戴炜栋语言学笔记

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。

2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。

本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。

Chapter 1:Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions◆What is language?◆How does language work?◆What do all languages have in common? (languageuniversal语言共同性)◆What range of variation(变体) is found amonglanguages? (dialect. Mandarin普通话，accent)◆What makes language change?◆To what extent are social class differencesreflected in language? (sociolinguistics社会语言学)◆How does a child acquire his mother tongue?(language acquisition 语言习得)1.1.2 The scope of linguistics（语言学研究的范围）branches●general linguistics（普通语言学）●phonetics（语音学）●phonology（音系学）●morphology（形态学）●syntax（句法学）●semantics（语义学）Example:boy: human male young animategirl: human female young animate componential analysis 语义成分分析●pragmatics（语用学）It is cold here.Please close the door.I want to put on more clothes.I don’t want to stay here.●sociolinguistics（社会语言学）●psycholinguistics （心理语言学）●applied linguistics（应用语言学）broad sense:广义,narrow sense:狭义=language teaching1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics (语言学中一些重要的概念区分)1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（规定与描写）If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;If the linguistic study aims to lay down(规定) rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.1.1.3.2 Synchronic（共时语言学） vs. diachronic（历时语言学）●The description of a language at some point of timein history is a synchronic study.●The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study; it studies thehistorical development of language over a period oftime.1.1.3.3 Speech and writing（言语与文字）Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.1.1.3.4 Langue and parole（语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（语言社区）Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. （actual use of language,concrete）Differences:1. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(语言事件)2. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.（Saussure索绪尔）1.1.3.5 Competence and performance(语言能力和语言运用)competence and performance,Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（a prof. at MIT） defines competence（langue） as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance (parole) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔The differences:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework of the languages used by mankind.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language◆"Language is a purely human and non-instinctivemethod of communicating ideas, emotions and desiresby means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir,1921)◆Language is "the institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other by means ofhabitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols."(Hall, 1968)◆"From now on I will consider language to be a set(finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite inlength and constructed out of a finite set ofelements." (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a system of arbitrary （任意的）vocalsymbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary（任意的） in the sense that there is no intrinsic （天生的，内在的）connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word "pen" and the thing we write with.（This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.1.2.2 Design features（识别特征)1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2) Productivity（多产性)3) Duality（二重性）4) Displacement（移位）5) Cultural transmission（文化传递）Chapter 2: Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介)Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Manylanguages in the world today are both written and spoken. But statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing for reasons that were discussed in the last chapter. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are limited in number. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介); and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （言语语音）.2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.First, it studies the sounds from the speaker's point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. These three branches of phonetics are labelled articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）, auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）, and acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）respectively.Of the three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics has the longest history. However, some important facts have also been either discovered or confirmed by acoustic and auditory phonetics, especially by the former. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs（频谱仪）. By studying the sound waves thus recorded, they have discovered that what might be heard as the same one utterance is only coincidentally, if ever, physically identical. The "same" sounds weclaim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.2.2.2 Organs of speech（发音器官）The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）-- the throat, the oral cavity（口腔）- the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻腔）-- the nose. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. It may also be modified in the larynx before it reaches any of the cavities. Such modification results from some kind of interference with the movement of the air stream. The principal source of such modifications is the tongue, and the word "language" itself derives from the Latin word "lingua", meaning the "tongue". The pharyngeal cavity Air coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. This is the first point where sound modification might occur. Lying across the glottis are the vocal cords. These two thin tissues can be held tightly together to cut off the stream of air, as when one is ' holding his breath'. They can be relaxed and folded back at each side to let airflow through freely and silently as in normal breathing. Then they may also be held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing'', which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Such consonants are voiced. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless. The oral cavity The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.Of all these, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g ]. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [j]. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [t] and [d]. Partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongue produces the sounds [θ] and [ð].1. lips唇2. teeth牙齿3. tooth ridge (alveolus)齿龈4. hard palate硬腭5. soft palate (velum) 软腭6. uvula7. tip of tongue8. blade of tongue9. back of tongue10. vocalcords11. pharyngeal cavity12. nasal cavityThe nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized , such as the vowels and most consonants in English. Then , the passage can also be left opento allow air (or part of it)to exit through the nose. In this case, the sounds pronounced are nasalized, such as the three nasal consonants in English [m], [n], and [η]. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed. But in some styles of speaking or in some dialects, partial opening may be observed, and the result is speech with a nasal colouring or "twang".2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds --broad and narrow transcriptionsTowards the end of the nineteenth century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being. With minor modifications it is still widely used now. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Thus two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now available. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is thetranscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i. e. the transcription with diacritics, is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [I] is used for the sound [1] in the four words leaf [l i:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [1] in all these four sound combinations differ slightly. The [1] in [li:f ], occurring before a vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:I] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in "leaf". It is called dark and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [1] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [1], and in narrow transcription the diacritic is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, thesound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised "h" is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h It] and spit is transcribed as [splt].2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsAn initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. Two definitions of vowels as a general phonetic category are quoted below:"V owels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips." (Bloomfield) "A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction." (Jones)The two definitions point to one important feature of vowels, i.e. in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. In the production of the latter category it is obstructed in one way or another.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:stops: When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. The English stops fall into three pairs: [p][b],[t][d],and [k][g].fricatives: When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.affricates: When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. The English liquids are [ I ] and [ r ]. [ 1 ] is called a lateral soundbecause in the production of it the surface of the tongue, instead of being more or less flat, is made slightly convex and causes stoppage in the centre of the roof of the mouth while allowing air to pass at the sides. In the production of the other liquid [r], the tip of the tongue is curled back and the air passes over it. It is also called "retroflex".nasals: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English [m] [n] and [η].glides: Glides, sometimes called "semivowels", are a rather marginal category. The English glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [I ], with a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:bilabial: In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. The English bilabials are [p] [b] [m] [w].labiodental: In the production of these sounds, the lower lip isbrought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f] and [v].dental: The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English; they are [θ] and [ð].alveolar: The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t][d][s][z] [n][l][r].palatal: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.velar: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or the soft palate. The sounds thus produced in English are [k][g] and [η].glottal: The vocal cords are Drought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English, i.e.[h].The two classifications are combined in the table below, with the help of which we can adequately describe a consonant, or identify a consonant when given its phonetic features:2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsAs in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulatioa:0r place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification. V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. A front vowel is one in the production of which the front part of the tongue main-tains the highest position; If it is the central part of the tongue that is held highest, the vowels thus produced are called central vowels. Then if we raise the 'back of the tongue higher than the rest of it.To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. The following diagram summarises our classification by applying the two criteria.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be notedthat some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.After applying the three criteria, we can now aptly describe some of the English vowels. For example, the vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-close, and unrounded. But the feature "unrounded" is usually omitted since all front vowels in English are unrounded.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, no such tension occurs, the larynx is quite relaxed.So far we have been classifying the individual vowels, also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to thestudy of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Now'let's take the [1] sound in English as an example and see how the same sound can be investigated from both the phonetic and the phonological point of view. As we know, the [1] sound in the two English words leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first one is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark .The difference between these two sounds is what the phoneticians are interested in. But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same one basic entity. From the phonological point of view, these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark in the word :"peel" incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to Understand him, he would still understand what action he is talking about but would only find his pronunciationa little bit strange. The phonologists have found that the various versions of the [I] sound do notoccur at random in English; their distribution follows a nicely complementary pattern: we use clear [1] before a vowel, such as loaf, and dark at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such as tell, quilt. This is an important phonological conclusion. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [p h] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p h](as in tip).But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do , as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t h ] and [t ] don't, as [stDp] and [st h op] mean the same to a speaker of English. Again, we should remind ourselves that what does not distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another language.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract: unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an nnaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [1 ] and dark: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/1/in English can be realized as dark, clear [1] , etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /1/.Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it isrule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules. The rule that governs the distribution of clear [1] and dark is an example.Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. A native speaker of English can tell by intuition that the following sound combinations all carry different meanings: [ mæn ], [ pæn ], [ bæn ], [ tæm ], [ ræm ], [ kæn ], [ðæm]. This is because they all contain a different phoneme. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.2,3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIt can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might berelated in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit]and [bit ], [roup]and [roub]. If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear [1]。

Chapter 1:Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It tries to answer the basic questions◆What is language?◆How does language work?◆What do all languages have in common? (languageuniversal语言共同性)◆What range of variation(变体) is found amonglanguages? (dialect. Mandarin普通话，accent)◆What makes language change?◆To what extent are social class differencesreflected in language? (sociolinguistics社会语言学)◆How does a child acquire his mother tongue?(language acquisition 语言习得)1.1.2 The scope of linguistics（语言学研究的范围）branches●general linguistics（普通语言学）●phonetics（语音学）●phonology（音系学）●morphology（形态学）●syntax（句法学）●semantics（语义学）Example:boy: human male young animategirl: human female young animate componential analysis 语义成分分析●pragmatics（语用学）It is cold here.Please close the door.I want to put on more clothes.I don’t want to stay here.●sociolinguistics（社会语言学）●psycholinguistics （心理语言学）●applied linguistics（应用语言学）broad sense:广义,narrow sense:狭义=language teaching1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics (语言学中一些重要的概念区分)1.1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive（规定与描写）If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;If the linguistic study aims to lay down(规定) rules for "correct and standard" behaviour in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.1.1.3.2 Synchronic（共时语言学） vs. diachronic（历时语言学）●The description of a language at some point of timein history is a synchronic study.●The description of a language as it changes throughtime is a diachronic study. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study; it studies thehistorical development of language over a period oftime.1.1.3.3 Speech and writing（言语与文字）Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.1.1.3.4 Langue and parole（语言与言语）Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（语言社区）Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. （actual use of language,concrete）Differences:1. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(语言事件)2. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.（Saussure索绪尔）1.1.3.5 Competence and performance(语言能力和语言运用)competence and performance,Chomsky（乔姆斯基）（a prof. at MIT） defines competence（langue） as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance (parole) the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.1.1.3.6 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics（传统语法与现代语言学）《普通语言学教程》Saussure索绪尔The differences:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework of the languages used by mankind.1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definitions of language◆"Language is a purely human and non-instinctivemethod of communicating ideas, emotions and desiresby means of voluntarily produced symbols." (Sapir,1921)◆Language is "the institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each other by means ofhabitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols."(Hall, 1968)◆"From now on I will consider language to be a set(finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite inlength and constructed out of a finite set ofelements." (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a system of arbitrary （任意的）vocalsymbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary（任意的） in the sense that there is no intrinsic （天生的，内在的）connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for, for instance, between the word "pen" and the thing we write with.（This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term "human" in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific, i.e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, such as bird songs and bee dances.1.2.2 Design features（识别特征)1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2) Productivity（多产性)3) Duality（二重性）4) Displacement（移位）5) Cultural transmission（文化传递）Chapter 2: Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介)Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Manylanguages in the world today are both written and spoken. But statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over 5,000 languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing for reasons that were discussed in the last chapter. The writing system of any language is always "invented" by its users to record speech when the need arises.Language is first perceived through its sounds. Thus the study of sounds is of great importance in linguistics. Naturally, linguists are not interested in all sounds; they are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. These sounds are limited in number. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language(语言的语音媒介); and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （言语语音）.2.2 Phonetics（语音学）2.2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view.First, it studies the sounds from the speaker's point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. These three branches of phonetics are labelled articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）, auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）, and acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）respectively.Of the three branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics has the longest history. However, some important facts have also been either discovered or confirmed by acoustic and auditory phonetics, especially by the former. Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs（频谱仪）. By studying the sound waves thus recorded, they have discovered that what might be heard as the same one utterance is only coincidentally, if ever, physically identical. The "same" sounds weclaim to have heard are in most cases only phonetically similar, but rarely phonetically identical. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.2.2.2 Organs of speech（发音器官）The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity（咽腔）-- the throat, the oral cavity（口腔）- the mouth, and the nasal cavity（鼻腔）-- the nose. The air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in various ways. It may also be modified in the larynx before it reaches any of the cavities. Such modification results from some kind of interference with the movement of the air stream. The principal source of such modifications is the tongue, and the word "language" itself derives from the Latin word "lingua", meaning the "tongue". The pharyngeal cavity Air coming from the lungs and through the windpipe passes through the glottis, a part of the larynx, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe. This is the first point where sound modification might occur. Lying across the glottis are the vocal cords. These two thin tissues can be held tightly together to cut off the stream of air, as when one is ' holding his breath'. They can be relaxed and folded back at each side to let airflow through freely and silently as in normal breathing. Then they may also be held together tautly so that the air stream vibrates them at different speeds when forcing its passage through them. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing'', which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. Such consonants are voiced. When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are voiceless. The oral cavity The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity. The speech organs located in this cavity are the tongue, the uvula, the soft palate (the velum), the hard palate, the teeth ridge (the alveolus), the teeth and the lips.Of all these, the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of [k] and [g ]. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound [j]. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds [t] and [d]. Partial obstruction between the upper front teeth and the tip of the tongue produces the sounds [θ] and [ð].1. lips唇2. teeth牙齿3. tooth ridge (alveolus)齿龈4. hard palate硬腭5. soft palate (velum) 软腭6. uvula7. tip of tongue8. blade of tongue9. back of tongue10. vocalcords11. pharyngeal cavity12. nasal cavityThe nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized , such as the vowels and most consonants in English. Then , the passage can also be left opento allow air (or part of it)to exit through the nose. In this case, the sounds pronounced are nasalized, such as the three nasal consonants in English [m], [n], and [η]. Generally, the passage is definitely open or closed. But in some styles of speaking or in some dialects, partial opening may be observed, and the result is speech with a nasal colouring or "twang".2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds --broad and narrow transcriptionsTowards the end of the nineteenth century, when articulatory phonetics had developed to such an extent in the West that scholars began to feel the need for a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. Thus the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) came into being. With minor modifications it is still widely used now. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.As some speech sounds produced differ only in some detailed aspects, the IPA provides its users with another set of symbols called diacritics, which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do.Thus two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now available. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is thetranscription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i. e. the transcription with diacritics, is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [I] is used for the sound [1] in the four words leaf [l i:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [1] in all these four sound combinations differ slightly. The [1] in [li:f ], occurring before a vowel, is called a clear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:I] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in "leaf". It is called dark and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [1] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [1], and in narrow transcription the diacritic is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, thesound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised "h" is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h It] and spit is transcribed as [splt].2.2.4 Classification of English speech soundsAn initial classification will divide the speech sounds in English into two broad categories: vowels and consonants. Two definitions of vowels as a general phonetic category are quoted below:"V owels are modifications of the voice-sound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips." (Bloomfield) "A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction." (Jones)The two definitions point to one important feature of vowels, i.e. in producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever. This marks the essential difference between vowels and consonants. In the production of the latter category it is obstructed in one way or another.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types:stops: When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. The English stops fall into three pairs: [p][b],[t][d],and [k][g].fricatives: When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.affricates: When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.liquids: When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides ) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids. The English liquids are [ I ] and [ r ]. [ 1 ] is called a lateral soundbecause in the production of it the surface of the tongue, instead of being more or less flat, is made slightly convex and causes stoppage in the centre of the roof of the mouth while allowing air to pass at the sides. In the production of the other liquid [r], the tip of the tongue is curled back and the air passes over it. It is also called "retroflex".nasals: When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English [m] [n] and [η].glides: Glides, sometimes called "semivowels", are a rather marginal category. The English glides are [w] and [j], both voiced. They are formed in the same manner as the vowels [u] and [I ], with a narrower passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.In terms of place of articulation, the English consonants can be classified into the following types:bilabial: In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. The English bilabials are [p] [b] [m] [w].labiodental: In the production of these sounds, the lower lip isbrought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f] and [v].dental: The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English; they are [θ] and [ð].alveolar: The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t][d][s][z] [n][l][r].palatal: The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.velar: The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum, or the soft palate. The sounds thus produced in English are [k][g] and [η].glottal: The vocal cords are Drought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English, i.e.[h].The two classifications are combined in the table below, with the help of which we can adequately describe a consonant, or identify a consonant when given its phonetic features:2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsAs in the production of vowels the air stream meets with no obstruction, they cannot be classified in terms of manner of articulatioa:0r place of articulation as consonants. Other criteria have to be found for their classification. V owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. A front vowel is one in the production of which the front part of the tongue main-tains the highest position; If it is the central part of the tongue that is held highest, the vowels thus produced are called central vowels. Then if we raise the 'back of the tongue higher than the rest of it.To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. The following diagram summarises our classification by applying the two criteria.A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, i.e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be notedthat some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.After applying the three criteria, we can now aptly describe some of the English vowels. For example, the vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-close, and unrounded. But the feature "unrounded" is usually omitted since all front vowels in English are unrounded.Then the English vowels can also be classified according to the length of the sound. Corresponding to the distinction of long and short vowels is the distinction of tense and lax vowels. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are lax vowels. When we pronounce a long vowel, the larynx is in a state of tension, and in the pronunciation of a short vowel, no such tension occurs, the larynx is quite relaxed.So far we have been classifying the individual vowels, also known as monophthongs. In English there are also a number of diphthongs, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsBoth phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language -- the speech sounds. But while both are related to thestudy of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last section, phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Now'let's take the [1] sound in English as an example and see how the same sound can be investigated from both the phonetic and the phonological point of view. As we know, the [1] sound in the two English words leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first one is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark .The difference between these two sounds is what the phoneticians are interested in. But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same one basic entity. From the phonological point of view, these two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication, in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark in the word :"peel" incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to Understand him, he would still understand what action he is talking about but would only find his pronunciationa little bit strange. The phonologists have found that the various versions of the [I] sound do notoccur at random in English; their distribution follows a nicely complementary pattern: we use clear [1] before a vowel, such as loaf, and dark at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant, such as tell, quilt. This is an important phonological conclusion. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, so the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language is very often language specific and should not be applied to another language without discretion. What is true in one language may not be true in another language.2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [p h] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p h](as in tip).But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do , as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t h ] and [t ] don't, as [stDp] and [st h op] mean the same to a speaker of English. Again, we should remind ourselves that what does not distinguish meaning in one language may probably do in another language.A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract: unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an nnaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [1 ] and dark: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. Conventionally phones are placed within square brackets, and phonemes in slashes. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme/1/in English can be realized as dark, clear [1] , etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /1/.Then, how a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it isrule-governed. One of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out these rules. The rule that governs the distribution of clear [1] and dark is an example.Although phonemes are the minimal segments of language systems, they are not their minimal elements. A phoneme is further analyzable because it consists of a set of simultaneous distinctive features. It is just because of its distinctive features that a phoneme is capable of distinguishing meaning. A native speaker of English can tell by intuition that the following sound combinations all carry different meanings: [ mæn ], [ pæn ], [ bæn ], [ tæm ], [ ræm ], [ kæn ], [ðæm]. This is because they all contain a different phoneme. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.2,3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairIt can be easily observed that phonetically similar sounds might berelated in two ways. If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit]and [bit ], [roup]and [roub]. If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear [1]。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》必背考点Chapter 1 IntroductionChapter 2 PhonologyChapter 3 MorphologyChapter 4 SyntaxChapter 5 SemanticsChapter 6 PragmaticsChapter 7 Language ChangeChapter 8 Language and SocietyChapter 9 Language and CultureChapter 10 Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 12 Language And The Brain《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter 1 Introduction考点1 Distinguish beween prescriptive and descriptive study(1)Prescriptive（规定性）: The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.(2)Descriptive (描写性）: The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use.(3)Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. It differs from earlier studies of language normallyknown as “grammar” in that the latter is based on “high” (religious, literary) written language.It aims to set models forlanguage users to follow. On the other hand, modern linguistics is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use, be it “correct” or not. Modern linguists believe that whatever occurs in the languagepeople use should be described and analyzed in their investigations.考点2 Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?(1)Synchronic (共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(2)Diachronic (历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time. It is ahistorical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.(3)In modern linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.考点3 Why speech is prior to writing?Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.a. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writingsystem of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world, there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.b. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than wiring in terms of the amount of information conveyed.c. Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.d. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.考点4：How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?(1)Langue (语言) vs Parole (言语)The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (索绪尔) in the early 20th century.Langue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.It is abstract and is not the language people actually use. It is relatively stable and systematic, does not change frequently.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. It is concrete and it refers to the naturally occurring language events. It varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.In Saussure's opinion,parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of linguistic study.Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.(2)Competence (语言能力)VS Performance (语言运用)The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky（乔姆斯基）in the late 1950sCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language and it is a set of rules internalized in the brain. According to Chomsky, a speaker has internalized a set of rules about his language, which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.Performance refers to the actual realization of his knowledge in linguistic communication. Despite one’s perfect knowledge of his own language, a speaker can still make mistakes in actual use, e.g. slips of the tongue and unnecessary pauses. This imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied. Although a speaker possesses an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exactly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules.Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.考点5 What are the main features of human language that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性:①there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, that is, the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning②A good example is that different sounds in different languages are used to refer to the same object.e.g. “汽车” in Chinese, “der Wagen” in German and “car” in English;③The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of complexity, which makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.④While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The first example isonomatopoeic words (拟声词) which imitate natural sound, such as rumble, crash, bang in English, putong(扑通）shasha(沙沙）in Chinese.The second example is compound words because the meaning of the compound words are determined by the combination of two words, such as type-writer, shoe-maker.⑤Non-arbitrary words account for only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. Therefore, it doesn’t negate the fact that language is arbitrary.（2）Productivity/Creativity创造性①Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This explains why people can produce and understand an infinitely la rge number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard or used before.②Productivity is unique to human language. Most animal communication systems appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of different signals that their users can send and receive. For example, bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.(3) Duality/ Double articulation 二重性①Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.②At the lower level, there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless themselves. e.g. the three separate sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ are meaningless.③But the sounds of language can be grouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes(词素) and words according to certain rules, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. e.g. The combination of the three sounds /k/ /æ/ /t/ can produce a meaningful words [kæt] (cat).④This duality of structure or double articulation(双重分节）of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it.(4) Displacement 移位性①Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places. That is, Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.②This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place. In contrast, no animal communication possesses this feature. For example, animal calls are mainly uttered in response to immediate changes of situation, i.e. in contact of food, in presence of danger, or in pain. Once the danger or pain is gone, calls stops.(5) Cultural transmission 文化传递性①While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.②Language is culturally transmitted in that it is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct like animal call system. In contrast, animal call systems are genetically transmitted, namely, animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.考点6 What are the major functions of language identified by Jakobson?Jakobson (雅克布逊)identified six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function.Addresser说话者---EmotiveThe addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication, i.e. to express attitudes, feelings and requests. e.g. I hate those who are always lying.Addressee受话者---Conative 意动功能The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking, i.e. to persuade and influence others through commands and requestse.g. Why not go with us to have a picnic? Why not go and see another doctorContext语境---Referential 所指功能The addresser conveys a message or information 传达信息e.g. Currently, we live in an information age when the Internet plays a significant role.Message 信息----Poetic 诗学功能The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.e.g. poetryContact 接触--Phatic communication寒暄功能The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with theaddressee. e.g Hi, How are you this morning?Code 语码---Metalinguistic 元语言功能The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.e.g. Let me tell you what the word “ EST” means.考点7 What are Halliday’s metafunctions?Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.①The ideational function (is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker’s attitude, evaluation, feelings and emotions.②The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people. It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation, his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself.③The textual function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学考点1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.There are three branches of phonetics :①articulatory phonetics 发音语音学——It studies the sounds from the speaker's point ofview, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.②auditory phonetics 听觉语音学——It looks at the sounds from the hearer's point ofview, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.③acoustic phonetics 声学语音学——It studies the way sounds travel by looking at thesound waves, the physical means by which sounds transmitted through the air from one person to another. It tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues. To describe these properties, they record the sound waves on machines called spectrographs.考点2 Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ? Broad transcription宽式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols only is the broad transcription and it is used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes.Narrow transcription严式标音：The transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号) is the narrow transcription and it is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.考点3 How are the English consonants classified?Manner of articulation:发音方式①stop闭塞音：[p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] 6When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction suddenly released and the air passing out again is called a stop or plosive. （气流在声道中完全受阻，然后被突然释放, 受阻气流冲出而形成的音叫爆破音）②fricative 摩擦音：[f] [v] [θ] [ð] [s] [z] [ʃ] [ʒ] [h] 9When the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point, the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.（气流部分受阻，被迫在狭窄缝隙间通过，在某一点引起摩擦而形成的音被称为摩擦音）③affricate 破擦音： a stop+a fricative [tʃ] [dʒ] 2When the obstruction is complete at first and then is released slowly with the friction resultingfrom partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates.(前半部分发音，气流完全受阻，与爆破音相似；后半部分发音，气流部分受阻，逐渐释放，产生摩擦，与发摩擦音相似)④liquids 流音: [l] [r] 2When the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue( the tip or the side) and the roof of the mouth, the sounds thus produced are called liquids.(气流在口腔中受阻，但还不至于引起摩擦，气流可以从舌尖、两侧或口腔上部逸出而形成的音，被成为流音)⑤nasals 鼻音: [m] [n] [ŋ] 3When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals.(如果将软腭降低至口腔后部，完全阻塞口腔，从而使鼻腔通道张开让气流经过，这样发出的音称为鼻音)⑥glides 滑音: [j] [w] 2Sometimes are called ‘semi-vowels”. It is produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.(有时也称为半元音，双唇或舌与硬腭间对流形成的局部阻碍而引起一些轻微的噪音而形成)Place of articulation发音部位①bilabial 双唇音: [p] [b] [m] [w] 4the upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. And then the obstruction is suddenly released and the airstream pass out again.（上下唇合拢形成完全阻碍，再突然打开，释放气流而形成的音）②labiodental 唇齿音：[f] [v] 2the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction.（通过下唇和下齿的接触，迫使气流从唇齿间挤出而形成的音）③dental 齿音：[θ] [ð] 2the obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth.（舌尖抵住上齿，气流被阻碍）④alveolar 齿龈音：[t] [d] [n] [s] [z] [l] [r] 7the obstruction is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge/ alveolus to create the obstruction. （舌尖抵住上齿龈，气流形成阻碍所发出的音）⑤palatal 腭音：[ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] 5The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate. （气流阻碍发生在舌后和硬腭之间）⑥velar软腭音:[k] [g] [ŋ] 3the back of the tongue is brought into contact with the soft palate. （舌后部向上抬起，接触软腭，形成气流）⑦glottal 声门音：[h] 1the vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction.（声带暂时性闭合，形成气流阻碍）考点4 Classification of English vowels①the position of the tongue in the mouth(舌位）：front, central and back 前元音中元音后元音②the openness of the mouth（开口程度）：close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels闭元音半闭元音半开元音开元音③the shape of the lips（唇形）rounded 圆唇：all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are roundedunrounded 非圆唇：all front vowels+the central vowels④the length of the vowels（元音的长度）：long and short vowels长元音短元音⑤The tenseness of the sound: tense and lax vowels 紧元音松元音⑥monophthongs 单元音diphthongs 双元音：Sounds are produced by moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions. [eɪ] [aɪ] [ɔɪ] [aʊ] [əʊ][ɪə] [eə] [ʊə]考点5 phonology and phoneticsphonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ form each other, what phonetic features theypossess, how they can be classfied.For example:①The [l] sound in the two English word leap and peel is pronounced differently. The first is what we call a clear [l] and the second one a dark [ɫ].②The difference between the two sounds, is what the phoneticians are interested in.③But phonologically these sounds are regarded to be two versions of the same basic entity. These two sounds are fundamentally the same, since they have one and the same function in communication---in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation. If someone should pronounce the dark [ɫ] in the word peel incorrectly as a clear [l], an English speaker would not for this reason fail to understand him, he would only find his pronunciation a little bit strange.考点6 phone, phoneme, and allophone(1)phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones are to be written with square brackets [ ].e.g [t] [d] [f] [v][i:] [i] [e] [t h]But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings. [t h] and [t] don’t as [stɒp] and [st hɒp] mean the same to a speaker of English.(2)phoneme音位is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, written in slashes / /. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and we are aware that the sound [p] is pronounced differently. In the word peak, the [p] sound is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differently in the word speak, the puff of air being withheld a little. The [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [ p ], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. The relation between aspirated [p ] and unaspirated [p] corresponds to that between clear [l ] and dark [l ]: there is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/ is a phoneme in the Englishsound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts.(3)allophones音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. Allophones are to be written with square brackets [ ].But the choice of an allophone is not random or haphazard; it is rule-governed.e.g. the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as a dark [ɫ] 模糊舌边音in tell and a clear [l]清晰舌边音in lead, which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.考点7 Phonemic contrast ,complementary distribution, and minimal pair(1)Phonemic contrast音位对立: If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form aphonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].(2)Complementary distribution互补分布: If they are allophones of the same phoneme, thenthey do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. Allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.e.g. the clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [ɫ] always occurs between a vowel and a consonan or at the end ofa word, so they are in complementary distribution.(3)Minimal pairs 最小对立对: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. e.g. pill and bill bet and batSignificance: Minimal pairs make it easy to know what the English phonemes are. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. Accordingly, it is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.minimal set 最小对立对集：Under the same condition, when a minimal pair is extended to two, three or even more, then all these sound combinations constitute a minimal set.e.g. “pill and bill”“pill and till”“till and dill”“till and kill”“kill and gill”考点8 Phonological rules 音系学规则①Sequential rules 序列规则——There are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules.rule 1: If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. This explains why [lbik] is impossible combinations in English. Because it has violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.rule 2: if three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules：The first phoneme must be /s/;(it shows that/s/ is the most easiest sound for human being to pronounce; linguistics should serve people, which means it is descriptive)The second phoneme must be /p,t,k/ ---stops(爆破音）(Why not /b,d,g/: because they are not easy for human to pronounce)The third phoneme must be /l,r, w/---/1//r/ 流音，/w/ 滑音eg: spring[sprɪŋ], scream[skri:m], square [skwer], splendid [ˈsplendɪd] , strict[strɪkt]②Assimilation rule 同化规则A.Definition: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. One sound will affect the neighbouring sound so that sounds become sounds around them. This process is called assimilation. The rules which will be followed during the assimilation is called assimilation rules.B.Reason: Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory orphysiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language. This is primarily due to the our desire for convenience and efficiency.C.ClassificationRegressive assimilation 逆同化: If a preceding sound is influenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar, it is called regressive assimilation.a.Nasalization 鼻音化in the case of “can” [kæn], the preceding sound [æ] is nasalized dueto the influence of the following nasal sound [n].b.Dentalization 齿音化：in the case of [n] in the word “tenth”[tenθ], the preceding sound[e]is dentalized due to the influence of the following dental fricative sound [θ].c.Velarization软腭化: in the case ‘sink’ [sɪŋk], the preceding sound[ŋ] is velarized due to the influence of the following velar sound [k].Progressive assimilation 顺同化: It is the converse process of regressive assimilation, in which a following sound is influenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar.e.g. in the case of ‘map”[mæp], the following sound [æ] is nasalized because of the influence of the preceding nasal consonant [p].③Deletion rule 省略规则Another phonological rule is the deletion rule. It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.e.g. The letter“g”is sometimes pronounced and sometimes mute(不发音的).The rule: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonantsign[saɪn] ----signature [ˈsɪgnətʃə(r)] 签名; 署名;考点9 What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.(1) Stress 重音: The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. The noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable. e.g.重音在前是名词n 'progress 重音在后是动词v pro'gress(2)Tone 声调: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phonemes; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in what we call tone languages.Our mother tongue Chinese is a typical tone language.E.g.mã 妈má 麻mǎ 马mà 骂(3)Intonation 语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.Four tones：①The falling tone— what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement②The rising tone—make a question of what is said③The fall-rise tone—there is an implied message in what is said④The rise-fall tonee.g.1.' That’s 'not the 'book he `wants.---Spoken in the falling tone, it simply states a fact, i.e. the book in question is not the one he wants.2.' That’s 'not the 'book he ̗wants.---Spoken in the rising tone, it indicates uncertainty on the part of the speaker: he is asking the question: It that not the book he wants?3.' That’s ˌnot the ˌbook he ̗wants.---Spoken in the fall-rise tone, it indicates that apart from what it said literally, there is an implied message, i.e. besides telling the listener that the book in question is not the one he wants, the speaker implies that there is some other book he wants.Chapter 3 Morphology考点1 Open class and closed classOpen class words开放类词: They are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.Closed class words封闭类词: Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “ functional” words. The number of such words is small and stable since new words are added.考点2 Morphemes词素(1)Morpheme is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.It is important to note that a morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.Also morphemes are usually arbitrary: there is no natural connection between their sound and their meaning.e.g. reader consists of two morphemes: read and –er (to form nouns which refer to a person, animal or thing that does the action described by the verb), here “reader” is someone who reads.考点3 Morph语素形式Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may use the term morph.e.g. the English plural and possessive morphemes may be said to share a single morph, the suffix/-s/.考点4 Free and bound morphemes 自由词素和黏着词素A free morpheme: A morpheme which can be a word by itselfe.g. dog, man, desire. They are free because they can used as a word on its own.A bound morpheme: A morpheme that must be attached to another onee.g. -ist, -ful, un-, en-考点5 Allomorph 词素变体In some cases, morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments.E.g 1. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.eg: in the same plural morphemewritten form spoken formmap- maps [s] dog--dogs [z]watch--watches [iz] mouse--mice [ai]。

戴炜栋语言学-语言习得知识点整理●11.1 Introduction●第二语言习得：第二语言习得 Second Language Acquisition(SLA)是在20世纪70年代左右正式建立起来的一个学科。

它指对一个人在习得母语后是如何习得第二语言进行系统研究。

(Second language aequisition( SLA),formally established itself as adiscipline around the 1970s,refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.）●11.2 Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition 第一语言习得和第二语言习得之间的关系●Theoretically, the new findings and advances in first language acquisition especially inlearning theories and the learning process have shed light on the understanding of second language acquisition in general. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights andperspectives in the study of secondlanguage acquisition issues.●interlanguage中介语or learner language学习者语言●语言石化现象Fossilization Grammar has become one of the main features ofinterlanguages.●11.3Contrastive analysis对比分析●the native language is regarded as the major cause for lack of success in learning a secondlanguage●positive transfer and negative transfer正迁移和负迁移●从描述本族语和目的语之间可比较的特征（如时态、词汇或表达等）出发,对比分析两门语言在形式和意义上的差异以便找出不匹配或不相同的地方，这样，人们就可以预测学习者的难点。

戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记-自己整理版————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③ Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written④ Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（指一个话语社团所有成员共有的语言系统）Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use（指语言在实际运用中的实现）⑤ Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languag e.（理想的语言使用者关于语言规则方面的知识）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication.（这种知识在语言交流中的具体实现）What is language? 什么是语言[A] The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解-第6~8章【圣才出品】第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。

实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Pragmatics vs. semantics3. Context4. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningII. Speech act theory1. Austin’s model of speech acts2. Searle’s classificati on of speech acts3. Indirect speech actsIII. Principle of conversation1. Cooperative Principle and its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Cross-cultural Pragmatic FailureI. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】1. Definition（定义）It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.它是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。

第1章导言1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

2. 有关语言的常考考点语言的定义；语言的识别特征(任意性、能产性、二重性、移位性、文化传递)；语言的功能。

本章内容索引：I. The definition of linguisticsII. The scope of linguistics1. Micro-linguistics2. Macro-linguisticsIII. Some important distinctions in linguistics1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Speech vs. Writing4. Langue vs. Parole5. Competence vs. Performance6. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Linguistics IV. The definition of languageV. The design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Productivity3. Duality4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityVI. Functions of language1. Main functions2. Basic functions3. MacrofuntionsI. The definition of linguistics（语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.语言学通常被定义为对语言进行科学性研究的学科。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习䋞>无偿试用20％资料
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第1章导言
1.1复习笔记
1.2课后习题详解
1.3考研真题与典型题详解
第2章音位学
2.1复习笔记
2.2课后习题详解
2.3考研真题与典型题详解
第3章形态学
3.1复习笔记
3.2课后习题详解
3.3考研真题与典型题详解
第4章句法学
4.1复习笔记
4.2课后习题详解
4.3考研真题与典型题详解
第5章语义学
5.1复习笔记
5.2课后习题详解
5.3考研真题与典型题详解
第6章语用学
6.1复习笔记
6.2课后习题详解
6.3考研真题与典型题详解
第7章语言变化
7.1复习笔记
7.2课后习题详解
7.3考研真题与典型题详解
第8章语言与社会
8.1复习笔记
8.2课后习题详解
8.3考研真题与典型题详解
第9章语言与文化
9.1复习笔记
9.2课后习题详解
9.3考研真题与典型题详解第10章语言习得
10.1复习笔记
10.2课后习题详解
10.3考研真题与典型题详解第11章第二语言习得
11.1复习笔记
11.2课后习题详解
11.3考研真题与典型题详解第12章语言与大脑
12.1复习笔记
12.2课后习题详解
12.3考研真题与典型题详解。

Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:①The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language. Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language①pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字②Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive②Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③Speech and writingSpoken language is primary, not the written④Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Organs of speechV oiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords[C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)[l]à[helW]--àa dental [l] ( )[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h)[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/, [t]/[d], [k]/[g]②Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)③Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it [m], ], [] [By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)①bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions[p]/, [w]à(velar)②labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[W]/[T]④alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge[F]/[V], [t]/[d]⑥palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦velars: the back of the tongue against the velum[k], [g], [N] … [w]⑧glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E] Classification of English vowelsFronti: Central BackClose i `u:uSemi-close e E:Semi-open E C:Open AB Q RB:①The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;②The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;③The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B]All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels④The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx à (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowels[F] The definition of phonologyPhonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[H] Some rules in phonology①sequential rulesSyllableOnset rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1:___/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants [s], [z], [F], [V] are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant[I] Suprasegmental features①StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element②ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone。

每本教材每个章节都包含：学霸笔记，强化练习，过关检测，思维导图，复习要点，学习目标，时间安排，重难点分析，易错点分析，考点分析，音频笔记等......如果参考教材有多个版本，那么每个版本都有全套资料；如果目标院校没有指定参考书，那么所有推荐的参考书都有全套的资料可供学习。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》（第2版）这本书的第7章语言变化的复习攻略。

一、复习要点1.语言变化的定义：语言系统任意时刻内的某些方面或整体性质随时间而发生的改变。

2.语言变化的分类：语音、词汇、语法三个方面。

涉及语音的变化包括元音依赖婚姻、辅音弱化等；涉及词汇的变化包括借词、派生、缩略、反义词等；涉及语法的变化包括句法、话语行为等。

3.语言变化的原因：语言变化可能是因为社会文化变迁、外来语影响、语言接触等原因所引起的现象。

4.语言变化的结果：语言变化会导致语言差异产生。

同时，也会引起新单词、新短语、新语法等的出现和传播。

二、学习目标1.了解语言变化的概念和分类。

2.掌握语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子。

3.熟悉语言变化的原因和结果。

4.能够辨析不同地区、不同年代的语言差异并理解其产生原因。

三、时间安排1.第一步（1小时）：复习第7章内容，对语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果进行梳理和重点记忆。

2.第二步（1小时）：仔细阅读第7章注释中涉及到的语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子，并进行分类和总结。

3.第三步（1小时）：查阅相关资料，了解不同地区、不同年代的语言差异并理解其产生原因。

可参考以下相关资料：-《英语语言变迁史》-《英语历史与语言学》-《英语漫谈》4.第四步（1小时）：以幕布思维导图的形式整理复习内容，包括语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果、语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子、不同地区、不同年代的语言差异及其产生原因等。

5.第五步（1小时）：通过讨论、自测等方式巩固所学知识。

四、总结本次复习攻略包括语言变化的定义、分类、原因和结果，以及语音、词汇、语法三个方面的变化形式和例子，不同地区、不同年代的语言差异及其产生原因等。

目　录第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记1.2　课后习题详解1.3　考研真题与典型题详解第2章　音位学2.1　复习笔记2.2　课后习题详解2.3　考研真题与典型题详解第3章　形态学3.1　复习笔记3.2　课后习题详解3.3　考研真题与典型题详解第4章　句法学4.1　复习笔记4.2　课后习题详解4.3　考研真题与典型题详解第5章　语义学5.1　复习笔记5.2　课后习题详解5.3　考研真题与典型题详解第6章　语用学6.1　复习笔记6.2　课后习题详解6.3　考研真题与典型题详解第7章　语言变化7.1　复习笔记7.2　课后习题详解7.3　考研真题与典型题详解第8章　语言与社会8.1　复习笔记8.2　课后习题详解8.3　考研真题与典型题详解第9章　语言与文化9.1　复习笔记9.2　课后习题详解9.3　考研真题与典型题详解第10章　语言习得10.1　复习笔记10.2　课后习题详解10.3　考研真题与典型题详解第11章　第二语言习得11.1　复习笔记11.2　课后习题详解11.3　考研真题与典型题详解第12章　语言与大脑12.1　复习笔记12.2　课后习题详解12.3　考研真题与典型题详解第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

●语言学家：1.F。

de Sａｕssure P4Ｓwiｓs lｉnguisｔ。

He distinct the laｎgue and parole in ｔhｅearly 2０ｔh ceｎtury <ｃｏｕｒｓe in general liｎguisticｓ＞写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what liｎguist should ｄo iｓto abｓｔract ｌangｕｅfrom paroｌe)2.N ChoｍskAｍericaｎlingｕiｓt distinct ｃompeteｎce and pｅｒformanｃｅｉn the laｔe 1９50s强调研究语言能力（ｃｏｍｐｅｔence) 和索绪尔的相似点●Ｓａuｓsure和ｃhomｓkｙ不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度(socioｌogｉcaｌview)他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴(sociaｌconvenｔｉons）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Pｓycholoｇiｃａl view),认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征(prｏpｅrty ｏf miｎd of eａｃｈindiｖidｕal）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（ｄescriptivｅ）,传统语法是规定性的(prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phｏｎetics(语音学) Phoｎoｌogy（音位学)●发音器官1.pharyngｅａl cａｖity2.ｏral ｃaviｔｙ3.nasal caｖｉtｙ●sｐeecｈａndｗrｉtｉｎg ａre tｈe ｔwｏmｅdia orsubstances言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础)●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatoｒy phｏｎetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久)(2)听话者角度auｄｉtory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acouｓtic ｐhonｅtｉcs 声学语音学●主要现在用IＰA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrｏw ｔraｎscｒiｐtion）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} ｌｅap，feｅl ,health{ｐ｝ｐit，spｉt (送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音(ｖｏiｃed ｓｏuｎd)和辅音●vｏiceleｓs●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高,分为front、cenｔral、baｃｋ（2）嘴巴的张合度,分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a:｝）和圆唇的(roｕnｄed）后元音●Segmｅnt 和sylｌabｌe 前面数有几个元音辅音;后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l｝分布模式,即在什么位置发这个音如{l｝在元音后或辅音前,发模糊舌边音fｅeｌ、qｕilt｛l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音lｅaｐ注意：Ｐhonology ｉs conceｒneｄｗitｈthｅｓｏｕnｄsystem of ａpaｒticular ｌanguagｅ.(关注某种语言的语音系统) Linguisｔics ｉs ｔｈｅsｃientｉfic sｔudy oｆhｕmaｎlanguagesｉｎｇenｅrａl。

戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing system is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused byseparation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physicalproperties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of t he same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in thesame position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black ‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words canbe added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, PWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and sta tes.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designat ed by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although in flection is very helpful in determining a word‘s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thu s, a word‘s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (PP)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Suchstructures are called coordination structures.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically mark a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)zs1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term fo r any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.T: Should Mike know w hether the train might be late? (√)F: Might Mike should know whether the train be late? (×)。

•语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20 thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言(what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole)2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late1950s强调研究语言能力(competence)和索绪尔的相似点•Saussure 和chomsky 不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度(sociological view)他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴(social conventions)；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度(Psychological view)，认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征(property of mind of each individual)3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的(descriptive)，传统语法是规定性的(prescriptive)4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要(synchronic)Phonetics(语音学)Phonology (音位学)•发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity•speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质(言语比文字更加基础)•语音学从哪三个角度研究？(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics发声语音学(历史最悠久)(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics声学语音学•主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音(narrow transcription) 书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health{p} pit，spit (送气，不送气)p h 来表送气•语音的分类：元音(voiced sound)和辅音•voiceless•元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+｛a：｝）和圆唇的（rounded）后元日•Segment 和syllable前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音•语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注｛l｝的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注｛l｝分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如口｝在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt｛l｝放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.（关注某种语言的语音系统）Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体•音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:l],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素, 分别是[f],[i：],[T[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。

Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of IanguageSome speculations of the origins of Ianguage:①The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any Ianguage, the n they would spontan eously beg in using the orig inal god-give n Ian guage.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no Ianguage at all.②The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The —Yeheave-ho theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Ono matopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means ofcom muni cati on.The patter ns of moveme nt in articulati on would be the same as gestural moveme nt; he nee waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetic（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development o f human Ianguage.Physiological adaptati on develop naming ability in teract ions and tran sacti onsPhysical adaptati on:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible. Thehuman mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The huma n lary nx is lowered, creati ng a Ion ger cavity called the phary nx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech pos sible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and Ianguage) are l argely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:In teract ion al: a social fun cti on of Ian guage.Tran sacti on al: a fun cti on inv olvi ng the com muni cati on of kno wledge and in forma tio n[B] The properties of IanguageLan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni catio n.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ——pen and the thing in the worl d which it refers toc) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all Ianguagesd) Human: Ianguage is human-specific (交际性与信息性)Communicative vs. Informative:Communi cative: inten ti on ally using Ian guage to com muni cate somethi ngIn formative: through/via a nu mber of sig nals that are not inten ti on ally sent Design features (unique properties): the defining properties of human Ianguage that disti n guish it from any ani mal system of com muni catio n①Displacement (跨时空性，移位性)Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situatio ns of t he speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness (任意性)There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or w ord) and its meaning.While Ianguage is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compo und words③Productivity （能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. （Creativity or open-endedness）④Cultural transition （文化传递性）While human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis （everyone was born with the a bility to acquire a Ianguage）, the details of any Ianguage system are not genetically transmit ted, but in stead have to be taught and lear nt.⑤Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the Ian guage is treated as discrete.⑥Duality （双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word （d ouble articulati on）The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human Ianguage.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human Ianguage, but not as a means of dist in guish ing it from other systems of com muni cati on.[C] The development of written Ianguage①pictograms & ideograms （象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consiste nt way, we can beg in to describe the product as a form of picture-writi ng, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is cons idered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph:古埃及象形文字②Logograms （语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a Ianguage, they are described a s examples of word-writing, or logograms.—Arbitrari ness a w—ng system which was word-based had come in to existe nc e.Cuneiform--楔形文字一the Sumerians （5000 and 6000 years ago）Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing (音节书写法)When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations o f syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing (字母书写法)Semitic Ianguages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: tak ing the in here ntly syllabic system from the Phoe ni cia ns via the Roma nsLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic Ianguages)⑤Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be u sed for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.Process of linguistic study:①Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;②Hypotheses are formulated;③Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n com muni cati on.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics the study of language as a wholePhonetics the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of th e phonic medium of Ianguage) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) Phonology is esse ntially the descripti on of the systems and patter ns of speech sounds in a Ianguage. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that gover n the comb in ati on of words to form permiss ible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in con text of useSociolinguistics the study of language with referenee to society Psycholinguistics the study of language with reference to the workings of the mi ndApplied linguistics the application of linguistics principles and theories to language te ach ing and lear ningAn thropological lin guistics, n eurological lin guistics; mathematical lin guistics; m athematical lin guistics; computati onal lin guistics[C_Some_important ------- d istinctions ----- in linguistics—①Prescriptive vs. Descriptive②Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a Ianguage at some point in time;The description of a Ianguage as it changes through time.③Speech and writingSpoken Ianguage is primary, not the written④Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speec h com mun ityParole: refers to the realization of Iangue in actual use⑤Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Compete nee: the ideal user' knowledge of the rules of his Ian guage戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记E.g.:Chapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of Ianguage: it is concerned with all the so unds that occur in the world ' sanguages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speec h soun ds.Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification an d the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Orga ns of speechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes betwee n them uni mpeded.Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated push es them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The importa nt cavities:The phary ngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe n asal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords[C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and n arrow tran scripti onsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics[I] [li:f]-- a clear [I] (no diacritic)[I] [bild]-- a dark [I]㈠[I] [hel ]-- a dental [I]()I—I—[p] [pit]-- an aspirated [p ]()[p] [spit]-- an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n] [ b tn] a syllabic nasal [n]()[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]②Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow pass age in the mon th[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [ ]/[ ], [ ]/[ ], [h] (approximant)③Affricates: the obstruct ion, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[t ]/[d ]④Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between partor parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[I] a lateral sound; [r] retroflex⑤Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h] approxima nts⑥Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass thr ough it[m],[],[]By place of articulation (the place where obstruct ion is created)①bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions[p]/[b], [w] (velar)②labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[]/[]④alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near th e alveolar ridge[]/[ ], [t]/[d]⑥palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦velars: the back of the tongue against the velum[k], [g],[]…[w]⑧glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E] Classification of English vowels①The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;②The opennessof the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;③The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except []All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels④ The length of the sound long vowels & short vowelsLarynx (tense) or (lax)Mono phth on gs, diphth ongsCardinal vowels[F] The defi niti on of phono logyPhonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human Ianguages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess,how t hey can be classified, etc.Phono logy, on the other han d, is in terested in the system of sounds of a particular Ian guages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in lin guistic com muni cati on.[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit - phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a Ianguage, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two w ords and they distinguish meaning, they ' rie phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes a resaid to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one soun d segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal se ts.[HU Some rules in phonology①sequential rulesSyllableOn set rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonan t(s)]Phono tactics of 3Cs occurri ng in on set:No1:_/s/__ voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/__ approximants: /r/, /I/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [t ]/[d ] and the sibilants [s], [z], [ ], [ ] are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequenee and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pron unciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant卩]Suprasegmentai features①StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element②ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrat ion of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone Ianguage, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in is olation, they are collectively known as intonation.English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall toneChapter 4 Morphology[A] The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology)Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morphemes: can sta nd by themselves as si ngle wordsLexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.] Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to ano ther formDerivational morphemes---- affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + rootInflectional morphemes 88 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -' s-s [possessive; plural]Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past parti ciple] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative][C] Derivational vs. inflectionalInflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordIn flect ional morphemes in flue nee the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional[D] Morphological RulesN. +ly a.; A. +ly adv.; guard overge neralizatio n[E] Morphs and allomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them asallomorphs of that morpheme.[F] Word-formation process①Coinage the invention of totally new terms②Borrowing the taking over of words form other IanguagesLoan-translation (Claque) a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing IanguageStand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③Compounding a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in b etween,or as two separate words.b) Syn tactically, the part of speech of the compo und is gen erally determ ined by the part of speech of the second element.c) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum to tal ofthe meanings of its components.d) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,While the sec ond eleme nt receives sec on dary stress.④Blending tak ing over the beg inning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤Clipping a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form⑥Back formation a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing wordHypocorisms clipping or +ie⑦Conversion category change, functional shift⑧Acronyms new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words⑨Derivation the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or wordse formAnalogyChapter 5 Grammar[A] Types of grammarThe study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a Ianguage, has a very long tradition.①Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the product ion andrecognition of appropriately structured expressions in that Ianguage. Psycholog ist②Linguistic etiquette the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a l anguage. Sociologist③The study and analysis of the structures found in a Ianguage, with the aim of establi shing adescription of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinet from the grammar of Russ ia or French.Linguist[BL The parts of speechNouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositi ons, pronouns, conjun cti onsthe grammatical categories of words in sentences[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)Other categories: nu mber, pers on, ten se, voice and gen derAgreeme nt:English Ianguage natural genderGrammatical gen der French[D] Types of grammar concerning analysisThe prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a IanguageThe descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the Ianguage they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the Ianguage at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.耳Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a la nguageIC An alysis: how small con stitue nts (Comp onen ts) in sen ten cesgo together to for m larger con stitue nts[F] Labeled and bracketed sentencesHierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentenceLabel each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NPChapter 6 Syntax[A] The definition of syntaxA subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of Ianguage[B] The basic components of a sentenceSentenceSubject PredicateReferring expression comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject[C] Types of sentencesSimple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate a nd stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (Compound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coord in ati ng conjun cti ons, such as —and —by II—or II…Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated in to the otherEmbedded clause matrix clause①subordinator ②f unctions as a grammatical unit ③ may be complete[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentencesWhen a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced o ne after another in a sequenee, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequenee does not entail that sent ences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntact ic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structureBrackets and subscript labels耳Some categoriesSyntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammaticalfunction, such as the subject or the predicateLexical categories: (parts of speech)Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. I nt.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP[F] Grammatical RelationsThe structural and logical functional relations of constituentsIt concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verbSubject of and direct object ofStructural subject, structural objectLogical subject (the doer of the actio n), the logical object (the recipie nt of the act ion)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G] Comb in ati onal rulesAre small in number Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones①phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)S NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NP (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)An optional determiner ….anobligatory noun,VP V (NP) (POP) (S)AP A (PP) (S)PP P NP②the recursivenessof phrase structure rulesSign ifica ntly, the above rules can gen erate an infin ite nu mber of senten ces,a nd sentenc es with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.③X- bar theoryHead an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXP (Specifier) X (complement)Formula:XII Spec X'X-bar theory (X-bar schema)X' X complTree diagramX ISpecifier X'X compleme nt[H] Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement: occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new placeTransformational rules①NP-movement and WH-movementNP-moveme nt: active voice passive voicePostpos ing, prepos ingWH-moveme nt: affirmative in terrogativeLeftward matter to the sentence initial-position②Other types of movementAux-movement: the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before moveme nt takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexic onSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysis④Move a-a general movement ruleMove any constituent to any placeCertain constituents can move to only certain positions[I] Uni versal Grammar (UG)Prin ciples-a nd-parameterstheory:UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principl es and parameters about n atural Ian guages.①general principles of UGCase condition principle: a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V or P to the object position or by Aux to the subject positionAdjace ncy con diti on or Case assig nment: a case assig nor and a case recipie nt should st ay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences, not other Ianguages (no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variation in order to explain th e apparent adjacency violations such as in French.②The parameters of UGParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or ano ther and con tribute to sig nifica nt lin guistic variati ons betwee n and among n atural Ian guages.[+strict adjacency]Adjace ncy parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directio nality]The Directi on ality Parameter invo Ives word order[Leftward directionality]En: VP word order VP V NPJp: VP word order VP NP VNatural Ianguages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.Chapter 7 Semantics[A] The definition of semanticsDefinition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B] Some views concerning the study of meaning①the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in aIanguage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.②the conceptualist view: There' no direct link between a linguistic form and what it ref ers to(i.e. between Ianguage and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/refere nee con ceptSymbol/Form (words) Refere nt (real object)Proposed by Ogden & Richards③contextualism John FirthThe situati onal con text: in a particular spatiotemporal situati onLi nguistic con text (co-text): the probability of a word' ©o-occurre nee or collocatio n with another word④behaviorism Bloomfield based on contextualist viewBehaviorists define meaning of a Ianguage form as the situation in which the speaker utt ers it and the response it calls forth in the hearerS: stimulus r: resp onseJill JackS -------- r........... s -------- R(the small letters r, s speech)(the capitalized letter R, S practical events)[C] Sense and referenceSen se: is concerned with the in here nt mea ning of the lin guistic form, abstract and de-c on textualized.Referenee: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati on ship betwee n the lin guistic eleme nt and the non-li nguistic world of experie n ce Moving star I once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.[D] Major sense relations①synonymy the samenessor close similarity of meaninga. dialectal synonym ------ synonyms used in different regional dialectsb. stylistic synonyms ------ synonyms differing in stylec. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd. collocati onal synonymse. semantically different synonyms②polysemy ----- one word that has more than one related meaning③homonymyHomoph on es: whe n two words are ide ntical in soundHomographs: when two words are identical in spellingComplete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and inSou ndEtymology④hyponymy --- inclusivenessThe word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.Co-hyp onym⑤antonymy ---- oppositenessGradable antonymsCompleme ntary antonymsRelatio nal opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relati on ship be。