国际经济学英文第七版克鲁格曼英文经济名词翻译

国际经济学英文第七版克鲁格曼英文经济名词翻译Key Terms of International EconomicsChapter3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage 比较优势Absolute advantage 绝对优势Opportunity cost 机会成本Production possibility frontier 生产可能性边界Unit labor requirement 单位产品劳动投入Relative price 相对价格Relative demand curve相对需求曲线Relative supply curve 相对供给曲线Relative wage 相对工资Relative quantity 相对产量Ricardian model 李嘉图模型Pauper labor argument 贫民劳动论Nontraded goods 非贸易商品Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: the Heckscher-Ohlin Model Abundant factor 丰裕要素Biased expansion of production 偏向性生产扩张Equalization of factor prices 要素价格均等化Factor abundance 要素丰裕度Factor intensity 要素密集度Scarce factor 稀缺要素Leontief paradox 里昂惕夫悖论land-intensive 土地密集型Labor-intensive劳动密集型the ratio of 2 factor prices 要素价格比Wage-rental ratio 工资-租金比Land-labor ratio ，the ratio of land to labor 土地劳动比Chapter 5 The standard Trade ModelBiased growth 偏向性增长Export-biased growth 出口偏向性增长Immiserizing growth 贫困化增长Import-biased growth 进口偏向性增长Isovalue line等价值线Marginal propensity to spend边际消费倾向Terms of trade贸易条件Transfers of income转移支付Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and international TradeDumping 倾销External economies of scale外部规模经济Imperfect competition 不完全竞争Interindustry trade 产业间贸易Intraindustry trade 产业内贸易Internal economies of scale内在规模经济Monopolistic competion垄断竞争Reciprocal dumping 相互倾销Increasing return 报酬递增Chapter 7 The Instruments of Trade policyad valorem tariff从价税Specific tariff从量税Consumer surplus消费者剩余Producer surplus生产者剩余Production distortion loss生产扭曲损失Consumption distortion loss消费扭曲损失Effective rate of protection有效保护率Efficiency loss效率损失Export restraint出口限制Export subsidy出口补贴Import quota进口配额Voluntary export restraint自愿出口限制Local content requirement国产化程度要求nontariff barriers非关税避垒Quota rent配额租金Chapter 8 National Income Accounting and the Balance of Payments The Balance of Payment AccountsCurrent accountFinancial accountCapital accountChapter 9 Exchange Rates and the Foreign Exchange Market:An Asset ApproachAppreciation升值Arbitrage套汇、套利Depreciation贬值Exchange rate汇率Forward exchange rate远期汇率Interest parity condition利率平价条件Rate of appreciation升值率Rate of depreciation贬值率Real rate of return实际收益率Spot exchange rate即期汇率Vehicle currency载体货币Foreign exchange外汇Chapter 10 Money, Interest Rates, and Exchange ratesMoney Supply 货币供给Money Demand 货币需求Short-Run Price Rigidity 短期价格粘性Long-run Price Flexibility 长期灵活价格permanent increase in the U.S. money supply 货币供给永久性增长overshooting 超调Chapter 11 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run Law of one price 一价定律Nominal exchange rate 名义汇率Nominal interest rate 名义利率Purchasing power parity 购买力平价Real appreciation实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Real exchange rate 实际汇率Relative PPP相对购买力平价Market rigidity市场刚性Price rigidity价格刚性Price stickiness价格粘性Chapter 12 Output and the Exchange Rate in the Short Run Aggregate demand 总需求Fiscal policy 财政政策J-curve J曲线Real exchange rate 实际汇率Real appreciation 实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Chapter 13 Fixed, Floating Exchange Rate and Policies Effects Sterilization冲销Sterilized foreign exchange intervention冲销性外汇干预Devaluation法定贬值Revaluation法定升值Clean float 清洁浮动Dirty float 肮脏浮动Capital flight 资本抽逃Chapter 14 The Theory of Optimum Currency Areas optimumcurrency areas 最优货币区Monetary efficiency gain 货币效率收益Economic integration 经济一体化Floating exchange rate 浮动汇率Fixed exchange rate 固定汇率。

宏观经济学原理曼昆名词解释微观经济学（microeconomics），研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及它们如何在市场上相互影响。

宏观经济学（macroeconomics），研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。

国内生产总值GDP（gross?domestic?product），在某一既定时期，一个国家内生产的所有最终物品与服务的市场价值。

消费（consumption），家庭除购买新住房之外，用于物品与服务的支出。

投资（investment），用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。

政府购买（government?purchase），地方、州和联邦政府用于物品与服务的支出。

净出口（net?export），外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口），减国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。

名义GDP（nominal?GDP），按现期价格评价的物品与服务的生产。

真实GDP（real?GDP），按不变价格评价的物品与服务的生产。

（总之，名义GDP是用当年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值，真实GDP是用不变的基年价格来评价经济中物品与服务生产的价值。

）GDP平减指数（GDP,?deflator），用名义GDP与真实GDP的比率乘以100计算的物价水平衡量指标。

消费物价指数CPI（consumer?price?index），普通消费者所购买的物品与服务的总费用的衡量指标。

通货膨胀率（inflation?rate），从前一个时期以来，物价指数变动的百分比。

生产物价指数（producer?price?index），企业所购买的一篮子物品运服务的费用的衡量指标。

指数化（indexation），根据法律或合同按照通货膨胀的影响，对货币数量的自动调整。

名义利率（nominal?interest?rate），通常公布的、未根据通货膨胀的影响，校正的利率。

真实利率（real?interest?rate），根据通货膨胀的影响校正过的利率。

国际经济学中英名词解释Absolute advantage: The greater efficiency that one nation may have over another in the production of a commodity. This was the basis for trade for Adam Smith.绝对优势Law of comparative advantage: The less efficient nation should specialize in and export the commodity in which its absolute disadvantage is smaller (this is the commodity of its comparative advantage), and should import the other commodity.比较优势原理Ad valorem tariff: A tariff expressed as a fixed percentage of the value of a traded commodity.从价税Specific tariff:从量税A tariff expressed as a fixed sum per unit of a traded commodity.Capital-intensive commodity: The commodity with the higher capital-labor ratio at all relative factor prices.资本密集型商品Labor-intensive commodity:The commodity with the higher labor-capital ratio (L/K) at all relative factor prices.劳动密集型产品Capital inflow: An increase of foreign assets in the nation or a reduction in the nation’s assets abroad.资本流入Capital outflow: A decrease of foreign assets in the nation or an increases the nation’s assets abroad.资本流出Community indifference curve: The curve that shows the various combinations of two commodities yielding equal satisfaction to the community or nation. Community indifference curves are negatively sloped, convex from the origin, and should not across.社会无差异曲线Consumer surplus: The difference between what consumers are willing to pay for a specific amount of a commodity and what they actually pay for it.消费者剩余Producer surplus: The revenue producers receive over and above the minimum amount required to induce them to supply the good.生产者剩余Current account: The account that includes all sales and purchases of currently produced goods and services, income on foreign investments, and unilateral transfers.经常项目Credit transactions:Transactions that involve the receipt of payments from foreigners. These include the export of goods and services, unilateral transfers from foreigners, and capital inflow.贷方交易Debit transactions: Transactions that involve payments to foreigners. These include the import of goods and services, unilateral transfers to foreigners, and capital outflows.借方交易Deficit in the balance of payments:The excess of debits over credits in the current and capital accounts, or autonomous transactions, equal to the net credit balance in the official reserve account, or accommodating transactions.国际收支逆差Factor abundance: The factor of production available in greater proportion and at a lower relative price in one nation than in another nation.要素丰裕度General equilibrium analysis: The study of the interdependence that exists among all markets in the economy.一般均衡分析General equilibrium model: An economic model that studies the behavior of all producers, and traders simultaneously.一般均衡模型Heckscher-Ohlin(H-O) theory: 赫克歇尔—俄林理论The theory that postulates that(1)a nation exports commodities intensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and(2)international trade brings about equalization in returns to homogeneous factors across countries.Infant-industry argument: The argument that temporary trade protection is needed to set up an industry and to protect it during its infancy against competition from more established and efficient foreign firms.幼稚工业保护税Marginal rate of substitution,MRS: The amount of one commodity that a nation could give up in exchange for one extra unit of a second commodity and still remain on the same indifference curve. It is given by the slope of the community indifference curve at the point of consumption and declines as the nation consumes more of the second commodity.边际替代率Marginal rate of transformation,MRT:The amount of one commodity that a nation must give up to produce each additional unit of another commodity. This is another name for the opportunity cost of a commodity and is given by the slope of the production frontier at the point of production.边际转换率Opportunity cost theory: The theory that the cost of a commodity is the amount of a second commodity that must be given up to release just enough resources to produce one more unit of the firstcommodity.机会成本理论Dumping:The export of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price than sold domestically.倾销Persistent dumping:The continuous tendency of a domestic monopolist to maximize total profits by selling the commodity at a lower price abroad than domestically, also called international price discrimination.持久性倾销Predatory dumping: The temporary sale of commodity at a lower price abroad in order to drive foreign producers out of business, after which prices are raised to take advantage of the newly acquired monopoly power abroad.掠夺性倾销Sporadic dumping:偶尔倾销The occasional sale of a commodity at a lower price abroad than domestically in order to sell an unforeseen and temporary surplus of the commodity abroad without having to reduce domestic prices.Product cycle model:The hypothesis, advanced by Vernon, that new products introduced by industrial nations and produced with skilled labor eventually become standardized and can be produced in other nations with less skilled labor.产品周期模型Production possibility frontier:A curve showing the various alternative combinations of two commodities that a nation can produce by fully utilizing all of its resources with the best technology available to it.生产可能性边界Purchasing-power parity(PPP) theory:The theory that postulates that the change in the exchange rate between two currencies is proportional to the change in the ratio in the two countries’ general price levels.购买力平价理论Rate of effective protection:The tariff calculated on the domestic value added in the production of a commodity.有效保护率Relative purchasing-power parity theory:Postulates that the change in the exchange rate over a period of time should be proportional to the relative change in the price levels in the two nations. This version of the PPP theory has some value.相对购买力平价Small-country case:The situation where trade takes place at the pretrade-relative commodity prices in the large nation so that the small nation receives all of the benefits from trade.小国情况Specific tariff:A tariff expressed as a fixed sum per unit of a traded commodity.特别关税Terms of trade:The ratio of the index price of a nation’s export to its import commodities.贸易条件Free-trade area:自由贸易区Remove all tariff and nontariff barriers among members and maintain its own trade restrictions against outsiders.Customs union:关税同盟Removes all barriers on trade among members and harmonizes trade policies toward the rest of the world.The best example is the European Union(EU).Common market:共同市场Removes all barriers on trade among members,harmonizes trade policies toward the rest of the world,and also allows the free movement of labor and capital among member nations.An example is the European Union(EU)since January 1,1993. Economic union:经济同盟A supranational institution harmonize and administer national,social,taxation,and fiscal policies.Dumping:倾销The export of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price than sold domestically.Direct investments:直接投资Real investments in factories,capitalgoods,land,and inventories where both capital and management are involved and the investor retains control over the use of the invested capital.Interdependence: 相互依赖The (economic) relationships among nation.Increasing opportunity costs: 机会成本递增The increasing amounts of one commodity that a nation must give up to release just enough resources to produce each additional unit of another commodity.This is reflected in a production frontier that is concave from the origin.Income terms of trade:收入贸易条件The ratio of the price index of the nation’s exports to the price index of its imports times the index of the nation’s volume of exports.Immiserizing growth:悲惨性增长The situation where a nation’s terms of trade deteriorate so much as a result of growth that the nation is worse off after growth than before,even if growth without trade tends to improve the nation’s welfare.Leontief paradox:里昂惕夫之谜The empirical finding that U.S import substitutes were more K intensive than U.S exports.This is contrary to the H-O trade model,which predicts that,as the most K-abundant nation,the United States should import L-intensive products andexport K-intensive products.Multinational corporations(MNCs):跨国公司Firms that own,control,or manage production and distribution facilities in several countries.Optimum tariff:最有关税The rate of tariff that maximizes the benefit resulting from improvement in the nation's terms of trade against the negative effect resulting from reduction in the volume of trade. Pattern of trade:贸易模式The commodities exported and imported by each nation.Production possibility frontier:生产可能性曲线A curve showing the various alternative combinations of two commodities that a nation can produce by fully utilizing all of its resources with the best technology available to it.Prohibitive tariff:禁止性关税A tariff sufficiently high to stop all international trade so that the nation returns to autarky. Preferential trade arrangements:优惠贸易安排The loosest from of economic integration;provides lower barriers to trade among participating nations than on trade with nonparticipating nations.An example is the British Commonwealth Preference Scheme.Stolper-Samuelson theorem: 施托尔珀－萨缪尔森定理It postulates that free international trade reduces the real income of the nation's relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation's relatively abundant factor.Terms of trade:贸易条件The ratio of the index price of a nation's export to its import commodities.Trade creation:贸易创造Occurs when some domestic production in a member of the customs union is replaced by lower-cost imports from another member nation.This increases welfare.Trade diversion:贸易转移Occurs when lowercost imports from outside the union are replaced by higher-cost imports from another union member.Byitself,this reduces welfare.Transfer pricing:转移价格The overpricing or underpricing of products in the intrafirm trade of multinational corporations in an attempt to shift income and profits from high-to low-tax nations.。

1. 国际经济学：以经济学的一般理论为基础，研究国际经济活动和国际经济关系，是一般经济理论在国际经济活动范围中的应用与延伸，是经济学体系的有机组成部分。

主要研究对象有国际贸易理论与政策、国际收支理论、汇率理论、要素的国际流动、国际投资理论、开放的宏观经济均衡等。

2. 绝对利益：由英国古典经济学家亚当·斯密提出，是指在某种商品的生产上，一个经济在劳动生产率上占有绝对优势，或其生产所耗费的劳动成本绝对低于另一个经济。

若各个经济都从事自己占绝对优势的产品的生产，继而进行交换，那么双方都可以通过交换得到绝对的利益，从而整个世界也可以获得分工的好处。

3. 比较利益：英国古典经济学家大卫·李嘉图认为，决定国际贸易的基础是比较利益而非绝对利益。

国际分工中若两个贸易参与国家生产力水平不相等,甲国在生产任何产品时成本均低于乙国，处于绝对优势；而乙国则相反，其劳动生产率在任何产品上均低于甲国，处于绝对劣势。

4. 国际分工：即各国之间的劳动分工，生产的国际专业化，它是经济发展的必然，是社会分工从一国国内向国外延伸的结果。

各国对于分工方式的选择以及分工的变化，反映了彼此之间的经济发展水平的差异以及各国经济联系的程度。

国际分工主要有产业间、产业内、垂直、水平以及不同要素密集度之间的分工等类型。

5. 贸易乘数：是指乘数理论在对外贸易研究中的运用，探讨对外贸易与国民收入与就业之间的关系。

在贸易乘数公式中，它是边际储蓄倾向的和的倒数。

贸易乘数原理主要分析在边际储蓄倾向和边际进口倾向之和小于1的条件下，增加出口有利于提高有效需求，增加国民收入和就业量。

6. 贸易创造：是指在关税同盟内部取消成员国之间的关税后，国内生产成本高的商品被成员国中生产成本低的商品所取代，来自成员国的低价进口商品替代了昂贵的国内生产的商品，成员国之间的贸易被创造出来。

7. 贸易转移：两个或两个以上国家间的关税同盟建立后，成员国的部分进口商品将从低成本供应国(非成员国)转向高成本供应国(成员国)，这就是贸易转移。

For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use经济学常用英语词汇英汉对照Aaccounting会计accounting cost会计成本accounting profit会计利润adverse selection逆向选择allocation配置allocation of resources资源配置allocative efficiency配置效率antitrust legislation反托拉斯法arc elasticity弧弹性Arrow's impossibility theorem阿罗不可能定理Assumption假设asymmetric information非对称性信息average平均average cost平均成本average cost pricing平均成本定价法average fixed cost平均固定成本average product of capital资本平均产量average product of labour劳动平均产量average revenue平均收益average total cost平均总成本average variable cost平均可变成本Bbarriers to entry进入壁垒base year基年bilateral monopoly双边垄断benefit收益black market黑市bliss point极乐点boundary point边界点break even point收支相抵点budget预算budget constraint预算约束budget line预算线budget set预算集Ccapital资本capital stock资本存量capital output ratio资本产出比率capitalism资本主义cardinal utility theory基数效用论cartel卡特尔ceteris puribus assumption“其他条件不变”的假设ceteris puribus demand curve其他因素不变的需求曲线Chamberlin model张伯伦模型change in demand需求变化change in quantity demanded需求量变化change in quantity supplied供给量变化change in supply供给变化choice选择closed set闭集Coase theorem科斯定理Cobb—Douglas production function柯布--道格拉斯生产函数cobweb model蛛网模型collective bargaining集体协议工资collusion合谋command economy指令经济commodity商品commodity combination商品组合commodity market商品市场commodity space商品空间common property公用财产comparative static analysis比较静态分析compensated budget line补偿预算线compensated demand function补偿需求函数compensation principles补偿原则compensating variation in income收入补偿变量competition竞争competitive market竞争性市场complement goods互补品complete information完全信息completeness完备性condition for efficiency in exchange交换的最优条件condition for efficiency in production生产的最优条件concave凹concave function凹函数concave preference凹偏好consistence一致性constant cost industry成本不变产业constant returns to scale规模报酬不变constraints约束consumer消费者consumer behavior消费者行为consumer choice消费者选择consumer equilibrium消费者均衡consumer optimization消费者优化consumer preference消费者偏好consumer surplus消费者剩余consumer theory消费者理论consumption消费consumption bundle消费束consumption combination消费组合consumption possibility curve消费可能曲线consumption possibility frontier消费可能性前沿consumption set消费集consumption space消费空间continuity连续性continuous function连续函数contract curve契约曲线convex凸convex function凸函数convex preference凸偏好convex set凸集corporatlon公司cost成本cost benefit analysis成本收益分cost function成本函数cost minimization成本极小化Cournot equilihrium古诺均衡Cournot model古诺模型Cross—price elasticity交叉价格弹性Ddead—weights loss重负损失decreasing cost industry成本递减产业decreasing returns to scale规模报酬递减deduction演绎法demand需求demand curve需求曲线demand elasticity需求弹性demand function需求函数demand price需求价格demand schedule需求表depreciation折旧derivative导数derive demand派生需求difference equation差分方程differential equation微分方程differentiated good 差异商品differentiated oligopoly差异寡头diminishing marginal substitution边际替代率递减diminishing marginal return收益递减diminishing marginal utility边际效用递减direct approach直接法direct taxes直接税discounting贴税、折扣diseconomies of scale规模不经济disequilibrium非均衡distribution分配division of labour劳动分工distribution theory of marginal productivity边际生产率分配论duopoly双头垄断、双寡duality对偶durable goods耐用品dynamic analysis 动态分析dynamic models动态模型EEconomic agents经济行为者economic cost经济成本economic efficiency经济效率economic goods经济物品economic man经济人economic mode经济模型economic profit经济利润economic region of production生产的经济区域economic regulation经济调节economic rent经济租金exchange交换economics经济学exchange efficiency交换效率economy经济exchange contract curve交换契约曲线economy of scale规模经济Edge worth box diagram埃奇沃思图exclusion排斥性、排他性Edge worth contract curve埃奇沃思契约线Edge worth model埃奇沃思模型efficiency效率，效益efficiency parameter效率参数elasticity弹性elasticity of substitution替代弹性endogenous variable内生变量endowment禀赋endowment of resources资源禀赋Engel curve恩格尔曲线entrepreneur企业家entrepreneurship企业家才能entry barriers进入壁垒entry/exit decision进出决策envelope curve包络线equilibrium均衡equilibrium condition均衡条件equilibrium price均衡价格equilibrium quantity均衡产量equity公平equivalent variation in income收入等价变量excess—capacity theorem过度生产能力定理excess supply过度供给exchange交换exchange contract curve交换契约曲线exclusion排斥性、排他性exclusion principle排他性原则existence存在性existence of general equilibrium总体均衡的存在性exogenous variables外生变量expansion paths扩展径expectation期望expected utility期望效用expected value期望值expenditure支出explicit cost显性成本external benefit外部收益external cost外部成本external economy外部经济external diseconomy外部不经济externalities外部性FFactor要素factor demand要素需求factor market要素市场factors of production生产要素factor substitution要素替代factor supply要素供给fallacy of composition合成谬误final goods最终产品firm企业firms’ demand curve for labor企业劳动需求曲线firm supply curve企业供给曲线first-degree price discrimination第一级价格歧视first—order condition一阶条件fixed costs固定成本fixed input固定投入fixed proportions production function固定比例的生产函数flow流量fluctuation波动for whom to produce为谁生产free entry自由进入free goods自由品，免费品free mobility of resources资源自由流动free rider搭便车，免费搭车function函数future value未来值Ggame theory对策论、博弈论general equilibrium总体均衡general goods一般商品Giffen goods吉芬晶收入补偿需求曲线Giffen's Paradox吉芬之谜Gini coefficient吉尼系数golden rule黄金规则goods货物government failure政府失败government regulation政府调控grand utility possibility curve总效用可能曲线grand utility possibility frontier总效用可能前沿Hheterogeneous product异质产品Hicks—kaldor welfare criterion希克斯一卡尔多福利标准homogeneity齐次性homogeneous demand function齐次需求函数homogeneous product同质产品homogeneous production function齐次生产函数horizontal summation水平和household家庭how to produce如何生产human capital人力资本hypothesis假说Iidentity恒等式imperfect competition不完全竞争implicit cost隐性成本income收入income compensated demand curve income constraint收入约束income consumption curve收入消费曲线income distribution收入分配income effect收入效应income elasticity of demand需求收入弹性increasing cost industry成本递增产业increasing returns to scale规模报酬递增inefficiency缺乏效率index number指数indifference无差异indifference curve无差异曲线indifference map无差异族indifference relation无差异关系indifference set无差异集indirect approach间接法individual analysis个量分析individual demand curve个人需求曲线individual demand function个人需求函数induced variable引致变量induction归纳法industry产业industry equilibrium产业均衡industry supply curve产业供给曲线inelastic缺乏弹性的inferior goods劣品inflection point拐点information信息information cost信息成本initial condition初始条件initial endowment初始禀赋innovation创新input投入input—output投入—产出institution制度institutional economics制度经济学insurance保险intercept截距interest利息interest rate利息率intermediate goods中间产品internalization of externalities外部性内部化invention发明inverse demand function逆需求函数investment投资invisible hand看不见的手isocost line等成本线，isoprofit curve等利润曲线isoquant curve等产量曲线isoquant map等产量族Kkinded—demand curve弯折的需求曲线Llabour劳动labour demand劳动需求labour supply劳动供给labour theory of value劳动价值论labour unions工会laissez faire自由放任Lagrangian function拉格朗日函数Lagrangian multiplier拉格朗乘数，land土地law法则law of demand and supply供需法law of diminishing marginal utility边际效用递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of substitution边际替代率递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of technical substitution边际技术替代率law of increasing cost成本递增法则law of one price单一价格法则leader—follower model领导者--跟随者模型least—cost combination of inputs最低成本的投入组合leisure闲暇Leontief production function列昂节夫生产函数licenses许可证linear demand function线性需求函数linear homogeneity线性齐次性linear homogeneous production function线性齐次生产函数long run长期long run average cost长期平均成本long run equilibrium长期均衡long run industry supply curve长期产业供给曲线long run marginal cost长期边际成本long run total cost长期总成本Lorenz curve洛伦兹曲线loss minimization损失极小化1ump sum tax一次性征税luxury奢侈品Mmacroeconomics宏观经济学marginal边际的marginal benefit边际收益marginal cost边际成本marginal cost pricing边际成本定价marginal cost of factor边际要素成本marginal period市场期marginal physical productivity实际实物生产率marginal product边际产量marginal product of capital资本的边际产量marginal product of 1abour劳动的边际产量marginal productivity边际生产率marginal rate of substitution边替代率marginal rate of transformation边际转换率marginal returns边际回报marginal revenue边际收益marginal revenue product边际收益产品marginal revolution边际革命marginal social benefit社会边际收益marginal social cost社会边际成本marginal utility边际效用marginal value products边际价值产品market市场market clearance市场结清，市场洗清market demand市场需求market economy市场经济market equilibrium市场均衡market failure市场失败market mechanism市场机制market structure市场结构market separation市场分割market regulation市场调节market share市场份额markup pricing加减定价法Marshallian demand function马歇尔需求函数maximization极大化microeconomics微观经济学minimum wage最低工资misallocation of resources资源误置mixed economy混合经济model模型money货币monopolistic competition垄断竞争monopolistic exploitation垄断剥削monopoly垄断，卖方垄断monopoly equilibrium垄断均衡monopoly pricing垄断定价monopoly regulation垄断调控monopoly rents垄断租金monophony买方垄断NNash equilibrium纳什均衡Natural monopoly自然垄断Natural resources自然资源Necessary condition必要条件necessities必需品net demand净需求nonconvex preference非凸性偏好nonconvexity非凸性nonexclusion非排斥性nonlinear pricing非线性定价nonrivalry非对抗性nonprice competition非价格竞争nonsatiation非饱和性non--zero—sum game非零和对策normal goods正常品normal profit正常利润normative economics规范经济学Oobjective function目标函数oligopoly寡头垄断oligopoly market寡头市场oligopoly model寡头模型opportunity cost机会成本optimal choice最佳选择optimal consumption bundle消费束perfect elasticity完全有弹性optimal resource allocation最佳资源配置optimal scale最佳规模optimal solution最优解optimization优化ordering of optimization(social) preference (社会)偏好排序ordinal utility序数效用ordinary goods一般品output产量、产出output elasticity产出弹性output maximization产出极大化Pparameter参数Pareto criterion帕累托标准Pareto efficiency帕累托效率Pareto improvement帕累托改进Pareto optimality帕累托优化Pareto set帕累托集partial derivative偏导数partial equilibrium局部均衡patent专利pay off matrix收益矩阵、支付矩阵perceived demand curve感觉到的需求曲线perfect competition完全竞争perfect complement完全互补品perfect monopoly完全垄断perfect price discrimination完全价格歧视perfect substitution完全替代品perfect inelasticity完全无弹性perfectly elastic完全有弹性perfectly inelastic完全无弹性plant size工厂规模point elasticity点弹性positive economics实证经济学post Hoc Fallacy后此谬误prediction预测preference偏好preference relation偏好关系present value现值price价格price adjustment model价格调整模型price ceiling最高限价price consumption curve价格费曲线price control价格管制price difference价格差别price discrimination价格歧视price elasticity of demand需求价格弹性price elasticity of supply供给价格弹性price floor最低限价price maker价格制定者price rigidity价格刚性price seeker价格搜求者price taker价格接受者price tax从价税private benefit私人收益principal—agent issues委托--代理问题private cost私人成本private goods私人用品private property私人财产producer equilibrium生产者均衡producer theory生产者理论product产品product transformation curve产品转换曲线product differentiation产品差异product group产品集团production生产production contract curve生产契约曲线production efficiency生产效率production function生产函数production possibility curve生产可能性曲线productivity生产率productivity of capital资本生产率productivity of labor劳动生产率profit利润profit function利润函数profit maximization利润极大化property rights产权property rights economics产权经济学proposition定理proportional demand curve成比例的需求曲线public benefits公共收益public choice公共选择public goods公共商品pure competition纯粹竞争rivalry对抗性、竞争pure exchange纯交换pure monopoly纯粹垄断Qquantity—adjustment model数量调整模型quantity tax从量税quasi—rent准租金Rrate of product transformation产品转换率rationality理性reaction function反应函数regulation调节，调控relative price相对价格rent租金rent control规模报酬rent seeking寻租rent seeking economics寻租经济学resource资源resource allocation资源配置returns报酬、回报returns to scale规模报酬revealed preference显示性偏好revenue收益revenue curve收益曲线revenue function收益函数revenue maximization收益极大化ridge line脊线risk风险Ssatiation饱和，满足saving储蓄scarcity稀缺性law of scarcity稀缺法则second—degree price discrimination二级价格歧视second derivative --阶导数second—order condition二阶条件service劳务set集shadow prices影子价格short—run短期short—run cost curve短期成本曲线short—run equilibrium短期均衡short—run supply curve短期供给曲线shut down decision关闭决策shortage短缺shut down point关闭点single price monopoly单一定价垄断slope斜率social benefit社会收益social cost社会成本social indifference curve社会无差异曲线social preference 社会偏好social security社会保障social welfare function社会福利函数socialism社会主义solution解space空间stability稳定性stable equilibrium稳定的均衡Stackelberg model斯塔克尔贝格模型static analysis静态分析stock存量stock market股票市场strategy策略subsidy津贴substitutes替代品substitution effect替代效应substitution parameter替代参数sufficient condition充分条件supply供给supply curve供给曲线supply function供给函数supply schedule供给表Sweezy model斯威齐模型symmetry对称性symmetry of information信息对称Ttangency相切taste兴致technical efficiency技术效率technological constraints技术约束technological progress技术进步technology技术third—degree price discrimination第三级价格歧视total cost总成本total effect总效应total expenditure总支出total fixed cost总固定成本total product总产量total revenue总收益total utility总效用total variable cost总可变成本traditional economy传统经济transitivity传递性transaction cost交易费用Uuncertainty不确定性uniqueness唯一性unit elasticity单位弹性unstable equilibrium不稳定均衡utility效用utility function效用函数utility index效用指数utility maximization效用极大化utility possibility curve效用可能性曲线utility possibility frontier效用可能性前沿VValue价值value judge价值判断value of marginal product边际产量价值variable cost可变成本variable input可变投入variables变量vector向量visible hand看得见的手vulgar economics庸俗经济学Wwage工资wage rate工资率Walras general equilibrium瓦尔拉斯总体均衡Walras's law瓦尔拉斯法则Wants需要Welfare criterion福利标准Welfare economics福利经学Welfare loss triangle福利损失三角形welfare maximization福利极大化Zzero cost零成本zero elasticity零弹性zero homogeneity零阶齐次性zero economic profit零利润仅供个人用于学习、研究；不得用于商业用途。

国际经济学克鲁格曼英文版Here is an essay on the topic of "International Economics by Krugman (English Version)" with a word count of over 600 words.The field of international economics has long been dominated by the influential works of renowned economist Paul Krugman. His English-language publications have had a profound impact on the understanding and analysis of global economic dynamics. Krugman's seminal contributions have challenged traditional theories and offered new perspectives that have reshaped the way we conceptualize the complexities of the international economic landscape.At the core of Krugman's work lies a deep understanding of the intricate interplay between trade, investment, and economic growth. His groundbreaking research has shed light on the role of comparative advantage, economies of scale, and imperfect competition in shaping the patterns of global trade and commerce. Krugman's insights have been instrumental in redefining the conventional wisdom regarding the benefits and drawbacks of free trade, highlighting the nuanced and multifaceted nature of international economic integration.One of Krugman's most significant contributions is his analysis of the geography of trade and the emergence of economic agglomerations. By examining the spatial distribution of economic activity, he has challenged the traditional notion of homogeneous and evenly distributed production. Krugman's work has shown how the clustering of industries and the concentration of economic resources can lead to the development of regional hubs and centers of innovation, with profound implications for policymakers and business leaders alike.Moreover, Krugman's work has addressed the complex dynamics of exchange rate fluctuations and their impact on international competitiveness. His models and theories have provided a deeper understanding of the factors that drive exchange rate movements, the consequences of currency misalignments, and the implications for trade balances and global financial stability. This knowledge has been instrumental in informing policy decisions and guiding the efforts of central banks and governments in managing exchange rate regimes.Krugman's contributions extend beyond the realm of trade and finance. His work on the relationship between economic growth and development has shed light on the challenges faced by developing countries in their pursuit of prosperity. By exploring the role oftechnology, human capital, and institutional frameworks, Krugman has offered insights into the drivers of economic development and the policy interventions that can foster inclusive and sustainable growth.Furthermore, Krugman's influence has reached beyond the academic sphere, as his writings have sought to bridge the gap between economic theory and public policy. His accessible and engaging style has made complex economic concepts more comprehensible to a wider audience, empowering policymakers, business leaders, and the general public to engage in informed discussions and debates on the pressing issues of the global economy.In conclusion, the work of Paul Krugman, as articulated in his English-language publications, has been pivotal in shaping the field of international economics. His groundbreaking research, innovative theories, and thought-provoking analyses have challenged conventional wisdom and pushed the boundaries of our understanding of the intricate web of global economic interactions. Krugman's contributions have not only advanced academic discourse but have also informed policy decisions and public discourse, ultimately contributing to a more informed and nuanced understanding of the dynamics of the international economy.。

Overview of Section IInternational Trade TheorySection I of the text is comprised of six chapters: Chapter 2 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter 3 Specific Factors and Income Distribution Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Chapter 7 International Factor Movements T Section I Overview Section I of the text presents the theory of international trade. The intent of this section is to explore the motives for and implications of patterns of trade between countries. The presentation proceeds by introducing successively more general models of trade, where the generality is provided by increasing the number of factors used in production, by increasing the mobility of factors of production across sectors of the economy, by introducing more general technologies applied to production, and by examining different types of market structure. Throughout Section I, policy concerns and current issues are used to emphasize the relevance of the theory of international trade for interpreting and understanding our economy. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of world trade. In particular, it discusses what we know about the quantities and pattern of world trade today. The chapter uses the empirical relationship known as the gravity model as a framework to describe trade. This framework describes trade as a function of the size of the economies involved and their distance. It can then be used to see where countries are trading more or less than expected. The chapter also notes the growth in world trade over the previous decades and uses the previous era of globalization (pre-WWI) as context for today’s experience. Chapter 3 introduces you to international trade theory through a framework known as the Ricardian model of trade. This model addresses the issue of why two countries would want to trade with each other. This model shows how mutually-beneficial trade arises when there are two countries, each with one factor of production which can be applied toward producing each of two goods. Key concepts are introduced, such as the production possibilities frontier, comparative advantage versus absolute advantage, gains from trade, relative prices, and relative wages across countries. 4 Krugman/Obstfeld • International Economics: Theory and Policy, Seventh Edition Chapter 4 introduces what is known as the classic Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade. Using this framework, you can work through the effects of trade on wages, prices and output. Many important and intuitive results are derived in this chapter including: the Rybczynski Theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, and the Factor Price Equalization Theorem. Implications of the Heckscher-Ohlin model for the pattern of trade among countries are discussed, as are the failures of empirical evidence to confirm the predictions of the theory. The chapter also introduces questions of political economy in trade. One important reason for this addition to the model is to consider the effects of trade on income distribution. This approach shows that while nations generally gain from international trade, it is quite possible that specific groups within these nations could be harmed by this trade. This discussion, and related questions about protectionism versus globalization, becomes broader and even more interesting as you work through the models and different assumptions of subsequent chapters. Chapter 5 presents a general model of international trade which admits the models of the previous chapters as special cases. This “standard trade model” is depicted graphically by a general equilibrium trade model as applied to a small open economy. Relative demand and relative supply curves are used to analyze a variety of policy issues, such as the effects of economic growth, the transfer problem, and the effects of trade tariffs and production subsidies. The appendix to the chapter develops offer curve analysis. While an extremely useful tool, the standard model of trade fails to account for some important aspects of international trade. Specifically, while the factor proportions Heckscher-Ohlin theories explain some trade flows between countries, recent research in international economics has placed an increasing emphasis on economies of scale in production and imperfect competition among firms. Chapter 6 presents models of international trade that reflect these developments. The chapter begins by reviewing the concept of monopolistic competition among firms, and then showing the gains from trade which arise in such imperfectly competitive markets. Next, internal and external economies of scale in production and comparative advantage are discussed. The chapter continues with a discussion of the importance of intra-industry trade, dumping, and external economies of production. The subject matter of this chapter is important since it shows how gains from trade arise in ways that are not suggested by the standard, more traditional models of international trade. The subject matter also is enlightening given the increased emphasis on intra-industry trade in industrialized countries. Chapter 7 focuses on international factor mobility. This departs from previous chapters which assumed that the factors of production available for production within a country could not leave a country’s borders. Reasons for and the effects of international factor mobility are discussed in the context of a one-factor (labor) production and trade model. The analysis of the international mobility of labor motivates a further discussion of international mobility of capital. The international mobility of capital takes the form of international borrowing and lending. This facilitates the discussion of inter-temporal production choices and foreign direct investment behavior. 。

一.要素禀赋理论；要素禀赋（或称要素丰裕度）：是针对国家而言的，是指一国所拥有的两种生产要素的相对比例。

这是一个相对的概念，与其所拥有的生产要素绝对数量无关。

1.俄林的要素禀赋论： 认为各国要素禀赋差异导致了要素价格不同，而且各国的要素使用比例也不同，所以各国的商品价格不同，由此国际贸易产生。

各国应分工生产密集使用本国丰富要素的商品，通过国际贸易，各国能获得最大福利。

2 H —O 定理：一国出口相对丰裕和便宜的要素密集型商品，进口该国相对稀缺和昂贵的要素密集型商品。

3.H-O 理论的论点：1).由于各国生产要素的价格存在差异就决定了比较利益的存在。

2).形成各国生产要素相对价格差异的原因是各国生产要素的自然禀赋/资源禀赋(endowment of factors)不同。

如中国人口众多，劳动量丰富；美国资本雄厚，而劳动力不足，这是自然、历史等原因使然4结论：即资本和技术密集的发达国家应出口资本和技术密集型产品，进口劳动和资源密集型产品。

而发展中国家可以出口劳动和资源密集型的产品，进口资本和技术密集的产品，这样各国都可以在国际贸易中获得利益，从而提高国家福利。

要素价格：指生产要素的使用费用或要素的报酬 如土地租金 ，劳动工资，资本利息管理利润。

均衡状态下，劳动价格为 ：lx x m p p w = ly ymp p w = 二、克鲁格曼的规模经济贸易学说含义 ：指在产出的某一范围内，平均成本随着产出的增加而递减。

即单位成本最低时的产量规模。

该理论从规模经济的角度解释了国际贸易的 起因和利益的来源，对于国际基础做出了一种新的解释。

内容：即假定厂商无论生产多少数量的产品，每多生产一件产品，增加的成本总是不变的，即边际成本不变。

或者说，投入增加一倍，产出也增加一倍。

事实上，现代许多工业部门具有规模经济特点，即收益递增、成本递减。

规模经济愈大生产效率愈高，投入增加一倍，产出可以增加一倍以上。

主要观点：规模收益递增为国际贸易直接提供了基础，当某一产品的生产发生规模收益递增时，随着生产规模的扩大，单位产品成本递减而取得成本优势，由此导致专业化生产并出口这一产品三、（1）产业内贸易与产业间贸易的概念①产业间贸易，又称部门间贸易，是指贸易国出口和进口的必然是其国内不同生产部门的产品的贸易现象，即不同产业之间完全不同产品的交换。

相对价格：Px/Py为X的相对价格，含义是用Y代替货币作为X的计价单位，表示用一个单位的X与Y进行交换，所能得到的Y的数量。

相对价格曲线又可以表示国民收入预算线。

贸易条件：（对出口X的国家来说）。

贸易后的国际均衡价格与贸易前的均衡价格差距越大，贸易后的社会无差异曲线的位置越高，贸易利益越大。

贸易条件的改善（贸易条件变大）意味着一国可以从贸易中获得更多的利益。

交换利益：如果个体之间或国家之间拥有不同的资源禀赋或者不同的偏好，通过相互之间的商品交易，他们均可以改善各自的福利。

（图示：生产者来不及调整产量条件下，消费者福利的改善）专业化利益：个体或国家可以通过专门从事其效率相对较高的生产来获得额外的利益。

第二章古典贸易理论重商主义：强调国库和王室成员所拥有的贵重金属的多寡是衡量国家是否繁荣昌盛的最重要标志。

故主张取消进口、鼓励出口。

比较优势：如果，则称A国在X商品的生产上具有比较优势。

第三章要素禀赋理论指一国所拥有的两种生产要素的相对比例。

如果一国的要素禀赋（K/L）大于他国，则称该国为资本（相对）丰富或劳动（相对）稀缺的国家；反过来，他国为劳动丰富或资本稀缺的国家人均资本存量：是要素禀赋实际衡量的估算值。

要素密集度：指生产某种产品所投入的两种生产要素的比例。

两种商品的资本劳动投入比例为：kx=Kx/Lx，ky=Ky/Ly，若kx>ky ，在相同的要素价格下，X是资本密集型产品，Y是劳动密集型产品。

H-O定理：A、B两国在贸易前由于要素禀赋不同，导致供给能力的差异，进而引起商品相对价格的不同。

根据比较优势原则，一国出口密集使用其丰富要素的产品，进口密集使用其稀缺要素的产品斯托珀-萨缪尔森定理()：某一商品相对价格的上升，将导致该商品密集使用的生产要素的实际价格或报酬提高，而另一种生产要素的实际价格或报酬则下降。

S-S定理的引申（S-S定理在H-O基础上的应用）：国际贸易会提高该国丰富要素所有者的实际收入，降低稀缺要素所有者的实际收入。

1 Absolute advantage:绝对优势 The greater efficiency that one nation may have over another in the production of a commodity.This was the basis for trade for Adam Smith.2 Ad valorem tariff: 从价税 A tariff expressed as a fixed percentage of the value of a traded commodity.3 Balance of payments: 收支平衡 A summary statement of all the international transactions of the residents of a nation with the rest of the world during a particular period of time,usually a year.4 Balanced growth: 均衡增长 Equal rates of factor growth and technological progress in the production of both commodities.5 Buffer stocks: 缓冲存货The type of international commodity agreement that involves the purchase of the commodity(to be added to the stock)when the commodity price falls below an agreed minimum price,and the sale of the commodity out of the stock when the commodity price rises above the established maximum price.6 Constant opportunity costs:机会成本不变The constant amount of a commodity that must be given up to produce each additional unit of another commodity.7 Community indifference curve:社会无差异曲线The curve that shows the various combinations of two commodity yielding equal satisfaction to the community or munity indifference curves are negatively sloped,convex from the origin,and should not cross.8 Compound tariff:混合关税A combination of an ad valorem and a specific tariff.9 Customs union:关税同盟Removes all barriers on trade among members and harmonizes trade policies toward the rest of the world.The best example is the European Union(EU).10 Common market:共同市场 Removes all barriers on trade amongmembers,harmonizes trade policies toward the rest of the world,and also allows the free movement of labor and capital among member nations.An example is the European Union(EU)since January 1,1993.11 Dumping: 倾销The export of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price than sold domestically.12 Direct investments:直接投资 Real investments in factories,capital goods,land,and inventories where both capital and management are involved and the investor retains control over the use of the invested capital.13 Free trade area:自由贸易区 Removes all barriers on trade among members,but each nation restains its own barriers on trade with nonmembers.The best example are the EFTA,NAFTA,and Mercosur.14 Factor-price equalization(H-O) theorem:要素禀赋（赫克歇尔—俄林）理论The part of the H-O theory that predicts,under highly restrictive assumptions,that international trade will bring about equalization in relative and absolute returns to homogeneous factors across nations.15 Heckscher-Ohlin(H-O) theory:赫克歇尔—俄林理论The theory that postulates that(1)a nation exports commodities intensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and(2)international trade brings about equalization in returns to homogeneous factors across countries.16 Interdependence:相互依赖The (economic) relationships among nation.17 Increasing opportunity costs:机会成本递增The increasing amounts of one commodity that a nation must give up to release just enough resources to produce each additional unit of another commodity.This is reflected in a production frontier that is concave from the origin.18 International cartel: 国际卡特尔An organization of suppliers of a commodity located in different nations(or a group of governments) that agrees to restrict output and exports of the commodity with the aim of maximizing or increasing the total profits of the organization.An international cartel that behaves as a monopolist is called a centralized cartel.19 Income terms of trade:收入贸易条件The ratio of the price index of the nation’s exports to the price index of its imports times the index of the nation’s volume of exports.20 Immiserizing growth:悲惨性增长The situation where a nation’s terms of trade deteriorate so much as a result of growth that the nation is worse off after growth than before,even if growth without trade tends to improve the nation’s welfare.21 Leontief paradox:里昂惕夫之谜The empirical finding that U.S import substitutes were more K intensive than U.S exports.This is contrary to the H-Otrade model,which predicts that,as the most K-abundant nation,the United States should import L-intensive products and export K-intensive products.22 Marginal rate of transformation(MRT):边际转换率The amount of one commodity that a nation must give up to produce each additional unit of another commodity.This is another name for the opportunity cost of a commodity and is given by the slope of the production frontier at the point of production.23 Marginal rate of substitution(MRS):边际替代率The amount of one commodity that a nation could give up in exchange for one extra unit of second commodity and still remain on the same indifference curve.It is given by the slope of the community indifference curve at the point of consumption and declines as the nation consumes more of the second commodity.24 Multinational corporations(MNCs):跨国公司Firms that own,control,or manage production and distribution facilities in several countries.25 Optimum tariff:适稅The rate of tariff that maximizes the benefit resulting from improvement in the nation's terms of trade against the negative effect resulting from reduction in the volume of trade.26 Pattern of trade:贸易格局The commodities exported and imported by each nation.27 Production possibility frontier:生产可能性曲线 A curve showing the various alternative combinations of two commodities that a nation can produce by fully utilizing all of its resources with the best technology available to it.28 Prohibitive tariff:禁止性关税A tariff sufficiently high to stop all international trade so that the nation returns to autarky.29 Persistent dumping:连续性倾销The continuous tendency of a domestic monopolist to maximize total profits by selling the commodity at a lower price abroad than domestically;also called international price discriminztion.30 Predatory dumping:掠夺性倾销The temporary sale of commodity at a lower price abroad in order to drive foreign producers out of business,after which prices are raised to take advantage of the newly acquired monopoly power abroad.31 Preferential trade arrangements:优惠贸易安排The loosest from of economic integration;provides lower barriers to trade among participatingnations than on trade with nonparticipating nations.An example is the British Commonwealth Preference Scheme.32 Purchase contracts:.购货契约Long-term multilateral agreements that stipulate the minimum price at which importing nations agree to purchase a specified quantity of the commodity and a maximum price at which exporting nations agree to sell specified amounts of the commodity.33 Portfolio investments:投资组合The purchase of purely financial assets,such as bonds and stocks(if the stock purchase represents less than 10 percent of the stock of a corporation),usu34 Stolper-Samuelson theorem:施托尔珀－萨缪尔森定理It postulates that free international trade reduces the real income of the nation's relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation's relatively abundant factor.35 Specific tariff: 从量税 A tariff expressed as a fixed sum per unit of a traded commodity.36 Sporadic dumping:偶尔倾销The occasional sale of a commodity at a lower price abroad than domestically in order to sell an unforeseen and temporary surplus of the commodity abroad without having to reduce domestic prices.37 Terms of trade:贸易条件The ratio of the index price of a nation's export to its import commodities.38 Trade creation:贸易创造 Occurs when some domestic production in a member of the customs union is replaced by lower-cost imports from another member nation.This increases welfare.39 Trade diversion:贸易转移 Occurs when lowercost imports from outside the union are replaced by higher-cost imports from another union member.By itself,this reduces welfare.40 Transfer pricing:转移价格The overpricing or underpricing of products in the intrafirm trade of multinational corporations in an attempt to shift income and profits from high-to low-tax nations.。

1 The opportunity cost of producing something measures the cost of not being able to produce something else because resources have already been used.2 A country with a comparative advantage in producing a good uses its resources most efficiently when it produces that good compared to producing other goods.3 Labor productivity: the number of units of output that a worker can produce in one hour.4 The production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy shows the maximum amount of a goods that can be produced for a fixed amount of resources.5 Relative wages are the wages of the domestic country relative to the wages in the foreign country.6 Define an isovalue line as a line representing a constant value of production,7 Stolper-Samuelson theorem: if the relative price of a good increases, then the real wage or real lending/ renting rate of the factor used intensively in the production of that good increases, while the real wage or real lending/renting rate of the other factor decreases.8 the Rybczynski theorem：If we hold output prices constant as the amount of a factor of production increases, then the supply of the good that uses this factor intensively increases and the supply of the other good decreases.9 Leontief found that U.S. exports were less capital-intensive than U.S. imports, even though the U.S. is the most capital-abundant country in the world: Leontief paradox.10 Consumer preferences are represented by indifference curves: combinations of goods that make consumers equally satisfied (indifferent).11 The change in welfare (income) when the price of one good changes relative to the price of another is called the income effect.12 The substitution of one good for another when the price of the good changes relative to the other is called the substitution effect.13 The terms of trade refers to the price of exports relative to the price of imports Growth is usually biased: it occurs in one sector more than others, causing relative supply to change.14 Export-biased growth is growth tha t expands a country’s production possibilities disproportionally that country’s export sector.15 Import-biased growth is growth that expands a country’s production possibilities disproportionally in that country’s import sector16Immiserizing growth：export-biased growth by poor nations would worsen their terms of trade so much that they would be worse off than if they had not grown at all.16 Import tariffs are taxes levied on imports17 Export subsidies are payments given to domestic producers that export.18 External economies of scale occur when cost per unit of output depends on thesize of the industry19 Internal economies of scale occur when the cost per unit of output depends on the size of a firm.20 A monopoly is an industry with only one firm.21 An oligopoly is an industry with only a few firms.22 Average cost is the cost of production (C) divided by the total quantity ofproduction (Q). AC = C/Q23 Marginal cost is the cost of producing an additional unit of output.24 Monopolistic competition is a model of an imperfectly competitive industrywhich assumes thatA：Each firm can differentiate its product from the product of competitors.B：Each firm ignores the impact that changes in its price will have on the prices that competitors set: even though each firm faces competition it behaves as if it were a monopolist.25 Suppose now that the global cloth industry is described by the monopolisticcompetition model.Because of product differentiation, suppose that each country produces different types of cloth.Because of economies of scale, large markets are desirable: the foreign country exports some cloth and the domestic country exports some cloth.Trade occurs within the cloth industry: intra-industry trade26 According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model or Ricardian model, countries specializein production.Trade occurs only between industries: inter-industry tradeIn a Heckscher-Ohlin model suppose that:The capital abundant domestic economy specializes in the production of capitalintensive cloth, which is imported by the foreign economy.The labor abundant foreign economy specializes in the production of labor intensive food, which is imported by the domestic economy.27 Dumping is the practice of charging a lower price for exported goods than forgoods sold domestically28 Dumping is an example of price discrimination: the practice of charging different customers different prices29 Specialized equipment or services may be needed for the industry, but are only supplied by other firms if the industry is large and concentrated30 Labor pooling: a large and concentrated industry may attract a pool of workers,reducing employee search and hiring costs for each firm.31 Knowledge spillovers: workers from different firms may more easily share ideasthat benefit each firm when a large and concentrated industry exists32 Dynamic increasing returns to scale exist if average costs fall as cumulativeoutput over time rises.33 economic geography refers to the study of international trade, interregional tradeand the organization of economic activity in metropolitan and rural areas34 A specific tariff is levied as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods35 An ad valorem tariff is levied as a fraction of the value of imported goods36 The effective rate of protection measures how much protection a tariff or othertrade policy provides domestic producers37 Consumer surplus measures the amount that consumers gain from purchases bythe difference in the price that each pays from the maximum price each would be willing to pay38 Producer surplus measures the amount that producers gain from a sale by thedifference in the price each receives from the minimum price each would be willing to sell at39 An export subsidy can also be specific or ad valorem：A specific subsidy is a payment per unit exported. An ad valorem subsidy is a payment as a proportion of the value exported.40 An import quota is a restriction on the quantity of a good that may be imported. 41A voluntary export restraint works like an import quota, except that the quota is imposed by the exporting country rather than the importing country.42 A local content requirement is a regulation that requires a specified fraction of a final good to be produced domestically43Gross national product(GNP) is the value of all final goods and services produced by a nation’s factors of production in a giventime period44 Gross domestic product measures the final value of all goods and services that are produced within a country in a given time period45National income is often defined to be the income earned by a nation’s factors of production.46 Depreciation of physical capital results in a loss of income to capital owners, so the amount of depreciation is subtracted from GNP47 Unilateral transfers to and from other countries can change national income: payments of expatriate workers sent to their home countries, foreign aid and pension payments sent to expatriate retirees48current account: accounts for flows of goods and services (imports and exports). financial account: accounts for flows of financial assets (financial capital). capital account: flows of special categories of assets (capital): typicallynon-market, non-produced, or intangible assets like debtforgiveness, copyrights and trademarks49 Appreciation is an increase in the value of a currency relative to another currency. Depreciation is a decrease in the value of a currency relative to another currency 50 Arbitrage: buying at a low price and selling at a high price for a profit.51Spot rates are exchange rates for currency exchanges “on the spot”, or when trading is executed in the present52Forward rates are exchange rates for currency exchanges that will occur at a future (“forward”) date.53 Money demand represents the amount of monetary assets that people are willing to hold (instead of illiquid assets).54The central bank substantially controls the quantity of money that circulates in an economy, the money supply55Interest rates/expected rates of return on monetary assets relative to the expected rates of returns on non-monetary assets.56 Risk: the risk of holding monetary assets principally comes from unexpectedinflation, which reduces the purchasing power of money.57 Liquidity: A need for greater liquidity occurs when the price of transactionsincreases or the quantity of goods bought in transactions increases.58 Prices: the prices of goods and services bought in transactions will influence the willingness to hold money to conduct those transactions59 Income: greater income implies more goods and services can be bought, so thatmore money is needed to conduct transactions60 (DF –QF) = (PC /PF)(QC –DC)❖This equation is the budget constraint for an economy, and it has a slope of –(PC /PF)(DF –QF)–(PC /PF)(QC –DC) = 0❖Note that the budget constraint touches the PPF: a country can always afford to consume what it produces.❖However, a country need not consumeonly the goods and services that it produceswith trade.Exports and imports can be greater than zero.❖Furthermore, a country can afford to consume more of both goods with trade.。

外部规模经济：是指当整个产业的规模扩大时，该产业各个企业的平均生产成本下降。

机会成本：是指为了得到某种东西而所要放弃另一些东西的最大价值。

H-0理论：以要素分布为客观基础，强调各个国家和地区不同要素禀赋和不同商品的不同生产函数对贸易产生的决定性作用。

引力模型：是指两个国家之间的贸易与其各自的国内生产总值（GDP）成正比，与两个国家之间的距离成反比。

生产可能性曲线：当资源和科技水平都固定的情况下，生产两种产品a与b，当a被生产，用来生产b的资源随之被消耗，b的产量降低，同样，当b被生产，情况相反。

生产可能性边界：用来表示经济社会在既定资源和技术条件下所能生产的各种商品最大数量的组合。

出口偏向性增长：一国生产可能性边界的扩张偏向于出口产品的经济增长。

自由贸易政策：国家对贸易活动不加或少加干预，任凭商品、服务和有关要素在国内外市场公平、自由的竞争。

绝对优势理论：当一个国家能够以少于其他国家的劳动投入生产出同样单位的商品时，我们说该国在生产这种商品上具有绝对优势。

要素比例理论：不同生产要素在不同国家的资源中所占的比例和它们在不同产品的生产投入中所占比例二者之间的相互作用。

要素价格均等化定理：通过国际贸易下的商品交换，各个交易国的内部生产要素价格将会趋于一致。

产业内贸易指数：是用来测度一个产业的产业内贸易程度的指数。

是指同产业中双方国家互有不同质的贸易往来,在统计数据上显示同一类同时存在进口和出口的商品数额,表明在该产业有着互补性的贸易需求。

贸易条件：是用来衡量在一定时期内一个国家出口相对于进口的盈利能力和贸易利益的指标，反映该国的对外贸易状况。

毕业条款：当受惠国或地区的某项产品或其经济发展到较高的程度，使它在世界市场上显示出较强的竞争力时，则取消该项产品或全部产品享受关税优惠待遇的资格，称之为“毕业”。

知识外溢：是指包括信息、技术、管理经验在内的各种知识通过交易或非交易的方式流出原先拥有知识的主体。

知识外溢源于知识本身的稀缺性、流动性和扩散性。

CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presented throughout the text.。