Chapter 1 cultureThe nature of culture:1.culture is like an iceberg2.culture is our software3.culture is like the water a fish swims in4.culture is the grammar of our behaviorCharacteristics of culture:1.culture is learned (through proverbs, folklore, art, mass media)2.culture is dynamic 动态的3.culture is pervasive 普遍的4.culture is integrated 综合的5.culture is adaptiveCultural identity 文化认同1.cultural identity defined2.formation of cultural identity (unexamined, search, achievement)3.characteristics of cultural identityCultures within culture1.subculture亚文化群2.Co-culture 共文化3.Sub-group 亚群体SummaryMany of us take our culture for granted. The only time when we may ever think about it is when we leave our own country to travel abroad or when we encounter someone with a culture so different from ours that we have to examine our own beliefs. Much of what we think is the "right" or "correct" way to act or do something is actually part of the knowledge that we have learned from our culture.Culture is a large and inclusive concept. The first definition of culture, by the English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor, involves knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Although this definition has tried to cover more aspects that may direct human behavior, more inclusive definitions continue to come into being. However, in this book, culture is defined from the intercultural communication perspective: culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, hierarchies, religions, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.Compared with the different ideas on what culture is, scholars agree on thecharacteristics of culture. Generally speaking, culture is learned, dynamic, pervasive, integrated and adaptive.Cultural identity refers to one's sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People identify with being a member of a group. Being a member of a group helps to define who we are. We are all members of groups of different sizes. One of the largest groups that a person can belong to is a culture. Everyone belongs to a culture.Other groups that people may be a member of are subcultures (also called co-culture) and subgroups. Subcultures exist within dominant culture, and are often based on economic or social class, ethnicity, race, or geographic region.Co-culture refers to groups or social communities exh 如ting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are significantly different enough to distinguish them from the other groups, communities, and the dominant culture.Subgroups usually do not involve the same large number of people and are not necessarily thought of as accumulating values and patterns of behavior over generations in the same way as cultures do. Subgroups can be as small as a fewpeople or as large as a major religion. Subgroups provide their members with norms that tell people how to behave and think. Subgroups can be considered "deviant" forms of behavior. Subgroups can also be defined as "non-exclusive" and "temporary" forms of behavior.Chapter 2 intercultural communicationCommunicationmunication definedponents (组成) of communication(sender/message/encoding/channel/receiver/decoding 编码।/feedback/noise/context)Characteristics of communicationmunication is dynamicmunication is systematicmunication is symbolic 象征的munication is irreversible 不可逆的munication is transactional 相互作用的munication is self-reflective 自我反思的munication is contextual 前后关系的Culture and communicationCulture and communication, although two different concepts, are directly linked. They are so inextricably bound that some anthropologists believe the terms are virtually synonymous. Whenever people interact, they communicate. Culture is learned, acted out, transmitted, and preserved through communication.Although the concepts of communication and culture work together, we separate them here for purposes of our discussion, we begin by examining "communication" because to understand intercultural interaction, you must first recognize the role of communication in that process.Cultures inherently contain communication systems. Communication and culture are inseparable. One implication of this insight is that cultures generate symbols, rituals, customs, and formats. To use a simple example, every culture has rules for achievement and attainment. In Western culture, the symbols include degrees, promotions, certificates, material objects, technology, and other symbols of material wealth. However, nationals in rural Botswana take pride in the primary group and not just individual attainment. Cultural misunderstanding occurs when we fail to matchthe appropriate symbols and general communication system to the culture. Just witness the awkwardness of an expatriate who attends a gathering in a host culture, but fails to wear the appropriate clothes. One cannot escape this inseparability of culture and communication.Each culture encourages a particular communication style expected within it. This implies not only using correct symbols, but also applying the appropriate communication style for the occasion. Communication styles include mannerisms, phrases, rituals, and communication customs appropriate for various situations in a culture. For instance, in Saudi Arabia the correct interpersonal communication style upon meeting one's host is often language loaded with compliments and thanks. Public criticism of fellow workers in this culture is rare, for such a message would appear disrespectful. Some West Africans exhibit a friendly and warm interpersonal communication style. Some Asians are described as conscious of propriety, ceremony, and rules of respect and honor. Some U.S. culture members appear informal and uninhibited Some Britons display a reserved manner, preferring understatement and control in interpersonal interaction. These examples remind us of the importance of understanding intercultural communication style.Areas like loudness, pitch, rate, and certain stances and gestures characterize communication behaviors. A specific culture expects an "ideal" communication style. The contrasts are striking, such as when an American speaks in a "normal" conversational voice, a "quiet" Thai national may think the voice is too loud and interpret the American to be angry.Intercultural communication1.intercultural communication defined2.forms of intercultural communication (international communication/interracialcommunication 跨人种/interethnic communication 跨种族/intraculturalcommunication 同一文化内)SummaryCommunication is an element of culture. It is believed that every cultural pattern and every single act of social behavior involves communication. When a baby is just born, he usually cries. His crying communicates something. When you graduate, your friends usually say "Congratulations!" to you. When a driver sees the red light, he/she will stop. All these are cases of communication.Communication is derived from the Latin word communicate, meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.However, like culture, the term "communication" has been defined from different perspectives. In fact, the way that people view communication - what it is, how to do it, and reasons for doing it - is part of their culture. Western culture emphasizes the instrumental function of communication and the prior consideration is to achieve the sender's personal goal, while in Eastern culture, in addition to sending and receiving messages simultaneously, communicators take their relationship into account.The process of communication has nine components: sender/source, message, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, noise and context. The sender encodes a message (information that the sender wants to share with other people) by putting it into symbols (usually words or nonverbal gestures) and then sending it through a channel. A channel can be printed media such as magazines and newspapers; electronic media such as television, radio, and the Internet; or sounds traveling through the air when two people speak face to face. Sometimes, it is difficult for the message to reach the receiver. The difficulty is due to "noise". When receivers get the message, they must "decode" or try to understand it. For example, if the sender encodes a message using English, the receiver must use their knowledge of English language to understand it. Often, the sender pays attention to the feedbackof the receiver. The communication takes place within a setting or situation called context.Any communication process demonstrates several characteristics, that is, dynamic, systematic, symbolic, irreversible, transactional, self-reflective and contextual.When communicating with people from different cultures, it is important to remember that culture and communication are strongly connected. Culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing require communication.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose cultural perception and symbol system are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Intercultural communication as a term was first used in 1959 by Edward T. Hall—an American anthropologist. Intercultural communication includes international communication, interracial communication, interethnic commurucat10n and intracultural communication.Chapter 4 barriersEmotional problems as barriers1.anxiety and uncertainty (definition/strategies to overcome)2.assuming similarity instead of difference 假想相同点多于不同点Attitudinal problems as barriers1.ethnocentrism 种族或民族中心主义(defined/various forms)2.stereotyping(definition/categories)3.prejudice4.racism5.reasons for the persistence of ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism(socialization 社交化/social benefits/economic benefits/psychologicalbenefits)Translation problems as language barriersck of vocabulary equivalenceck of idiomatic equivalenceck of grammatical-syntactical equivalenceck of experiential equivalence 经验ck of conceptual equivalence 概念SummaryThere are several barriers to intercultural communication—anxiety and uncertainty,assuming similarity instead of difference, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism and translation problems.Anxiety and uncertainty, as well as assuming similarity instead of difference belong to the emotional problems.Anxiety occurs because of not knowing what one is expected to do, and focusing on that feeling and not being totally present in the communication transaction. Anxiety may also affect your ability to communicate your ideas to others, for you pay too much attention to your uncomfortable feelings. Uncertainty refers to our cognitive inability to explain our own or other's feelings and behaviors in interactions because of an ambiguous situation that evokes anxiety.Assuming similarity instead of difference is a natural thing to do if you do not have any information about a culture. It refers to the idea that people coming from another culture are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person's situation is more similar to yours than it in fact is. Assuming that a culture is similar to your own can cause you to ignore important differences This assumption always leads to disrupted communication and even conflict.Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice and racism belong to the attitudinal problemsEthnocentrism is negatively judging another culture by your own culture's standards. To make ethnocentric judgments is to believe that the ways of your own culture are better than those of others.Stereotyping is used to refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. It assumes that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just because the person is a member of a specific group.Prejudice refers to the irrational dislike, suspicion or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual orientation. Prejudiced attitudes can take many forms.A specific kind of prejudice, racism refers to any policy, practice, belief, or attitude that attributes characteristics or status to individuals based on their race. Racism involves not only prejudice, but also the exercise of power over individuals based on their race.Ethnocentrism, stereotyping, prejudice, racism continue to exist because of socialization and the apparent social, economic, and psychological benefits that come from it.Due to language differences and cultural differences, translation can become a barrier to intercultural communication.Five elements that typically cause problems in translation are the lack of equivalences in vocabulary, idioms, grammar and syntax, experiences, and concepts.Chapter 5 verbal communicationSignificance of verbal communication"Verbal" means "consisting of words". Language, spoken or written, is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, verbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.Language and culturenguage as a reflection of the environmentnguage as a reflection of values3.the meaning of wordsVerbal communication styles1.direct and indirect styles2.self-enhancement and self-effacement styles 宣扬和谦逊3.elaborate, exacting and succinct styles 详尽的，确切的，简洁的4.personal and contextual styles 不同的称呼方式根据场合和地位5.instrumental and affective styles 理性与感性Language diversity1.dialects and sociolects 方言和社会方言2.pidgin and lingua franca洋泾浜语（汉语中夹杂外语）,混合语（母语不互通）3.taboo and euphemism 禁用语委婉语4.jargon 行话Cultural influence on written communication1.direct plan2.indirect planSummaryVerbal intercultural communication happens when people from different cultural backgrounds communicate with each other by using language.It is agreed that language helps in communicating with people from different backgrounds. However, people may be less aware that cultural literacy is necessary in order to understand the language being used. Words in themselves do not carry the meaning. The meaning comes out of the context. Although people use the dictionary to explain one language with another language, words of differentlanguages don't mean the same thing because of the cultural influence on word meaning.There are mainly five verbal communication styles introduced in this chapter: direct / indirect; self-enhancement / self-effacement; elaborate / exacting / succinct; personal / contextual; and instrumental / affective.Language is a cultural phenomenon which is used to express different uses and to communicate different meanings. Language varies according to the communicative uses but also according to the users. In fact, users of the same language in a sense all speak differently and the kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by their cultural background.In short, some language variations result from the language user, that is, his or her geographical origin (dialect), or his or her social condition (sociolect). However, some language variations result from the circumstances of communication, such as pidgin, Lingua Franca, jargon, taboo and euphemism. Dialect refers to geographical variation, while sociolect refers to variation in terms of social class or style. Pidgin refers to a mixed language that is used for trading purposes, while Lingua Franca refers to a specific language that is used as an international means of communication. Taboo refers to expressions that are considered impolite, while euphemism refers to polite expressions used to soften the offensive and disturbing language. Jargon refers to aspecial or technical vocabulary that is developed for professional purposes within professional groups like medicine or law.Furthermore, verbal communication involves both oral and written forms. Written communication is especially important in intercultural business communication. As the modem technological renovation (e-mail and ecommerce) calls for the written communication in business, businessmen should be more conscious about the written communication because mistakes made inwritten form are more serious and permanent.Cultural patterns influence not only oral communication but also written communication. Cultural impact on discourse patterns is to be classified into two categories: direct plan and indirect plan. In direct plans, clarity and conciseness are essential to a successful business writing style. The indirect plan has other priorities than the quick delivery of ideas, such as nurturing a relationship or developing some other context for the message. Direct plan is favored by results- oriented cultures Indirect plan is favored by relationship-oriented culture.Chapter 6 nonverbalSignificance of nonverbal communication1.nonverbal behavior accounts for much of the meaning we get from conversations.2.nonverbal behavior is significant because it spontaneou sly<D reflects thesubconsciousness.3.Nonverbal communication is significant is that we cannot avoid communicating. Definition and functions of nonverbal communication1.definition of nonverbal communication2.functions of nonverbal communication （repeating 重复/complementing 补充/substituting 代替/regulating/contradicting 反对）Paralanguage and silence1.paralanguage副语言（语音语调）2.silenceTime and space1.chronemics 时间行为学的2.proxemics 人际距离学（fixed features of space/semifixed features ofspace/personal space包括四种情况下的不同距离）Other categories of nonverbal communication1.oculesics 目光语2.olfactics 嗅觉3.haptics 触觉4.kinesics 人体动作学（gestures/posture/facial expressions/chromatics 色彩/attire 打扮）SummaryWhen we learn to communicate, we learn not only language but also various ways of communicating. Communicators use both verbal and nonverbal codes to communicate, listeners expect to receive both kinds of messages during a conversation. If a speaker uses nonverbal codes poorly or inappropriately, a listener may consider the person a poor speaker. However, misunderstandings may occur when the speakers and listeners are from different cultures and do not share the same nonverbal codes.In brief, the messages sent without using words are called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by the sender and his or her use of the environment—these have potential message value for both the sender and receiver.Nonverbal communication codes or symbols or stimuli in a communicating setting can be divided into different categories: paralanguage, silence, proxemics,chronemics, oculesics, olfactics, haptics, kinesics, chromatics and attire.Paralanguage is the set of audible sounds that accompany oral language to augment its meaning When the German poet Klopstock wrote "The tones of human voices are mightier than strings or brass to move the soul", he meant that sounds we generate often communicate more than the words that they produce. We have the experience of watching foreign movies: if we don't know the language they speak and there are no subtitles, we can still infer when performers are expressing anger, sorrow, joy, or any other emotions.Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think, check or suppress an emotion, encode a lengthy response, or inaugurate another line of thought.Chronemics is the study of how people perceive and use time. People have different attitudes toward punctuality because they have different time orientations. People from monochronic cultures emphasize schedules, while people from polychronic cultures stress involvement of people and the completion of tasks as opposed to a strict adherence to schedules.Proxemics refers to the study of spatial relations. Cultures vary in such things as how living space is arranged and the distance between people in interaction.Oculesics refers to the study of communications sent by the eyes. Eyes play a central role in impression management. When people say that eyes talk, they mean that eyes convey messages. Although eye contact is a very important way of communication, direct eye-to-eye contact is not a custom throughout the world.Olfactics refers to the study of communication via smell. Americans feel uncomfortable with natural smells, so they spend millions of dollars to make themselves smell "good". However, many cultures regard natural smells as normal. Most 心abs perceive a person's smell as an extension of the person.Haptics or touch refers to communication through the use of bodily contact. There are different behavioral patterns regarding touch. We learn the rules, as we move from infancy into childhood. The wrong behavior of touching in strange cultures can create uncertainty and even ill feeling.Kinesics refers to gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, body position, body movement, and forms of greeting and their relations to communication. Although any part of the body can be used for communicating nonverbally, face, hands, and armsare the primary 灼nesic channels through which nonverbal messages are sent.Chromatics refers to the study of color in reference to people's perceptions, behaviors, and impressions of others. The same color may be interpreted differently in different cultures. The wrong color of your clothes may make people dislike you, or even hate you. It is quite important to watch what color is appropriate in certain settings, when you are in a foreign countryAttire refers to clothing and physical appearance. It also serves as nonverbal symbols. We often identify a person's culture by his or her physical appearance and dress. Communication with others is often perceived by visual observations of his or her physical appearance.Chapter 7 cultural patternsDefining cultural patterns1.ways of thinking2.ways of actingComponents of cultural patterns 组成1.beliefs 信仰2.values 价值观3.norms 行为准则4.social practices 社会行为Culture theory1.high-context culture高语境文化（很多信息在环境中是可见的，没有必要用语言过多描述）2.low-context culture (语言作为主要传递信息的方式)3.problems posed (高语境的会嫌弃低语境的人说的太多，给予了太多不需要的信息)Value orientation1.human nature orientation2.person-nature orientation(mastery-over-nature view/harmony-with-natureview/subjugation-to-nature view)3.time orientation(value-past/value-present/value-future)4.activity orientation(value-doing/value-being/value-being-in-becoming)5.relational orientationCultural variability1.individualism and collectivism 独立的集中的2.uncertainty avoidance3.power distance4.masculinity and femininity 男权主义女权主义SummaryAlthough individuals, even in the same culture, tend to have different value patterns, there are overall values shaped by one's culture which are shared by the members of the group. Understanding a culture's value pattern is of great significance in terms of understanding their behaviorsShared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time andthat lead to roughly similar behaviors across similar situations are known as cultural patterns.A belief is an idea that people assume to be true about the world.Values involve what a culture regards as good or bad, right or wrong, fair or unfair, just or unjust, beautiful or ugly, clean or dirty, valuable or worthless, appropriate or inappropriate, and kind or cruel.Norms are the socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.Social practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typically follow.Context is defined as the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably boundup with the meaning of the event. Edward T. Hall introduced the high context communication and low context communication. A high context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. A low context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. It is verbalized.Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Value Orientations are based on: human nature, person-nature interface, time, activity and human relationships. These five aspects define group cultures according to different categories:A s for human-nature orientation, cultures could be divided into six groups: (1) Humans are evil but changeable; (2) Humans are evil and unchangeable; (3)Humans are neutral with respect to good and evil; (4) Humans are a mixture of good and evil; (5) Humans are good but changeable; (6) Humans are good and unchangeable.The person-nature orientation consists of three categories: (1) Mastery over nature;(2) Harmony with nature; (3) Subjugation to nature.As far as time orientation is concerned, cultures may belong to (1) The past orientation; (2) The present orientation; (3) The future orientation.The activity orientation involves three groups: (1) The d, omg onentat10n; (2) The being orientation; (3) The being-in-becoming orientation.Geert Hofstede has identified four value dimensions that have a significant impact on behavior in all cultures. These dimensions are individualism and collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and masculinity and femininity.Individualistic cultures give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals.Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty.Power distance is "the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally". That is to say, how equal or unequal .the people in a particular culture think people should be.The major differentiation between masculine and feminine cultures is how gender roles are distributed in cultures.Those dimensions offer certain measurements for researchers to study a specificculture or do comparative research work from an intercultural perspective.Chapter 8 cultural influence on contextsThe business context1.culture influence on business context2.management不同国家方式不同3.business etiquette norms 商务礼仪(appointment seeking/the date forbusiness/greeting behavior/gift giving)The educational context1.culture influence on the educational context2.role behaviors of students and teachers3.classroom participation4.turn taking说话的方式时间和行为The health care context1.culture influence on the health care context2.family and gender roles in the health care context3.conversational structures and languageSummaryMeaning in communication is basically decided by context. Communication is notdevoid of external influence: all human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs. This is known as the communication context. Context may consist of the social, political, and historical structuresin which the communication occurs. Communication in three areas is most influenced by context: business, education and health care.In the business field, management has become a crucial issue and the managing styles vary from culture to culture. These differences are apt to cause troubles for intercultural communication. In add 山on to management, many concrete business practices such as appointment seeking, greeting, gift giving and negotiation are also posing problems for the business interaction. People need to understand and practice the rules in intercultural business context to be competent communicators.The educational context is another significant area where intercultural communication frequently occurs. All participants in the educational context—teachers, students, parents, school administrators, and other staff—bring their cultures' beliefs, values, norms, and social practices with them. All of these can influence behaviors on how students and teachers relate to each other in the classroom.。
