是两者的共同之处。
但是，两者问诗意的比较，却没有能够引起学者的重视。
学者把重心都放在泰戈尔的诗集、散文集上，对其小说最多只是对《戈拉》以及短篇小说(《素芭》)进行分析。
分析《沉船》也只是从婚姻上着手。
冈此，在泰戈尔的小说《沉船》方面，资料是不够充分的，这也是我选做这个课题的原因之一，对自己有挑战性。
三、课题研究的重点
课题主要是从论文题目中的“诗意世界”着手，在这里，“诗意世界”是一语双关的，首先是两部小说的语言层面，两部小说的语言是诗的语言，尤其是对风景的描绘，是那样富有浓郁的抒情，举个简单的例子，《边城》开头的二万多字对茶峒山水的描写，展现在读者面前的就是一幅美不可言的山水画。
同样地，在《沉船》中对月色的描绘是别出心裁的，让人感到无比的柔和温馨。
其二，就是在诗化语言背景下的美好人性，此谓“同”，然而“同”中是有“异”的，主要表现在第二点上。
沈从文美好人性的营建是以情绪记忆的形式，“用一支笔来好好的保留最后一个浪漫派在二十世纪生命的取予形式”，给人一种怀古的幽情，赋予了浓郁的抒情。
因而在此种基础上可以把沈从文的这种诗意看成是一种回溯性的对旧日湘西世界的眷顾(其中是否有城市／乡土的二元对立的忧虑，在论文中将展开论述)。
而泰戈尔的“好人世界”里所表现出来的人生观和价值观有一种前瞻性，是一种向前看的美好愿望，所以这是“同中异”。
可是，“异”中有没有“同”呢?事实上是有的，两者涉及内容的表现方式都是“生命”与“生活”的二元对立模式。
所谓“生活”就是指人的基本要求，而“生命”则有超越“生活”层面的属于人生高尚理想和情操的活动。
两者的契合点又是人性。
是谓“异中同”。
毫无疑问，这是论文的重点，也是关键。
所
依据的理论暂定为人类学的理论，
这是解决的暂定思路。
在这种基础上，对于文献资料的整理和分析，主要的问题是如何将文献资料很好的融入到论文中去,为论文的论证提供有力的证明，这是关键，但是，论文的撰写必须有自己的意见，因此，本文对文献资料的分析是一个整合的过程。
总之，在现有文献资料的整理基础上，提出自己的看法和意见。
从现有文献对《边城》和《沉船》的研究层次出发，以便对自己的论文有所借鉴和启发。
